第7章

Thegreatsourceofourmistakeinthissubject，andoftheunboundedlicenceofconjecture，whichweindulge，is，thatwetacitlyconsiderourselves，asintheplaceoftheSupremeBeing，andconclude，thathewill，oneveryoccasion，observethesameconduct，whichweourselves，inhissituation，wouldhaveembracedasreasonableandeligible。But，besidesthattheordinarycourseofnaturemayconvinceus，thatalmosteverythingisregulatedbyprinciplesandmaximsverydifferentfromours；besidesthis，Isay，itmustevidentlyappearcontrarytoallrulesofanalogytoreason，fromtheintentionsandprojectsofmen，tothoseofaBeingsodifferent，andsomuchsuperior。

Inhumannature，thereisacertainexperiencedcoherenceofdesignsandinclinations；sothatwhen，fromanyfact，wehavediscoveredoneintentionofanyman，itmayoftenbereasonable，fromexperience，toinferanother，anddrawalongchainofconclusionsconcerninghispastorfutureconduct。ButthismethodofreasoningcanneverhaveplacewithregardtoaBeing，soremoteandincomprehensible，whobearsmuchlessanalogytoanyotherbeingintheuniversethanthesuntoawaxentaper，andwhodiscovershimselfonlybysomefainttracesoroutlines，beyondwhichwehavenoauthoritytoascribetohimanyattributeorperfection。

Whatweimaginetobeasuperiorperfection，mayreallybeadefect。Orwereiteversomuchaperfection，theascribingofittotheSupremeBeing，whereitappearsnottohavebeenreallyexerted，tothefull，inhisworks，savoursmoreofflatteryandpanegyric，thanofjustreasoningandsoundphilosophy。Allthephilosophy，therefore，intheworld，andallthereligion，whichisnothingbutaspeciesofphilosophy，willneverbeabletocarryusbeyondtheusualcourseofexperience，orgiveusmeasuresofconductandbehaviourdifferentfromthosewhicharefurnishedbyreflectionsoncommonlife。Nonewfactcaneverbeinferredfromthereligioushypothesis；noeventforeseenorforetold；

norewardorpunishmentexpectedordreaded，beyondwhatisalreadyknownbypracticeandobservation。SothatmyapologyforE/PICURUS\\willstillappearsolidandsatisfactory；norhavethepoliticalinterestsofsocietyanyconnexionwiththephilosophicaldisputesconcerningmetaphysicsandreligion。

Thereisstillonecircumstance，repliedI，whichyouseemtohaveoverlooked。ThoughIshouldallowyourpremises，Imustdenyyourconclusion。Youconclude，thatreligiousdoctrinesandreasoningshavenoinfluenceonlife，becausetheytohavenoinfluence；neverconsidering，thatmenreasonnotinthesamemanneryoudo，butdrawmanyconsequencesfromthebeliefofadivineExistence，andsupposethattheDeitywillinflictpunishmentsonvice，andbestowrewardsonvirtue，beyondwhatappearintheordinarycourseofnature。Whetherthisreasoningoftheirsbejustornot，isnomatter。Itsinfluenceontheirlifeandconductmuststillbethesame。

Andthose，whoattempttodisabusethemofsuchprejudices，may，foraughtIknow，begoodreasoners，butIcannotallowthemtobegoodcitizensandpoliticians；sincetheyfreemenfromonerestraintupontheirpassions，andmaketheinfringementofthelawsofsociety，inonerespect，moreeasyandsecure。

Afterall，Imay，perhaps，agreetoyourgeneralconclusioninfavourofliberty，thoughupondifferentpremisesfromthose，onwhichyouendeavourtofoundit。I

think，thatthestateoughttotolerateeveryprincipleofphilosophy；noristhereaninstance，thatanygovernmenthassufferedinitspoliticalinterestsbysuchindulgence。

Thereisnoenthusiasmamongphilosophers；theirdoctrinesarenotveryalluringtothepeople；andnorestraintcanbeputupontheirreasonings，butwhatmustbeofdangerousconsequencetothesciences，andeventothestate，bypavingthewayforpersecutionandoppressioninpoints，wherethegeneralityofmankindaremoredeeplyinterestedandconcerned。

Butthereoccurstome(continuedI)withregardtoyourmaintopic，adifficulty，whichIshalljustproposetoyouwithoutinsistingonit；lestitleadintoreasoningsoftooniceanddelicateanature。Inaword，Imuchdoubtwhetheritbepossibleforacausetobeknownonlybyitseffect(asyouhaveallalongsupposed)ortobeofsosingularandparticularanatureastohavenoparallelandnosimilaritywithanyothercauseorobject，thathaseverfallenunderourobservation。Itisonlywhentwo

ofobjectsarefoundtobeconstantlyconjoined，thatwecaninfertheonefromtheother；andwereaneffectpresented，whichwasentirelysingular，andcouldnotbecomprehendedunderanyknown，Idonotsee，thatwecouldformanyconjectureorinferenceatallconcerningitscause。Ifexperienceandobservationandanalogybe，indeed，theonlyguideswhichwecanreasonablyfollowininferencesofthisnature；boththeeffectandcausemustbearasimilarityandresemblancetoothereffectsandcauses，whichweknow，andwhichwehavefound，inmanyinstances，tobeconjoinedwitheachother。Ileaveittoyourownreflectiontopursuetheconsequencesofthisprinciple。Ishalljustobserve，that，astheantagonistsofE/PICURUS\\alwayssupposetheuniverse，aneffectquitesingularandunparalleled，tobetheproofofaDeity，acausenolesssingularandunparalleled；yourreasonings，uponthatsupposition，seem，atleast，tomeritourattention。Thereis，Iown，somedifficulty，howwecaneverreturnfromthecausetotheeffect，and，reasoningfromourideasoftheformer，inferanyalterationonthelatter，orany，additiontoit。

