第1章

Section1:OftheDifferentSpeciesofPhilosophySection2:OftheOriginofIdeasSection3:OftheAssociationofIdeasSection4:ScepticalDoubtsconcerningtheOperationsoftheUnderstandingSection5:ScepticalSolutionoftheseDoubtsSection6:OfProbabilitySection7:OftheIdeaofNecessaryConnexionSection8:OfLibertyandNecessitySection9:OftheReasonofAnimalsSection10:OfMiraclesSection11:OfaParticularProvidenceandofaFutureStateSection12:OftheAcademicalorScepticalPhilosophyNotes

SECTIONI。

OfTheDifferentSpeciesOfPhilosophy。

M/ORAL\\philosophy，orthescienceofhumannature，maybetreatedaftertwodifferentmanners；eachofwhichhasitspeculiarmerit，andmaycontributetotheentertainment，instruction，andreformationofmankind。Theoneconsidersmanchieflyasbornforaction；andasinfluencedinhismeasuresbytasteandsentiment；pursuingoneobject，andavoidinganother，accordingtothevaluewhichtheseobjectsseemtopossess，andaccordingtothelightinwhichtheypresentthemselves。Asvirtue，ofallobjects，isallowedtobethemostvaluable，thisspeciesofphilosopherspaintherinthemostamiablecolours；borrowingallhelpsfrompoetryandeloquence，andtreatingtheirsubject

inaneasyandobviousmanner，andsuchasisbestfittedtopleasetheimagination，andengagetheaffections。Theyselectthemoststrikingobservationsandinstancesfromcommonlife；placeoppositecharactersinapropercontrast；andalluringusintothepathsofvirtuebytheviewsofgloryandhappiness，directourstepsinthesepathsbythesoundestpreceptsandmostillustriousexamples。Theymakeus

thedifferencebetweenviceandvirtue；theyexciteandregulateoursentiments；andsotheycanbutbendourheartstotheloveofprobityandtruehonour，theythink，thattheyhavefullyattainedtheendofalltheirlabours。

Theotherspeciesofphilosophersconsidermaninthelightofareasonableratherthananactivebeing，andendeavourtoformhisunderstandingmorethancultivatehismanners。Theyregardhumannatureasasubjectofspeculation；andwithanarrowscrutinyexamineit，inordertofindthoseprinciples，whichregulateourunderstanding，exciteoursentiments，andmakeusapproveorblameanyparticularobject，action，orbehaviour。Theythinkitareproachtoallliterature，thatphilosophyshouldnotyethavefixed，beyondcontroversy，thefoundationofmorals，reasoning，andcriticism；andshouldforevertalkoftruthandfalsehood，viceandvirtue，beautyanddeformity，withoutbeingabletodeterminethesource

ofthesedistinctions。Whiletheyattemptthisarduoustask，theyaredeterredbynodifficulties；butproceedingfromparticularinstancestogeneralprinciples，theystillpushontheirenquiriestoprinciplesmoregeneral，andrestnotsatisfiedtilltheyarriveatthoseoriginalprinciples，bywhich，ineveryscience，allhumancuriositymustbebounded。Thoughtheirspeculationsseemabstract，andevenunintelligibletocommonreaders，theyaimattheapprobationofthelearnedandthewise；andthinkthemselvessufficientlycompensatedforthelabouroftheirwholelives，iftheycandiscoversomehiddentruths，whichmaycontributetotheinstructionofposterity。

Itiscertainthattheeasyandobviousphilosophywillalways，withthegeneralityofmankind，havethepreferenceabovetheaccurateandabstruse；andbymanywillberecommended，notonlyasmoreagreeable，butmoreusefulthantheother。Itentersmoreintocommonlife；mouldstheheartandaffections；and，bytouchingthoseprincipleswhichactuatemen，reformstheirconduct，andbringsthemnearertothatmodelofperfectionwhichitdescribes。Onthecontrary，theabstrusephilosophy，beingfoundedonaturnofmind，whichcannotenterintobusinessandaction，vanisheswhenthephilosopherleavestheshade，andcomesintoopenday；norcanitsprincipleseasilyretainanyinfluenceoverourconductandbehaviour。Thefeelingsofourheart，theagitationofourpassions，thevehemenceofouraffections，dissipateallitsconclusions，andreducetheprofoundphilosophertoamereplebeian。

Thisalsomustbeconfessed，thatthemostdurable，aswellasjustestfame，hasbeenacquiredbytheeasyphilosophy，andthatabstractreasonersseemhithertotohaveenjoyedonlyamomentaryreputation，fromthecapriceorignoranceoftheirownage，buthavenotbeenabletosupporttheirrenownwithmoreequitableposterity。Itiseasyforaprofoundphilosophertocommitamistakeinhissubtilereasonings；andonemistakeisthenecessaryparentofanother，whilehepushesonhisconsequences，andisnotdeterredfromembracinganyconclusion，byitsunusualappearance，oritscontradictiontopopularopinion。Butaphilosopher，whopurposesonlytorepresentthecommonsenseofmankindinmorebeautiful

andmoreengagingcolours，ifbyaccidenthefallsintoerror，goesnofarther；butrenewinghisappealtocommonsense，andthenaturalsentimentsofthemind，returnsintotherightpath，andsecureshimselffromanydangerousillusions。ThefameofC/ICERO\\flourishesatpresent；butthatofA/RISTOTLE\\isutterlydecayed。L/A\\B/RUYERE\\passestheseas，andstillmaintainshisreputation:ButthegloryofM/ALEBRANCHE\\isconfinedtohisownnation，andtohisownage。AndA/DDISON\\，perhaps，willbereadwithpleasure，whenL/OCKE\\

shallbeentirelyforgotten。[2]