T/HERE\\isnotagreaternumberofphilosophicalreasonings，displayeduponanysubject，thanthose，whichprovetheexistenceofaDeity，andrefutethefallaciesof；andyetthemostreligiousphilosophersstilldisputewhetheranymancanbesoblindedastobeaspeculativeatheist。Howshallwereconcilethesecontradictions？Theknightserrant，whowanderedabouttocleartheworldofdragonsandgiants，neverentertainedtheleastdoubtwithregardtotheexistenceofthesemonsters。

Theisanotherenemyofreligion，whonaturallyprovokestheindignationofalldivinesandgraverphilosophers；thoughitiscertain，thatnomanevermetwithanysuchabsurdcreature，orconversedwithaman，whohadnoopinionorprincipleconcerninganysubject，eitherofactionorspeculation。Thisbegetsaverynaturalquestion；Whatismeantbyasceptic？Andhowfaritispossibletopushthesephilosophicalprinciplesofdoubtanduncertainty？

Thereisaspeciesofscepticism，toallstudyandphilosophy，whichismuchinculcatedbyD/ES\\

C/ARTES\\andothers，asasovereignpreservativeagainsterrorandprecipitatejudgement。Itrecommendsanuniversaldoubt，notonlyofallourformeropinionsandprinciples，butalsoofourveryfaculties；ofwhoseveracity，saythey，wemustassureourselves，byachainofreasoning，deducedfromsome

originalprinciple，whichcannotpossiblybefallaciousordeceitful。Butneitheristhereanysuchoriginalprinciple，whichhasaprerogativeaboveothers，thatareself-evidentandconvincing:Oriftherewere，couldweadvanceastepbeyondit，butbytheuseofthoseveryfaculties，ofwhichwearesupposedtobealreadydiffident。TheC/ARTESIAN\\doubt，therefore，wereiteverpossibletobeattainedbyanyhumancreature(asitplainlyisnot)wouldbeentirelyincurable；andnoreasoningcouldeverbringustoastateofassuranceandconvictionuponanysubject。

Itmust，however，beconfessed，thatthisspeciesofscepticism，whenmoremoderate，maybeunderstoodinaveryreasonablesense，andisanecessarypreparativetothestudyofphilosophy，bypreservingaproperimpartialityinourjudgements，andweaningourmindfromallthoseprejudices，whichwemayhaveimbibedfromeducationorrashopinion。Tobeginwithclearandself-evidentprinciples，toadvancebytimorousandsuresteps，toreviewfrequentlyourconclusions，andexamineaccuratelyalltheirconsequences；

thoughbythesemeansweshallmakebothaslowandashortprogressinoursystems；aretheonlymethods，bywhichwecaneverhopetoreachtruth，andattainaproperstabilityandcertaintyinourdeterminations。

Thereisanotherspeciesofscepticism，toscienceandenquiry，whenmenaresupposedtohavediscovered，eithertheabsolutefallaciousnessoftheirmentalfaculties，ortheirunfitnesstoreachanyfixeddeterminationinallthosecurioussubjectsofspeculation，aboutwhichtheyarecommonlyemployed。Evenourverysensesarebroughtintodispute，byacertainspeciesofphilosophers；andthemaximsofcommonlifearesubjectedtothesamedoubtasthemostprofoundprinciplesorconclusionsofmetaphysicsandtheology。Astheseparadoxicaltenets(iftheymaybecalledtenets)aretobemetwithinsomephilosophers，andtherefutationoftheminseveral，theynaturallyexciteourcuriosity，andmakeusenquireintothearguments，onwhichtheymaybefounded。

Ineednotinsistuponthemoretritetopics，employedbythescepticsinallages，againsttheevidenceof；suchasthosewhicharederivedfromtheimperfectionandfallaciousnessofourorgans，onnumberlessoccasions；thecrookedappearanceofanoarinwater；thevariousaspectsofobjects，accordingtotheirdifferentdistances；thedoubleimageswhicharisefromthepressingoneeye；withmanyotherappearancesofalikenature。Thesescepticaltopics，indeed，areonlysufficienttoprove，thatthesensesalonearenotimplicitlytobedependedon；butthatwemustcorrecttheirevidencebyreason，andbyconsiderations，derivedfromthenatureofthemedium，thedistanceoftheobject，andthedispositionoftheorgan，inordertorenderthem，withintheirsphere，thepropercriteriaoftruthandfalsehood。Thereareothermoreprofoundargumentsagainstthesenses，whichadmitnotofsoeasyasolution。

Itseemsevident，thatmenarecarried，byanaturalinstinctorprepossession，toreposefaithintheirsenses；

andthat，withoutanyreasoning，orevenalmostbeforetheuseofreason，wealwayssupposeanexternaluniverse，whichdependsnotonourperception，butwouldexist，thoughweandeverysensiblecreaturewereabsentorannihilated。Eventheanimalcreationaregovernedbyalikeopinion，andpreservethisbeliefofexternalobjects，inalltheirthoughts，designs，andactions。

Itseemsalsoevident，that，whenmenfollowthisblindandpowerfulinstinctofnature，theyalwayssupposetheveryimages，presentedbythesenses，tobetheexternalobjects，andneverentertainanysuspicion，thattheonearenothingbutrepresentationsoftheother。Thisverytable，whichweseewhite，andwhichwefeelhard，isbelievedtoexist，independentofourperception，andtobesomethingexternaltoourmind，whichperceivesit。Ourpresencebestowsnotbeingonit:Ourabsencedoesnotannihilateit。

Itpreservesitsexistenceuniformandentire，independentofthesituationofintelligentbeings，whoperceiveorcontemplateit。

Butthisuniversalandprimaryopinionofallmenissoondestroyedbytheslightestphilosophy，whichteachesus，thatnothingcaneverbepresenttothemindbutanimageorperception，andthatthesensesareonlytheinlets，throughwhichtheseimagesareconveyed，withoutbeingabletoproduceanyimmediateintercoursebetweenthemindandtheobject。Thetable，whichwesee，seemstodiminish，asweremovefartherfromit:Buttherealtable，whichexistsindependentofus，suffersnoalteration:Itwas，therefore，nothingbutitsimage，whichwaspresenttothemind。Thesearetheobviousdictatesofreason；andnoman，whoreflects，everdoubted，thattheexistences，whichweconsider，whenwesay，and，arenothingbutperceptionsinthemind，andfleetingcopiesorrepresentationsofotherexistences，whichremainuniformandindependent。

Sofar，then，arewenecessitatedbyreasoningtocontradictordepartfromtheprimaryinstinctsofnature，andtoembraceanewsystemwithregardtotheevidenceofoursenses。Butherephilosophyfindsherselfextremelyembarrassed，whenshewouldjustifythisnewsystem，andobviatethecavilsandobjectionsofthesceptics。Shecannolongerpleadtheinfallibleandirresistibleinstinctofnature:Forthatledustoaquitedifferentsystem，whichisacknowledgedfallibleandevenerroneous。Andtojustifythispretendedphilosophicalsystem，byachainofclearandconvincingargument，orevenanyappearanceofargument，exceedsthepowerofallhumancapacity。

Bywhatargumentcanitbeproved，thattheperceptionsofthemindmustbecausedbyexternalobjects，entirelydifferentfromthem，thoughresemblingthem(ifthatbepossible)andcouldnotariseeitherfromtheenergyoftheminditself，orfromthesuggestionofsomeinvisibleandunknownspirit，orfromsomeothercausestillmoreunknowntous？Itisacknowledged，that，infact，manyoftheseperceptionsarisenotfromanythingexternal，asindreams，madness，andotherdiseases。Andnothingcanbemoreinexplicablethanthemanner，inwhichbodyshouldsooperateuponmindasevertoconveyanimageofitselftoasubstance，supposedofsodifferent，andevencontraryanature。

Itisaquestionoffact，whethertheperceptionsofthesensesbeproducedbyexternalobjects，resemblingthem:

howshallthisquestionbedetermined？Byexperiencesurely；

asallotherquestionsofalikenature。Buthereexperienceis，andmustbeentirelysilent。Themindhasneveranythingpresenttoitbuttheperceptions，andcannotpossiblyreachanyexperienceoftheirconnexionwithobjects。Thesuppositionofsuchaconnexionis，therefore，withoutanyfoundationinreasoning。

TohaverecoursetotheveracityofthesupremeBeing，inordertoprovetheveracityofoursenses，issurelymakingaveryunexpectedcircuit。Ifhisveracitywereatallconcernedinthismatter，oursenseswouldbeentirelyinfallible；becauseitisnotpossiblethathecaneverdeceive。Nottomention，that，iftheexternalworldbeoncecalledinquestion，weshallbeatalosstofindarguments，bywhichwemayprovetheexistenceofthatBeingoranyofhisattributes。

Thisisatopic，therefore，inwhichtheprofounderandmorephilosophicalscepticswillalwaystriumph，whentheyendeavourtointroduceanuniversaldoubtintoallsubjectsofhumanknowledgeandenquiry。Doyoufollowtheinstinctsandpropensitiesofnature，maytheysay，inassentingtotheveracityofsense？Buttheseleadyoutobelievethattheveryperceptionorsensibleimageistheexternalobject。Doyoudisclaimthisprinciple，inordertoembraceamorerationalopinion，thattheperceptionsareonlyrepresentationsofsomethingexternal？Youheredepartfromyournaturalpropensitiesandmoreobvioussentiments；andyetarenotabletosatisfyyourreason，whichcanneverfindanyconvincingargumentfromexperiencetoprove，thattheperceptionsareconnectedwithanyexternalobjects。

Thereisanotherscepticaltopicofalikenature，derivedfromthemostprofoundphilosophy；whichmightmeritourattention，wereitrequisitetodivesodeep，inordertodiscoverargumentsandreasonings，whichcansolittleservetoanyseriouspurpose。Itisuniversallyallowedbymodernenquirers，thatallthesensiblequalitiesofobjects，suchashard，soft，hot，cold，white，black，&c。

aremerelysecondary，andexistnotintheobjectsthemselves，butareperceptionsofthemind，withoutanyexternalarchetypeormodel，whichtheyrepresent。Ifthisbeallowed，withregardtosecondaryqualities，itmustalsofollow，withregardtothesupposedprimaryqualitiesofextensionandsolidity；norcanthelatterbeanymoreentitledtothatdenominationthantheformer。Theideaofextensionisentirelyacquiredfromthesensesofsightandfeeling；andifallthequalities，perceivedbythesenses，beinthemind，notintheobject，thesameconclusionmustreachtheideaofextension，whichiswhollydependentonthesensibleideasortheideasofsecondaryqualities。

Nothingcansaveusfromthisconclusion，buttheasserting，thattheideasofthoseprimaryqualitiesareattainedby，anopinion，which，ifweexamineitaccurately，weshallfindtobeunintelligible，andevenabsurd。Anextension，thatisneithertangiblenorvisible，cannotpossiblybeconceived:Andatangibleorvisibleextension，whichisneitherhardnorsoft，blacknorwhite，isequallybeyondthereachofhumanconception。Letanymantrytoconceiveatriangleingeneral，whichisneithernor，norhasanyparticularlengthorproportionofsides；andhewillsoonperceivetheabsurdityofallthescholasticnotionswithregardtoabstractionandgeneralideas。[37]