Themerephilosopherisacharacter，whichiscommonlybutlittleacceptableintheworld，asbeingsupposedtocontributenothingeithertotheadvantageorpleasureofsociety；whilehelivesremotefromcommunicationwithmankind，andiswrappedupinprinciplesandnotionsequallyremotefromtheircomprehension。Ontheotherhand，themereignorantisstillmoredespised；norisanythingdeemedasurersignofanilliberalgeniusinanageandnationwherethesciencesflourish，thantobeentirelydestituteofallrelishforthosenobleentertainments。Themostperfectcharacterissupposedtoliebetweenthoseextremes；

retaininganequalabilityandtasteforbooks，company，andbusiness；preservinginconversationthatdiscernmentanddelicacywhicharisefrompoliteletters；andinbusiness，thatprobityandaccuracywhicharethenaturalresultofajustphilosophy。Inordertodiffuseandcultivatesoaccomplishedacharacter，nothingcanbemoreusefulthancompositionsoftheeasystyleandmanner，whichnottoomuchfromlife，requirenodeepapplicationorretreattobecomprehended，andsendbackthestudentamongmankindfullofnoblesentimentsandwiseprecepts，applicabletoeveryexigenceofhumanlife。Bymeansofsuchcompositions，virtuebecomesamiable，scienceagreeable，companyinstructive，andretiremententertaining。

Manisareasonablebeing；andassuch，receivesfromsciencehisproperfoodandnourishment:

Butsonarrowaretheboundsofhumanunderstanding，thatlittlesatisfactioncanbehopedforinthisparticular，eitherfromtheextentofsecurityorhisacquisitions。Manisasociable，nolessthanareasonablebeing:Butneithercanhealwaysenjoycompanyagreeableandamusing，orpreservetheproperrelishforthem。Manisalsoanactivebeing；andfromthatdisposition，aswellasfromthevariousnecessitiesofhumanlife，mustsubmittobusinessandoccupation:Butthemindrequiressomerelaxation，andcannotalwayssupportitsbenttocareandindustry。Itseems，then，thatnaturehaspointedoutamixedkindoflifeasmostsuitabletothehumanrace，andsecretlyadmonishedthemtoallownoneofthesebiasestotoomuch，soastoincapacitatethemforotheroccupationsandentertainments。Indulgeyourpassionforscience，saysshe，butletyoursciencebehuman，andsuchasmayhaveadirectreferencetoactionandsociety。AbstrusethoughtandprofoundresearchesI

prohibit，andwillseverelypunish，bythepensivemelancholywhichtheyintroduce，bytheendlessuncertaintyinwhichtheyinvolveyou，andbythecoldreceptionwhichyourpretendeddiscoveriesshallmeetwith，whencommunicated。Beaphilosopher；but，amidstallyourphilosophy，bestillaman。

Werethegeneralityofmankindcontentedtoprefertheeasyphilosophytotheabstractandprofound，withoutthrowinganyblameorcontemptonthelatter，itmightnotbeimproper，perhaps，tocomplywiththisgeneralopinion，andalloweverymantoenjoy，withoutopposition，hisowntasteandsentiment。Butasthematterisoftencarriedfarther，eventotheabsoluterejectingofallprofoundreasonings，orwhatiscommonlycalled，weshallnowproceedtoconsiderwhatcanreasonablybepleadedintheirbehalf。

Wemaybeginwithobserving，thatoneconsiderableadvantage，whichresultsfromtheaccurateandabstractphilosophy，is，itssubserviencytotheeasyandhumane；

which，withouttheformer，canneverattainasufficientdegreeofexactnessinitssentiments，precepts，orreasonings。Allpolitelettersarenothingbutpicturesofhumanlifeinvariousattitudesandsituations；andinspireuswithdifferentsentiments，ofpraiseorblame，admirationorridicule，accordingtothequalitiesoftheobject，whichtheysetbeforeus。Anartistmustbebetterqualifiedtosucceedinthisundertaking，who，besidesadelicatetasteandaquickapprehension，possessesanaccurateknowledgeoftheinternalfabric，theoperationsoftheunderstanding，theworkingsofthepassions，andthevariousspeciesofsentimentwhichdiscriminateviceandvirtue。Howpainfulsoeverthisinward

searchorenquirymayappear，itbecomes，insomemeasure，requisitetothose，whowoulddescribewithsuccesstheobviousandoutwardappearancesoflifeandmanners。Theanatomistpresentstotheeyethemosthideousanddisagreeableobjects；buthisscienceisusefultothepainterindelineatingevenaV/ENUS\\oranH/ELEN\\。Whilethelatteremploysalltherichestcoloursofhisart，andgiveshisfiguresthemostgracefulandengagingairs；hemuststillcarryhisattentiontotheinwardstructureofthehumanbody，thepositionofthemuscles，thefabricofthebones，andtheuseandfigureofeverypartororgan。

Accuracyis，ineverycase，advantageoustobeauty，andjustreasoningtodelicatesentiment。Invainwouldweexalttheonebydepreciatingtheother。

Besides，wemayobserve，ineveryartorprofession，eventhosewhichmostconcernlifeoraction，thataspiritofaccuracy，howeveracquired，carriesallofthemnearertheirperfection，andrendersthemmoresubservienttotheinterestsofsociety。Andthoughaphilosophermayliveremotefrombusiness，thegeniusofphilosophy，ifcarefullycultivatedbyseveral，mustgraduallydiffuseitselfthroughoutthewholesociety，andbestowasimilarcorrectnessoneveryartandcalling。Thepoliticianwillacquiregreaterforesightandsubtility，inthesubdividingandbalancingofpower；thelawyermoremethodandfinerprinciplesinhisreasonings；andthegeneralmoreregularityinhisdiscipline，andmorecautioninhisplansandoperations。Thestabilityofmoderngovernmentsabovetheancient，andtheaccuracyofmodernphilosophy，haveimproved，andprobablywillstillimprove，bysimilargradations。

Weretherenoadvantagetobereapedfromthesestudies，beyondthegratificationofaninnocentcuriosity，yetoughtnoteventhistobedespised；asbeingoneaccessiontothosefewsafeandharmlesspleasures，whicharebestowedonthehumanrace。Thesweetestandmostinoffensivepathoflifeleadsthroughtheavenuesofscienceandlearning；andwhoevercaneitherremoveanyobstructionsinthisway，oropenupanynewprospect，oughtsofartobeesteemedabenefactortomankind。Andthoughtheseresearchesmayappearpainfulandfatiguing，itiswithsomemindsaswithsomebodies，whichbeingendowedwithvigorousandfloridhealth，requiresevereexercise，andreapapleasurefromwhat，tothegeneralityofmankind，mayseemburdensomeandlaborious。Obscurity，indeed，ispainfultothemindaswellastotheeye；buttobringlightfromobscurity，bywhateverlabour，mustneedsbedelightfulandrejoicing。

Butthisobscurityintheprofoundandabstractphilosophy，isobjectedto，notonlyaspainfulandfatiguing，butastheinevitablesourceofuncertaintyanderror。Hereindeedliesthejustestandmostplausibleobjectionagainstaconsiderablepartofmetaphysics，thattheyarenotproperlyascience；butariseeitherfromthefruitlesseffortsofhumanvanity，whichwouldpenetrateintosubjectsutterlyinaccessibletotheunderstanding，orfromthecraftofpopularsuperstitions，which，beingunabletodefendthemselvesonfairground，raisetheseintanglingbramblestocoverandprotecttheirweakness。Chasedfromtheopencountry，theserobbersflyintotheforest，andlieinwaittobreakinuponeveryunguardedavenueofthemind，andoverwhelmitwithreligiousfearsandprejudices。Thestoutestantagonist，ifheremithiswatchamoment，isoppressed。Andmany，throughcowardiceandfolly，openthegatestotheenemies，andwillinglyreceivethemwithreverenceandsubmission，astheirlegalsovereigns。

Butisthisasufficientreason，whyphilosophersshoulddesistfromsuchresearches，andleavesuperstitionstillinpossessionofherretreat？Isitnotpropertodrawanoppositeconclusion，andperceivethenecessityofcarryingthewarintothemostsecretrecessesoftheenemy？

Invaindowehope，thatmen，fromfrequentdisappointment，willatlastabandonsuchairysciences，anddiscovertheproperprovinceofhumanreason。For，besides，thatmanypersonsfindtoosensibleaninterestinperpetuallyrecallingsuchtopics；besidesthis，Isay，themotiveofblinddespaircanneverreasonablyhaveplaceinthesciences；since，howeverunsuccessfulformerattemptsmayhaveproved，thereisstillroomtohope，thattheindustry，goodfortune，orimprovedsagacityofsucceedinggenerationsmayreachdiscoveriesunknowntoformerages。Eachadventurousgeniuswillstillleapatthearduousprize，andfindhimselfstimulated，ratherthandiscouraged，bythefailuresofhispredecessors；whilehehopesthatthegloryofachievingsohardanadventureisreservedforhimalone。

Theonlymethodoffreeinglearning，atonce，fromtheseabstrusequestions，istoenquireseriouslyintothenatureofhumanunderstanding，andshow，fromanexactanalysisofitspowersandcapacity，thatitisbynomeansfittedforsuchremoteandabstrusesubjects。Wemustsubmittothisfatigueinordertoliveateaseeverafter:Andmustcultivatetruemetaphysicswithsomecare，inordertodestroythefalseandadulterate。Indolence，which，tosomepersons，affordsasafeguardagainstthisdeceitfulphilosophy，is，withothers，overbalancedbycuriosity；anddespair，which，atsomemoments，prevails，maygiveplaceafterwardstosanguinehopesandexpectations。Accurateandjustreasoningistheonlycatholicremedy，fittedforallpersonsandalldispositions；andisaloneabletosubvertthatabstrusephilosophyandmetaphysicaljargon，whichbeingmixedupwithpopularsuperstition，rendersitinamannerimpenetrabletocarelessreasoners，andgivesittheairofscienceandwisdom。