Thusthefirstphilosophicalobjectiontotheevidenceofsenseortotheopinionofexternalexistenceconsistsinthis，thatsuchanopinion，ifrestedonnaturalinstinct，iscontrarytoreason，andifreferredtoreason，iscontrarytonaturalinstinct，andatthesametimecarriesnorationalevidencewithit，toconvinceanimpartialenquirer。Thesecondobjectiongoesfarther，andrepresentsthisopinionascontrarytoreason:Atleast，ifitbeaprincipleofreason，thatallsensiblequalitiesareinthemind，notintheobject。Bereavematterofallitsintelligiblequalities，bothprimaryandsecondary，youinamannerannihilateit，andleaveonlyacertainunknown，inexplicable，asthecauseofourperceptions；anotionsoimperfect，thatnoscepticwillthinkitworthwhiletocontendagainstit。

PARTII。

I/T\\mayseemaveryextravagantattemptofthescepticstodestroybyargumentandratiocination；

yetisthisthegrandscopeofalltheirenquiriesanddisputes。Theyendeavourtofindobjections，bothtoourreasonings，andtothosewhichregardmatteroffactandexistence。

Thechiefobjectionagainstallabstractreasoningsisderivedfromtheideasofspaceandtime；ideas，which，incommonlifeandtoacarelessview，areveryclearandintelligible，butwhentheypassthroughthescrutinyoftheprofoundsciences(andtheyarethechiefobjectofthesesciences)affordprinciples，whichseemfullofabsurdityandcontradiction。Nopriestly，inventedonpurposetotameandsubduetherebelliousreasonofmankind，evershockedcommonsensemorethanthedoctrineoftheinfinitivedivisibilityofextension，withitsconsequences；

astheyarepompouslydisplayedbyallgeometriciansandmetaphysicians，withakindoftriumphandexultation。A

realquantity，infinitelylessthananyfinitequantity，containingquantitiesinfinitelylessthanitself，andsoon；thisisanedificesoboldandprodigious，thatitistooweightyforanypretendeddemonstrationtosupport，becauseitshockstheclearestandmostnaturalprinciplesofhumanreason。[38]Butwhatrendersthemattermoreextraordinary，is，thattheseseeminglyabsurdopinionsaresupportedbyachainofreasoning，theclearestandmostnatural；norisitpossibleforustoallowthepremiseswithoutadmittingtheconsequences。Nothingcanbemoreconvincingandsatisfactorythanalltheconclusionsconcerningthepropertiesofcirclesandtriangles；andyet，whentheseareoncereceived，howcanwedeny，thattheangleofcontactbetween

acircleanditstangentisinfinitelylessthananyrectilinealangle，thatasyoumayincreasethediameterofthecircle，thisangleofcontactbecomesstillless，even，andthattheangleofcontactbetweenothercurvesandtheirtangentsmaybeinfinitelylessthanthosebetweenanycircleanditstangent，andsoon，？Thedemonstrationoftheseprinciplesseemsasunexceptionableasthatwhichprovesthethreeanglesofatriangletobeequaltotworightones，thoughthelatteropinionbenaturalandeasy，andtheformerbigwithcontradictionandabsurdity。Reasonhereseemstobethrownintoakindofamazementandsuspence，which，withoutthesuggestionsofanysceptic，givesheradiffidenceofherself，andofthegroundonwhichshetreads。Sheseesafulllight，whichilluminatescertainplaces；butthatlightbordersuponthemostprofounddarkness。Andbetweenthesesheissodazzledandconfounded，thatshescarcelycanpronouncewithcertaintyandassuranceconcerninganyoneobject。

Theabsurdityofthesebolddeterminationsoftheabstractsciencesseemstobecome，ifpossible，stillmorepalpablewithregardtotimethanextension。Aninfinitenumberofrealpartsoftime，passinginsuccession，andexhaustedoneafteranother，appearssoevidentacontradiction，thatnoman，oneshouldthink，whosejudgementisnotcorrupted，insteadofbeingimproved，bythesciences，wouldeverbeabletoadmitofit。

Yetstillreasonmustremainrestless，andunquiet，evenwithregardtothatscepticism，towhichsheisdrivenbytheseseemingabsurditiesandcontradictions。Howanyclear，distinctideacancontaincircumstances，contradictorytoitself，ortoanyotherclear，distinctidea，isabsolutelyincomprehensible；andis，perhaps，asabsurdasanyproposition，whichcanbeformed。Sothatnothingcanbemoresceptical，ormorefullofdoubtandhesitation，thanthisscepticismitself，whicharisesfromsomeoftheparadoxicalconclusionsofgeometryorthescienceofquantity。[39]

Thescepticalobjectionstoevidence，ortothereasoningsconcerningmatteroffact，areeither

or。Thepopularobjectionsarederivedfromthenaturalweaknessofhumanunderstanding；thecontradictoryopinions，whichhavebeenentertainedindifferentagesandnations；thevariationsofourjudgementinsicknessandhealth，youthandoldage，prosperityandadversity；theperpetualcontradictionofeachparticularman\'sopinionsandsentiments；withmanyothertopicsofthatkind。Itisneedlesstoinsistfartheronthishead。

Theseobjectionsarebutweak。Foras，incommonlife，wereasoneverymomentconcerningfactandexistence，andcannotpossiblysubsist，withoutcontinuallyemployingthisspeciesofargument，anypopularobjections，derivedfromthence，mustbeinsufficienttodestroythatevidence。Thegreatsubverterofortheexcessiveprinciplesofscepticismisaction，andemployment，andtheoccupationsofcommonlife。Theseprinciplesmayflourishandtriumphintheschools；whereitis，indeed，difficult，ifnotimpossible，torefutethem。Butassoonastheyleavetheshade，andbythepresenceoftherealobjects，whichactuateourpassionsandsentiments，areputinoppositiontothemorepowerfulprinciplesofournature，theyvanishlikesmoke，andleavethemostdeterminedscepticinthesameconditionasothermortals。

Thesceptic，therefore，hadbetterkeepwithinhispropersphere，anddisplaythoseobjections，whicharisefrommoreprofoundresearches。Hereheseemstohaveamplematteroftriumph；whilehejustlyinsists，thatallourevidenceforanymatteroffact，whichliesbeyondthetestimonyofsenseormemory，isderivedentirelyfromtherelationofcauseandeffect；thatwehavenootherideaofthisrelationthanthatoftwoobjects，whichhavebeenfrequentlytogether；thatwehavenoargumenttoconvinceus，thatobjects，whichhave，inourexperience，beenfrequentlyconjoined，willlikewise，inotherinstances，beconjoinedinthesamemanner；andthatnothingleadsustothisinferencebutcustomoracertaininstinctofournature；whichitisindeeddifficulttoresist，butwhich，likeotherinstincts，maybefallaciousanddeceitful。Whilethescepticinsistsuponthesetopics，heshowshisforce，orrather，indeed，hisownandourweakness；andseems，forthetimeatleast，todestroyallassuranceandconviction。Theseargumentsmightbedisplayedatgreaterlength，ifanydurablegoodorbenefittosocietycouldeverbeexpectedtoresultfromthem。

Forhereisthechiefandmostconfoundingobjectiontoscepticism，thatnodurablegoodcaneverresultfromit；whileitremainsinitsfullforceandvigour。Weneedonlyasksuchasceptic，？Heisimmediatelyataloss，andknowsnotwhattoanswer。A

C/OPERNICAN\\orP/TOLEMAIC\\，whosupportseachhisdifferentsystemofastronomy，mayhopetoproduceaconviction，whichwillremainconstantanddurable，withhisaudience。A

S/TOIC\\orE/PICUREAN\\displaysprinciples，whichmaynotbedurable，butwhichhaveaneffectonconductandbehaviour。

ButaP/YRRHONIAN\\cannotexpect，thathisphilosophywillhaveanyconstantinfluenceonthemind:Orifithad，thatitsinfluencewouldbebeneficialtosociety。Onthecontrary，hemustacknowledge，ifhewillacknowledgeanything，thatallhumanlifemustperish，werehisprinciplesuniversallyandsteadilytoprevail。Alldiscourse，allactionwouldimmediatelycease；andmenremaininatotallethargy，tillthenecessitiesofnature，unsatisfied，putanendtotheirmiserableexistence。Itistrue；sofatalaneventisverylittletobedreaded。Natureisalwaystoostrongforprinciple。AndthoughaP/YRRHONIAN\\maythrowhimselforothersintoamomentaryamazementandconfusionby

hisprofoundreasonings；thefirstandmosttrivialeventinlifewillputtoflightallhisdoubtsandscruples，andleavehimthesame，ineverypointofactionandspeculation，withthephilosophersofeveryothersect，orwiththosewhoneverconcernedthemselvesinanyphilosophicalresearches。Whenheawakesfromhisdream，hewillbethefirsttojoininthelaughagainsthimself，andtoconfess，thatallhisobjectionsaremereamusement，andcanhavenoothertendencythantoshowthewhimsicalconditionofmankind，whomustactandreasonandbelieve；

thoughtheyarenotable，bytheirmostdiligentenquiry，tosatisfythemselvesconcerningthefoundationoftheseoperations，ortoremovetheobjections，whichmayberaisedagainstthem。

PARTIII。

T/HERE\\is，indeed，amorescepticismorphilosophy，whichmaybebothdurableanduseful，andwhichmay，inpart，betheresultofthisP/YRRHONISM\\，orscepticism，whenitsundistinguisheddoubtsare，insomemeasure，correctedbycommonsenseandreflection。Thegreaterpartofmankindarenaturallyapttobeaffirmativeanddogmaticalintheiropinions；andwhiletheyseeobjectsonlyononeside，andhavenoideaofanycounterpoisingargument，theythrowthemselvesprecipitatelyintotheprinciples，towhichtheyareinclined；norhavetheyanyindulgenceforthosewhoentertainoppositesentiments。Tohesitateorbalanceperplexestheirunderstanding，checkstheirpassion，andsuspendstheiraction。Theyare，therefore，impatienttilltheyescapefromastate，whichtothemissouneasy:Andtheythink，thattheycouldneverremovethemselvesfarenoughfromit，bytheviolenceoftheiraffirmationsandobstinacyoftheirbelief。Butcouldsuchdogmaticalreasonersbecomesensibleofthestrangeinfirmitiesof

humanunderstanding，eveninitsmostperfectstate，andwhenmostaccurateandcautiousinitsdeterminations；suchareflectionwouldnaturallyinspirethemwithmoremodestyandreserve，anddiminishtheirfondopinionofthemselves，andtheirprejudiceagainstantagonists。Theilliteratemayreflectonthedispositionofthelearned，who，amidstalltheadvantagesofstudyandreflection，arecommonlystilldiffidentintheirdeterminations:Andifanyofthelearnedbeinclined，fromtheirnaturaltemper，tohaughtinessandobstinacy，asmalltinctureofP/YRRHONISM\\mightabatetheirpride，byshowingthem，thatthefewadvantages，whichtheymayhaveattainedovertheirfellows，arebutinconsiderable，ifcomparedwiththeuniversalperplexityandconfusion，whichisinherentinhumannature。Ingeneral，thereisadegreeofdoubt，andcaution，andmodesty，which，inallkindsofscrutinyanddecision，oughtforevertoaccompanyajustreasoner。