Besidesthisadvantageofrejecting，afterdeliberateenquiry，themostuncertainanddisagreeablepartoflearning，therearemanypositiveadvantages，whichresultfromanaccuratescrutinyintothepowersandfacultiesofhumannature。Itisremarkableconcerningtheoperationsofthemind，that，thoughmostintimatelypresenttous，yet，whenevertheybecometheobjectofreflexion，theyseeminvolvedinobscurity；norcantheeyereadilyfindthoselinesandboundaries，whichdiscriminateanddistinguishthem。Theobjectsaretoofinetoremainlonginthesameaspectorsituation；andmustbeapprehendedinaninstant，byasuperiorpenetration，derivedfromnature，andimprovedbyhabitandreflexion。Itbecomes，therefore，noinconsiderablepartofsciencebarelytoknowthedifferentoperationsofthemind，

toseparatethemfromeachother，toclassthemundertheirproperheads，andtocorrectallthatseemingdisorder，inwhichtheylieinvolved，whenmadetheobjectofreflexionandenquiry。Thistalkoforderinganddistinguishing，whichhasnomerit，whenperformedwithregardtoexternalbodies，theobjectsofoursenses，risesinitsvalue，whendirectedtowardstheoperationsofthemind，inproportiontothedifficultyandlabour，whichwemeetwithinperformingit。Andifwecangonofartherthanthismentalgeography，ordelineationofthedistinctpartsandpowersofthemind，itisatleastasatisfactiontogosofar；andthemoreobviousthissciencemayappear(anditisbynomeansobvious)themorecontemptiblestillmusttheignoranceofitbeesteemed，inallpretenderstolearningandphilosophy。

Norcanthereremainanysuspicion，thatthisscienceisuncertainandchimerical；unlessweshouldentertainsuchascepticismasisentirelysubversiveofallspeculation，andevenaction。Itcannotbedoubted，thatthemindisendowedwithseveralpowersandfaculties，thatthesepowersaredistinctfromeachother，thatwhatisreallydistincttotheimmediateperceptionmaybedistinguishedbyreflexion；andconsequently，thatthereisatruthandfalsehoodinallpropositionsonthissubject，andatruthandfalsehood，whichlienotbeyondthecompassofhumanunderstanding。Therearemanyobviousdistinctionsofthiskind，suchasthosebetweenthewillandunderstanding，theimaginationandpassions，whichfallwithinthecomprehensionofeveryhumancreature；andthefinerandmorephilosophicaldistinctionsarenolessrealandcertain，thoughmoredifficulttobecomprehended。Someinstances，especiallylateones，ofsuccessintheseenquiries，maygiveusajusternotionofthecertaintyandsolidityofthisbranchoflearning。Andshallweesteemitworthythelabourofaphilosophertogiveusatruesystemoftheplanets，andadjustthepositionandorderofthoseremotebodies；whileweaffecttooverlookthose，who，withsomuchsuccess，delineatethepartsofthemind，inwhichwearesointimatelyconcerned？[3]

Butmaywenothope，thatphilosophy，cultivatedwithcare，andencouragedbytheattentionofthepublic，

maycarryitsresearchesstillfarther，anddiscover，atleastinsomedegree，thesecretspringsandprinciples，bywhichthehumanmindisactuatedinitsoperations？Astronomershadlongcontentedthemselveswithproving，fromthephaenomena，thetruemotions，order，andmagnitudeoftheheavenlybodies:Tillaphilosopher，atlast，arose，whoseems，fromthehappiestreasoning，tohavealsodeterminedthelawsandforces，bywhichtherevolutionsoftheplanetsaregovernedanddirected。Thelikehasbeenperformedwithregardtootherpartsofnature。Andthereisnoreasontodespairofequalsuccessinourenquiriesconcerningthementalpowersandeconomy，ifprosecutedwithequalcapacityandcaution。Itisprobable，thatoneoperationandprincipleoftheminddependsonanother；which，again，mayberesolvedintoonemoregeneralanduniversal:Andhowfartheseresearchesmaypossiblybecarried，itwillbedifficultforus，before，orevenafter，acarefultrial，exactlytodetermine。Thisiscertain，thatattemptsofthiskindareeverydaymadeevenbythosewhophilosophizethemostnegligently:Andnothingcanbemorerequisitethantoenterupontheenterprizewiththoroughcareandattention；