Anotherspeciesofscepticismwhichmaybe

ofadvantagetomankind，andwhichmaybethenaturalresultoftheP/YRRHONIAN\\doubtsandscruples，isthelimitationofourenquiriestosuchsubjectsasarebestadaptedtothenarrowcapacityofhumanunderstanding。Theofmanisnaturallysublime，delightedwithwhateverisremoteandextraordinary，andrunning，withoutcontrol，intothemostdistantpartsofspaceandtimeinordertoavoidtheobjects，whichcustomhasrenderedtoofamiliartoit。A

correctobservesacontrarymethod，andavoidingalldistantandhighenquiries，confinesitselftocommonlife，andtosuchsubjectsasfallunderdailypracticeandexperience；leavingthemoresublimetopicstotheembellishmentofpoetsandorators，ortotheartsofpriestsandpoliticians。Tobringustososalutaryadetermination，nothingcanbemoreserviceable，thantobeoncethoroughlyconvincedoftheforceoftheP/YRRHONIAN\\

doubt，andoftheimpossibility，thatanything，butthestrongpowerofnaturalinstinct，couldfreeusfromit。

Thosewhohaveapropensitytophilosophy，willstillcontinuetheirresearches；becausetheyreflect，that，besidestheimmediatepleasureattendingsuchanoccupation，philosophicaldecisionsarenothingbutthereflectionsofcommonlife，methodizedandcorrected。Buttheywillneverbetemptedtogobeyondcommonlife，solongastheyconsidertheimperfectionofthosefacultieswhichtheyemploy，theirnarrowreach，andtheirinaccurateoperations。

Whilewecannotgiveasatisfactoryreason，whywebelieve，afterathousandexperiments，thatastonewillfall，orfireburn；canweeversatisfyourselvesconcerninganydetermination，whichwemayform，withregardtotheoriginofworlds，andthesituationofnature，from，andtoeternity？

Thisnarrowlimitation，indeed，ofourenquiries，is，ineveryrespect，soreasonable，thatitsufficestomaketheslightestexaminationintothenaturalpowersofthehumanmindandtocomparethemwiththeirobjects，inordertorecommendittous。Weshallthenfindwhatarethepropersubjectsofscienceandenquiry。

Itseemstome，thattheonlyobjectsoftheabstractscienceorofdemonstrationarequantityandnumber，andthatallattemptstoextendthismoreperfectspeciesofknowledgebeyondtheseboundsaremeresophistryandillusion。Asthecomponentpartsofquantityandnumberareentirelysimilar，theirrelationsbecomeintricateandinvolved；andnothingcanbemorecurious，aswellasuseful，thantotrace，byavarietyofmediums，theirequalityorinequality，throughtheirdifferentappearances。

Butasallotherideasareclearlydistinctanddifferentfromeachother，wecanneveradvancefarther，byourutmostscrutiny，thantoobservethisdiversity，and，byanobviousreflection，pronounceonethingnottobeanother。Oriftherebeanydifficultyinthesedecisions，itproceedsentirelyfromtheundeterminatemeaningofwords，whichiscorrectedbyjusterdefinitions。That，cannotbeknown，letthetermsbeeversoexactlydefined，withoutatrainofreasoningandenquiry。Buttoconvinceusofthisproposition，，itisonlynecessarytodefinetheterms，andexplaininjusticetobeaviolationofproperty。

Thispropositionis，indeed，nothingbutamoreimperfectdefinition。Itisthesamecasewithallthosepretendedsyllogisticalreasonings，whichmaybefoundineveryotherbranchoflearning，exceptthesciencesofquantityandnumber；andthesemaysafely，Ithink，bepronouncedtheonlyproperobjectsofknowledgeanddemonstration。

Allotherenquiriesofmenregardonlymatteroffactandexistence；andtheseareevidentlyincapableofdemonstration。Whatevermay。Nonegationofafactcaninvolveacontradiction。Thenon-existenceofanybeing，withoutexception，isasclearanddistinctanideaasitsexistence。Theproposition，whichaffirmsitnottobe，howeverfalse，isnolessconceivableandintelligible，thanthatwhichaffirmsittobe。Thecaseisdifferentwiththesciences，properlysocalled。Everyproposition，whichisnottrue，isthereconfusedandunintelligible。Thatthecuberootof64isequaltothehalfof10，isafalseproposition，andcanneverbedistinctlyconceived。ButthatC/AESAR\\，ortheangelG/ABRIEL\\，oranybeingneverexisted，maybeafalseproposition，butstillisperfectlyconceivable，andimpliesnocontradiction。

Theexistence，therefore，ofanybeingcanonlybeprovedbyargumentsfromitscauseoritseffect；andtheseargumentsarefoundedentirelyonexperience。Ifwereason，anythingmayappearabletoproduceanything。

Thefallingofapebblemay，foraughtweknow，extinguishthesun；orthewishofamancontroltheplanetsintheirorbits。Itisonlyexperience，whichteachesusthenatureandboundsofcauseandeffect，andenablesustoinfertheexistenceofoneobjectfromthatofanother。[40]Suchisthefoundationofmoralreasoning，whichformsthegreaterpartofhumanknowledge，andisthesourceofallhumanactionandbehaviour。

Moralreasoningsareeitherconcerningparticularorgeneralfacts。Alldeliberationsinliferegardtheformer；

asalsoalldisquisitionsinhistory，chronology，geography，andastronomy。

Thesciences，whichtreatofgeneralfacts，arepolitics，naturalphilosophy，physic，chemistry，&c。wherethequalities，causesandeffectsofawholespeciesofobjectsareenquiredinto。