that，ifitliewithinthecompassofhumanunderstanding，itmayatlastbehappilyachieved；

ifnot，itmay，however，berejectedwithsomeconfidenceandsecurity。Thislastconclusion，surely，isnotdesirable；noroughtittobeembracedtoorashly。Forhowmuchmustwediminishfromthebeautyandvalueofthisspeciesofphilosophy，uponsuchasupposition？Moralistshavehithertobeenaccustomed，whentheyconsideredthevastmultitudeanddiversityofthoseactionsthatexciteourapprobationordislike，tosearchforsomecommonprinciple，onwhichthisvarietyofsentimentsmightdepend。Andthoughtheyhavesometimescarriedthemattertoofar，bytheirpassionforsomeonegeneralprinciple；itmust，however，beconfessed，thattheyareexcusableinexpectingtofindsomegeneralprinciples，intowhichallthevicesandvirtueswerejustlytoberesolved。Thelikehasbeentheendeavourofcritics，logicians，andevenpoliticians:Norhavetheirattemptsbeenwhollyunsuccessful；thoughperhapslongertime，greateraccuracy，andmoreardentapplicationmaybringthesesciencesstillnearertheirperfection。Tothrowupatonceallpretensionsofthiskindmayjustlybedeemedmorerash，precipitate，anddogmatical，thaneventheboldestandmostaffirmativephilosophy，thathaseverattemptedtoimposeitscrudedictatesandprinciplesonmankind。

Whatthoughthesereasoningsconcerninghumannatureseemabstract，andofdifficultcomprehension？Thisaffordsnopresumptionoftheirfalsehood。Onthecontrary，itseemsimpossible，thatwhathashithertoescapedsomanywiseandprofoundphilosopherscanbeveryobviousandeasy。Andwhateverpainstheseresearchesmaycostus，wemaythinkourselvessufficientlyrewarded，notonlyinpointofprofitbutofpleasure，if，bythatmeans，wecanmakeanyadditiontoourstockofknowledge，insubjectsofsuchunspeakableimportance。

Butas，afterall，theabstractednessofthesespeculationsisnorecommendation，butratheradisadvantagetothem，andasthisdifficultymayperhapsbesurmountedbycareandart，andtheavoidingofallunnecessarydetail，wehave，inthefollowingenquiry，attemptedtothrowsomelightuponsubjects，fromwhichuncertaintyhashithertodeterredthewise，andobscuritytheignorant。Happy，ifwecanunitetheboundariesofthedifferentspeciesofphilosophy，byreconcilingprofoundenquirywithclearness，andtruthwithnovelty!Andstillmorehappy，if，reasoninginthiseasymanner，wecanunderminethefoundationsofanabstrusephilosophy，whichseemstohavehithertoservedonlyasasheltertosuperstition，andacovertoabsurdityanderror!

SECTIONII。

OftheOriginofIdeas。

E/VERY\\onewillreadilyallow，thatthereisaconsiderabledifferencebetweentheperceptionsofthemind，whenamanfeelsthepainofexcessiveheat，orthepleasureofmoderatewarmth，andwhenheafterwardsrecallstohismemorythissensation，oranticipatesitbyhisimagination。

Thesefacultiesmaymimicorcopytheperceptionsofthesenses；buttheynevercanentirelyreachtheforceandvivacityoftheoriginalsentiment。Theutmostwesayofthem，evenwhentheyoperatewithgreatestvigour，is，thattheyrepresenttheirobjectinsolivelyamanner，thatwecouldsaywefeelorseeit:But，exceptthemindbedisorderedbydiseaseormadness，theynevercanarriveatsuchapitchofvivacity，astorendertheseperceptionsaltogetherundistinguishable。Allthecoloursofpoetry，howeversplendid，canneverpaintnaturalobjectsinsuchamannerastomakethedescriptionbetakenforareallandskip。Themostlivelythoughtisstillinferiortothedullestsensation。

Wemayobservealikedistinctiontorunthroughalltheotherperceptionsofthemind。Amaninafitofanger，isactuatedinaverydifferentmannerfromonewhoonlythinksofthatemotion。Ifyoutellme，thatanypersonisinlove，Ieasilyunderstandyourmeaning，andfromajustconceptionofhissituation；butnevercanmistakethatconceptionfortherealdisordersandagitationsofthepassion。Whenwereflectonourpastsentimentsandaffections，ourthoughtisafaithfulmirror，andcopiesitsobjectstruly；butthecolourswhichitemploysarefaintanddull，incomparisonofthoseinwhichouroriginalperceptionswereclothed。Itrequiresnonicediscernmentormetaphysicalheadtomarkthedistinctionbetweenthem。

Herethereforewemaydividealltheperceptionsofthemindintotwoclassesorspecies，

whicharedistinguishedbytheirdifferentdegreesofforceandvivacity。ThelessforcibleandlivelyarecommonlydenominatedT/HOUGHTS\\orI/DEAS\\。Theotherspecieswantanameinourlanguage，andinmostothers；Isuppose，becauseitwasnotrequisiteforany，butphilosophicalpurposes，torankthemunderageneraltermorappellation。Letus，therefore，usealittlefreedom，andcallthemI/MPRESSIONS\\；employingthatwordinasensesomewhatdifferentfromtheusual。Bytheterm，then，Imeanallourmorelivelyperceptions，whenwehear，orsee，orfeel，orlove，orhate，ordesire，orwill。Andimpressionsaredistinguishedfromideas，whicharethelesslivelyperceptions，ofwhichweareconscious，whenwereflectonanyofthosesensationsormovementsabovementioned。