DivinityorTheology，asitprovestheexistenceofaDeity，andtheimmortalityofsouls，iscomposedpartlyofreasoningsconcerningparticular，partlyconcerninggeneralfacts。Ithasafoundationin，sofarasitissupportedbyexperience。Butitsbestandmostsolidfoundationisanddivinerevelation。

Moralsandcriticismarenotsoproperlyobjectsoftheunderstandingasoftasteandsentiment。Beauty，whethermoralornatural，isfelt，moreproperlythanperceived。Orifwereasonconcerningit，andendeavourtofixitsstandard，weregardanewfact，towit，thegeneraltastesofmankind，orsomesuchfact，whichmaybetheobjectofreasoningandenquiry。

Whenwerunoverlibraries，persuadedoftheseprinciples，whathavocmustwemake？Ifwetakeinourhandanyvolume；ofdivinityorschoolmetaphysics，forinstance；

letusask，No。No。Commititthentotheflames:Foritcancontainnothingbutsophistryandillusion。

NOTES

[1][COPYRIGHT:(c)1995，JamesFieser(jfieser@utm。edu)，allrightsreserved。Unalteredcopiesofthiscomputertextfilemaybefreelydistributeforpersonalandclassroomuse。

Alterationstothisfilearepermittedonlyforpurposesofcomputerprintouts，althoughalteredcomputertextfilesmaynotcirculate。Excepttocovernominaldistributioncosts，thisfilecannotbesoldwithoutwrittenpermissionfromthecopyrightholder。Thiscopyrightnoticesupersedesallpreviousnoticesonearlierversionsofthistextfile。Whenquotingfromthistext，pleaseusethefollowingcitation:

，ed。JamesFieser(InternetRelease，1995)。

EDITORIALCONVENTIONS:lettersbetweenslashes(e。g。，H/UME\\)designatesmallcapitalization。Letterswithinangledbrackets(e。g。，)designateitalics。Notereferencesarecontainedwithinsquarebrackets(e。g。，[1])。

Originalpaginationiscontainedwithincurlybrackets(e。g。，<1>)。Spellingandpunctuationhavenotbeenmodernized。Printer\'serrorshavebeencorrectedwithoutnote。Bracketedcommentswithintheendnotesaretheeditor\'s。Thisisaworkingdraft。PleasereporterrorstoJamesFieser(jfieser@utm。edu)。]

[2]ThisisnotintendedanywaytodetractfromthemeritofMr。L/OCKE\\，whowasreallyagreatphilosopherandajustandmodestreasoner。Itisonlymeanttoshowthecommonfateofsuchabstractphilosophy。[ThisnotewasremovedbyHumefromlatereditionsofthe——

J。F。]

[3]Thatfacultybywhichwediscerntruthandfalsehood，andthatbywhichweperceiveviceandvirtue，hadlongbeenconfoundedwitheachother；andallmoralitywassupposedtobebuiltonexternalanimmutablerelationswhich，toeveryintelligentmind，wereequallyinvariableasanypropositionconcerningquantityornumber。Butalatephilosopher[FrancisHutcheson]hastaughtus，bythemostconvincingarguments，thatmoralityisnothingintheabstractnatureofthings，butisentirelyrelativetothesentimentormentaltasteofeachparticularbeing，inthesamemannerasthedistinctionsofsweetandbitter，hotandcoldarisefromtheparticularfeelingofeachsenseororgan。Moralperceptions，therefore，oughtnottobeclassedwiththeoperationsoftheunderstanding，butwiththetastesorsentiments。

Ithadbeenusualwithphilosopherstodivideallthepassionsofthemindintotwoclasses，theselfishandbenevolent，whichweresupposedtostandinconstantoppositionandcontrariety；norwasitthoughtthatthelattercouldeverattaintheirproperobjectbutattheexpenseoftheformer。Amongtheselfishpassionswererankedavarice，ambition，revenge；amongthebenevolent，naturalaffection，friendship，publicspirit。Philosophersmaynowperceivetheimproprietyofthisdivision。[SeeButler\'s。]Ithasbeenproved，beyondallcontroversy，thateventhepassionscommonlyesteemedselfishcarrythemindbeyondselfdirectlytotheobject；

thatthoughthesatisfactionofthesepassionsgivesusenjoyment，yettheprospectofthisenjoymentisnotthecauseofthepassion，but，onthecontrary，thepassionisantecedenttotheenjoyment，andwithouttheformerthelattercouldneverpossiblyexist；thatthecaseispreciselythesamewithpassionsdenominatedbenevolent，andconsequentlythatamanisnomoreinterestedwhenheseekshisownglorythanwhenthe

happinessofhisfriendistheobjectofhiswishes；norisheanymoredisinterestedwhenhesacrificeshiseaseandquiettopublicgoodthanwhenhelaborsforthegratificationofavariceorambition。Here，therefore，isaconsiderableadjustmentintheboundariesofthepassions，whichhadbeenconfoundedbythenegligenceorinaccuracyofformerphilosophers。Thesetwoinstancesmaysufficetoshowusthenatureandimportanceofthatspeciesofphilosophy。[ThisnotewasremovedbyHumefromlatereditionsofthe——J。F。]