Nothing，atfirstview，mayseemmoreunboundedthanthethoughtofman，whichnotonlyescapesallhumanpowerandauthority，butisnotevenrestrainedwithinthelimitsofnatureandreality。Toformmonsters，andjoinincongruousshapesandappearances，coststheimaginationnomoretroublethantoconceivethemostnaturalandfamiliarobjects。Andwhilethebodyisconfinedtooneplanet，alongwhichitcreepswithpainanddifficulty；thethoughtcaninaninstanttransportusintothemostdistantregionsoftheuniverse；orevenbeyondtheuniverse，intotheunboundedchaos，wherenatureissupposedtolieintotalconfusion。

Whatneverwasseen，orheardof，mayyetbeconceived；norisanythingbeyondthepowerofthought，exceptwhatimpliesanabsolutecontradiction。

Butthoughourthoughtseemstopossessthisunboundedliberty，weshallfind，uponanearerexamination，thatitisreallyconfinedwithinverynarrowlimits，andthatallthiscreativepowerofthemindamountstonomorethanthefacultyofcompounding，transposing，augmenting，ordiminishingthematerialsaffordedusbythesensesandexperience。Whenwethinkofagoldenmountain，weonlyjointwoconsistentideas，，and，withwhichwewereformerlyacquainted。Avirtuoushorsewecanconceive；

because，fromourownfeeling，wecanconceivevirtue；andthiswemayunitetothefigureandshapeofahorse，whichisananimalfamiliartous。Inshort，allthematerialsofthinkingarederivedeitherfromouroutwardorinwardsentiment:Themixtureandcompositionofthesebelongsalonetothemindandwill。Or，toexpressmyselfinphilosophicallanguage，allourideasormorefeebleperceptionsarecopiesofourimpressionsormorelivelyones。

Toprovethis，thetwofollowingargumentswill，I

hope，besufficient。First，whenweanalyzeourthoughtsorideas，howevercompoundedorsublime，wealwaysfindthattheyresolvethemselvesintosuchsimpleideasaswerecopiedfromaprecedentfeelingorsentiment。Eventhoseideas，which，atfirstview，seemthemostwideofthisorigin，arefound，uponanearerscrutiny，tobederivedfromit。TheideaofGod，asmeaninganinfinitelyintelligent，wise，andgoodBeing，arisesfromreflectingontheoperationsofourownmind，andaugmenting，withoutlimit，thosequalitiesofgoodnessandwisdom。Wemayprosecutethisenquirytowhatlengthweplease；whereweshallalwaysfind，thateveryideawhichweexamineiscopiedfromasimilar

impression。Thosewhowouldassertthatthispositionisnotuniversallytruenorwithoutexception，haveonlyone，andthataneasymethodofrefutingit；byproducingthatidea，which，intheiropinion，isnotderivedfromthissource。Itwillthenbeincumbentonus，ifwewouldmaintainourdoctrine，toproducetheimpression，orlivelyperception，whichcorrespondstoit。

Secondly。Ifithappen，fromadefectoftheorgan，thatamanisnotsusceptibleofanyspeciesofsensation，wealwaysfindthatheisaslittlesusceptibleofthecorrespondentideas。Ablindmancanformnonotionofcolours；adeafmanofsounds。Restoreeitherofthemthatsenseinwhichheisdeficient；byopeningthisnewinletforhissensations，youalsoopenaninletfortheideas；

andhefindsnodifficultyinconceivingtheseobjects。Thecaseisthesame，iftheobject，properforexcitinganysensation，hasneverbeenappliedtotheorgan。A

L/APLANDER\\orN/EGROE\\hasnonotionoftherelishofwine。

Andthoughtherearefewornoinstancesofalikedeficiencyinthemind，whereapersonhasneverfeltoriswhollyincapableofasentimentorpassionthatbelongstohisspecies；yetwefindthesameobservationtotakeplaceinalessdegree。Amanofmildmannerscanformnoideaofinveteraterevengeorcruelty；norcanaselfishhearteasilyconceivetheheightsoffriendshipandgenerosity。Itisreadilyallowed，thatotherbeingsmaypossessmanysensesofwhichwecanhavenoconception；becausetheideasofthemhaveneverbeenintroducedtousintheonlymannerbywhichanideacanhaveaccesstothemind，towit，bytheactualfeelingandsensation。

Thereis，however，onecontradictoryphenomenon，whichmayprovethatitisnotabsolutelyimpossibleforideastoarise，independentoftheircorrespondentimpressions。I

believeitwillreadilybeallowed，thattheseveraldistinctideasofcolour，whichenterbytheeye，orthoseofsound，whichareconveyedbytheear，arereallydifferentfromeachother；though，atthesametime，resembling。Nowifthisbetrueofdifferentcolours，itmustbenolesssoofthedifferentshadesofthesamecolour；andeachshadeproducesadistinctidea，independentoftherest。Forifthisshouldbedenied，itispossible，bythecontinualgradationofshades，torunacolourinsensiblyintowhatismostremotefromit；andifyouwillnotallowanyofthemeanstobedifferent，youcannot，withoutabsurdity，denytheextremestobethesame。

Suppose，therefore，apersontohaveenjoyedhissightforthirtyyears，andtohavebecomeperfectlyacquaintedwithcoloursofallkindsexceptoneparticularshadeofblue，forinstance，whichitneverhasbeenhisfortunetomeetwith。Letallthedifferentshadesofthatcolour，exceptthatsingleone，beplacedbeforehim，descendinggraduallyfromthedeepesttothelightest；itisplainthathewillperceiveablank，wherethatshadeiswanting，andwillbesensiblethatthereisagreaterdistanceinthatplacebetweenthecontiguouscolourthaninanyother。NowIask，whetheritbepossibleforhim，fromhisownimagination，tosupplythisdeficiency，andraiseuptohimselftheideaofthatparticularshade，thoughithadneverbeenconveyedtohimbyhissenses？Ibelievetherearefewbutwillbeofopinionthathecan:Andthismayserveasaproofthatthesimpleideasarenotalways，ineveryinstance，derivedfromthecorrespondentimpressions；thoughthisinstanceissosingular，thatitisscarcelyworthourobserving，anddoesnotmeritthatforitalonewe

shouldalterourgeneralmaxim。

Here，therefore，isaproposition，whichnotonlyseems，initself，simpleandintelligible；but，ifaproperuseweremadeofit，mightrendereverydisputeequallyintelligible，andbanishallthatjargon，whichhassolongtakenpossessionofmetaphysicalreasonings，anddrawndisgraceuponthem。Allideas，especiallyabstractones，arenaturallyfaintandobscure:Themindhasbutaslenderholdofthem:Theyareapttobeconfoundedwithotherresemblingideas；andwhenwehaveoftenemployedanyterm，thoughwithoutadistinctmeaning，weareapttoimagineithasadeterminateideaannexedtoit。Onthecontrary，allimpressions，thatis，allsensations，eitheroutwardorinward，arestrongandvivid:Thelimitsbetweenthemaremoreexactlydetermined:Norisiteasytofallintoanyerrorormistakewithregardtothem。Whenweentertain，therefore，anysuspicionthataphilosophicaltermisemployedwithoutanymeaningoridea(asisbuttoofrequent)，weneedbutenquire，？Andifitbeimpossibletoassignany，thiswillservetoconfirmoursuspicion。Bybringingideasintosoclearalightwemayreasonablyhopetoremovealldispute，whichmayarise，concerningtheirnatureandreality。[4]

SECTIONIII。

OftheAssociationofIdeas。

I/T\\isevidentthatthereisaprincipleofconnexionbetweenthedifferentthoughtsorideasofthemind，andthatintheirappearancetothememoryorimagination，theyintroduceeachotherwithacertaindegreeofmethodandregularity。Inourmoreseriousthinkingordiscoursethisissoobservablethatanyparticularthought，whichbreaksinupontheregulartractorchainofideas，isimmediatelyremarkedandrejected。Andeveninourwildestandmostwanderingreveries，nayinourverydreams，weshallfind，ifwereflect，thattheimaginationrannotaltogetheratadventures，butthattherewasstillaconnexionupheldamongthedifferentideas，whichsucceededeachother。Weretheloosestandfreestconversationtobetranscribed，therewouldimmediatelybeobservedsomethingwhichconnecteditinallitstransitions。Orwherethisiswanting，thepersonwhobrokethethreadofdiscoursemightstillinformyou，thattherehadsecretlyrevolvedinhismindasuccessionofthought，whichhadgraduallyledhimfromthesubjectofconversation。Amongdifferentlanguages，evenwherewecannotsuspecttheleastconnexionorcommunication，itisfound，thatthewords，expressiveofideas，themostcompounded，doyetnearlycorrespondtoeachother:A

certainproofthatthesimpleideas，comprehendedinthecompoundones，wereboundtogetherbysomeuniversalprinciple，whichhadanequalinfluenceonallmankind。

Thoughitbetooobvioustoescapeobservation，thatdifferentideasareconnectedtogether；Idonotfindthatanyphilosopherhasattemptedtoenumerateorclassalltheprinciplesofassociation；asubject，however，thatseemsworthyofcuriosity。Tome，thereappeartobeonlythreeprinciplesofconnexionamongideas，namely，，intimeorplace，andor。

Thattheseprinciplesservetoconnectideaswillnot，Ibelieve，bemuchdoubted。Apicturenaturallyleadsourthoughtstotheoriginal:[5]thementionofoneapartmentinabuildingnaturallyintroducesanenquiryordiscourseconcerningtheothers:[6]andifwethinkofawound，wecanscarcelyforbearreflectingonthepainwhichfollowsit。[7]

Butthatthisenumerationiscomplete，andthattherearenootherprinciplesofassociationexceptthese，maybedifficulttoprovetothesatisfactionofthereader，oreventoaman\'sownsatisfaction。Allwecando，insuchcases，istorunoverseveralinstances，andexaminecarefullytheprinciplewhichbindsthedifferentthoughtstoeachother，neverstoppingtillwerendertheprincipleasgeneralaspossible。[8]Themoreinstancesweexamine，andthemorecareweemploy，themoreassuranceshallweacquire，thattheenumeration，whichweformfromthewhole，iscompleteandentire。[9]

Insteadofenteringintoadetailofthiskind，whichwouldleadusintomanyuselesssubtilties，weshallconsidersomeoftheeffectsofthisconnectionuponthepassionsandimagination；wherewemayopenupafieldofspeculationmoreentertaining，andperhapsmoreinstructive，thantheother。

Asmanisareasonablebeingandiscontinuallyinpursuitofhappiness，whichhehopestofindinthegratificationofsomepassionoraffection，heseldomactsorspeaksorthingswithoutapurposeandintention。Hehasstillsomeobjectinvies；andhoweverimproperthemeansmaysometimesbewhichhechoosesfortheattainmentofhisend，heneverlosesviewofanend，norwillhesomuchasthrowawayhisthoughtsorreflectionswherehehopesnottoreapanysatisfactionfromthem。

Inallcompositionsofgenius，therefore，itisrequisitethatthewriterhavesomeplanorobject；andthoughhemaybehurriedfromthisplanbythevehemenceofthought，asinanode，ordropitcarelessly，asinanepistleoressay，theremustappearsomeaimorintentioninhisfirstsettingout，ifnotinthecompositionofthewholework。Aproductionwithoutadesignwouldresemblemoretheravingsofamadmanthanthesobereffortsofgeniusandlearning。

Asthisruleadmitsofnoexception，itfollowsthatinnarrativecompositionstheeventsoractionswhichthewriterrelatesmustbeconnectedtogetherbysomebondortie:Theymustberelatedtoeachotherintheimagination，andformakindofwhichmaybringthemunderoneplanorview，andwhichmaybetheobjectorendofthewriterinhisfirstundertaking。

Thisconnectingprincipleamongtheseveraleventswhichformthesubjectofapoemorhistorymaybeverydifferentaccordingtothedifferentdesignsofthepoetorhistorian。O/VID\\hasformedhisplanupontheconnectingprinciplesofresemblance。Everyfabuloustransformationproducedbythemiraculouspowerofthegodsfallswithinthecompassofhiswork。Thereneedsbutthisonecircumstance，inanyevent，tobringitunderhisoriginalplanorintention。

AnannalistorhistorianwhoshouldundertaketowritethehistoryorEuropeduringanycenturywouldbeinfluencedbytheconnectionofcontiguityintimeorplace。Alleventswhichhappeninthatportionofspaceandperiodoftimearecomprehendedinhisdesign，thoughinotherrespectsdifferentandunconnected。Theyhavestillaspeciesofunityamidstalltheirdiversity。

Butthemostusualspeciesofconnectionsamongthedifferenteventswhichenterintoanynarrativecompositionisthatofcauseandeffect；whilethehistoriantracestheseriesofactionsaccordingtotheirnaturalorder，remountstotheirsecretspringsandprinciples，anddelineatestheirmostremoteconsequences。Hechoosesforhissubjectacertainportionofthatgreatchainofeventswhichcomposethehistoryofmankind:Eachlinkinthischainheendeavourstotouchinhisnarration；sometimesunavoidableignorancerendersallhisattemptsfruitless；sometimeshesuppliesbyconjecturewhatiswantinginknowledge；andalwaysheissensiblethatthemoreunbrokenthechainiswhichhepresentstohisreaders，themoreperfectishisproduction。Heseesthattheknowledgeofcausesisnotonlythemostsatisfactory，thisrelationorconnectionbeingthestrongestofallothers，butalsothemostinstructive；

sinceitisbythisknowledgealoneweareenabledtocontroleventsandgovernfuturity。

Here，therefore，wemayattainsomenotionofthatofaboutwhichallcriticsafterAristotlehavetalkedsomuch，perhapstolittlepurpose，whichtheydirectednottheirtasteorsentimentbytheaccuracyofphilosophy。Itappearsthatinallproductions，aswellasintheepicandtragic，thereisacertainunityrequired，andthatonnooccasionourthoughtscanbeallowedtorunatadventuresifwewouldproduceaworkthatwillgiveanylastingentertainmenttomankind。Itappears，also，thatevenabiographerwhoshouldwritethelifeofAchilleswouldconnecttheeventsbyshowingtheirmutualdependenceandrelation，asmuchasapoetwhoshouldmaketheangerofthatherothesubjectofhisnarration。[10]Notonlyinanylimitedportionoflifeaman\'sactionshaveadependenceoneachother，butalsocuringthewholeperiodofhisdurationfromthecradletothegrave；norisitpossibletostrikeoffonelink，howeverminute，in

thisregularchainwithoutaffectingthewholeseriesofeventswhichfollow。Theunityofaction，therefore，whichistobefoundinbiographyorhistorydiffersfromthatofepicpoetry，notinkind，butindegree。Inepicpoetry，theconnectionamongtheeventsismorecloseandsensible；thenarrationisnotcarriedonthroughsuchalengthoftime；andtheactorshastentosomeremarkableperiodwhichsatisfiesthecuriosityofthereader。thisconductoftheepicpoetdependsonthatparticularsituationoftheimaginationandofthepassionswhichissupposedinthatproduction。Theimaginationbothofwriterandreaderismoreenlivened，andthepassionsmoreinflamedthaninhistory，biography，oranyspeciesofnarrationthatconfinethemselvestostricttruthandreality。Letusconsidertheeffectofthesetwocircumstancesofanenlivenedimaginationandinflamedpassionswhichbelongtopoetry，especiallytheepickind，aboveanyotherspeciesofcomposition；andletusseeforwhatreasontheyrequireastricterandcloserunityinthefable。