[4]I/T\\isprobablethatnomorewasmeantbythese，whodeniedinnateideas，thanthatallideaswerecopiesofourimpressions；thoughitmustbeconfessed，thattheterms，whichtheyemployed，werenotchosenwithsuchcaution，norsoexactlydefined，astopreventallmistakesabouttheirdoctrine。Forwhatismeantby？Ifinnatebeequivalenttonatural，thenalltheperceptionsandideasofthemindmustbeallowedtobeinnateornatural，inwhateversensewetakethelatterword，whetherinoppositiontowhatisuncommon，artificial，ormiraculous。Ifbyinnatebemeant，contemporarytoourbirth，thedisputeseemstobefrivolous；norisitworthwhiletoenquireatwhattimethinkingbegins，whetherbefore，at，orafterourbirth。Again，theword，seemstobecommonlytakeninaveryloosesense，byL/OCKE\\

andothers；asstandingforanyofourperceptions，oursensationsandpassions，aswellasthoughts。Nowinthissense，Ishoulddesiretoknow，whatcanbemeantbyasserting，thatself-love，orresentmentofinjuries，orthepassionbetweenthesexesisnotinnate？

Butadmittingtheseterms，and，inthesenseaboveexplained，andunderstandingby，whatisoriginalorcopiedfromnoprecedentperception，thenmayweassertthatallourimpressionsareinnate，andourideasnotinnate。

Tobeingenuous，Imustownittobemyopinion，thatL/OCKE\\wasbetrayedintothisquestionbytheschoolmen，who，makinguseofundefinedterms，drawouttheirdisputestoatediouslength，withoutevertouchingthepointinquestion。Alikeambiguityandcircumlocutionseemtorunthroughthatphilosopher\'sreasoningsonthisaswellasmostothersubjects。

[5]Resemblance。

[6]Contiguity。

[7]CauseandEffect。

[8]Forinstance，ContrastorContrarietyisalsoaconnexionamongIdeas:butitmayperhaps，beconsideredasamixtureofand。Wheretwoobjectsarecontrary，theonedestroystheother；thatis，thecauseofitsannihilation，andtheideaoftheannihilationofanobject，impliestheideaofitsformerexistence。

[9][TheremainderofthissectionwasremovedfromthefinaltwoeditionsofwhichwereauthorizedbyHume——JF]

[10]ContrarytoAristotle[cf。1450a]。

[11]Theword，Power，ishereusedinalooseandpopularsense。Themoreaccurateexplicationofitwouldgiveadditionalevidencetothisargument。SeeSect。7。

[12]N/OTHING\\ismoreusefulthanforwriters，even，on，，orsubjects，todistinguishbetweenreasonandexperience，andtosuppose，thatthesespeciesofargumentationareentirelydifferentfromeachother。Theformeraretakenforthemereresultofourintellectualfaculties，which，byconsideringthenatureofthings，andexaminingtheeffects，thatmustfollowfromtheiroperation，establishparticularprinciplesofscienceandphilosophy。Thelatteraresupposedtobederivedentirelyfromsenseandobservation，bywhichwelearnwhathasactuallyresultedfromtheoperationofparticularobjects，andarethenceabletoinfer，whatwill，forthefuture，resultfromthem。Thus，forinstance，thelimitationsandrestraintsofcivilgovernment，andalegalconstitution，maybedefended，eitherfrom，whichreflectingonthegreatfrailtyandcorruptionofhumannature，teaches，thatnomancansafelybetrustedwithunlimitedauthority；orfromandhistory，whichinformusoftheenormousabuses，thatambition，ineveryageandcountry，hasbeenfoundtomakesoimprudentaconfidence。

Thesamedistinctionbetweenreasonandexperienceismaintainedinallourdeliberationsconcerningtheconductoflife；whiletheexperiencedstatesman，general，physician，ormerchantistrustedandfollowed；andtheunpractisednovice，withwhatevernaturaltalentsendowed，neglectedanddespised。Thoughitbeallowed，thatreasonmayformveryplausibleconjectureswithregardtotheconsequencesofsuchaparticularconductinsuchparticularcircumstances；itisstillsupposedimperfect，withouttheassistanceofexperience，whichisaloneabletogivestabilityandcertaintytothemaxims，derivedfromstudyandreflection。

Butnotwithstandingthatthisdistinctionbethusuniversallyreceived，bothintheactiveandspeculativescenesoflife，Ishallnotscrupletopronounce，thatitis，atbottom，erroneous，atleast，superficial。

Ifweexaminethosearguments，which，inanyofthesciencesabovementioned，aresupposedtobemereeffectsofreasoningandreflection，theywillbefoundtoterminate，atlast，insomegeneralprincipleor，conclusion，forwhichwecanassignnoreasonbutobservationandexperience。Theonlydifferencebetweenthemandthosemaxims，whicharevulgarlyesteemedtheresultofpureexperience，is，thattheformercannotbeestablishedwithoutsomeprocessofthought，andsomereflectiononwhatwehaveobserved，inordertodistinguishitscircumstances，andtraceitsconsequences:Whereasinthelatter，theexperiencedeventisexactlyandfullyfamiliarto

thatwhichweinferastheresultofanyparticularsituation。ThehistoryofaT/IBERIUS\\oraN/ERO\\makesusdreadaliketyranny，wereourmonarchsfreedfromtherestraintsoflawsandsenates:

Buttheobservationofanyfraudorcrueltyinprivatelifeissufficient，withtheaidofalittlethought，togiveusthesameapprehension；whileitservesasaninstanceofthegeneralcorruptionofhumannature，andshowsusthedangerwhichwemustincurbyreposinganentireconfidenceinmankind。Inbothcases，itisexperiencewhichisultimatelythefoundationofourinferenceandconclusion。

Thereisnomansoyoungandinexperienced，asnottohaveformed，fromobservation，manygeneralandjustmaximsconcerninghumanaffairsandtheconductoflife；butitmustbeconfessed，that，whenamancomestoputtheseinpractice，hewillbeextremelyliabletoerror，tilltimeandfartherexperiencebothenlargethesemaxims，andteachhimtheirproperuseandapplication。Ineverysituationorincident，therearemanyparticularandseeminglyminutecircumstances，whichthemanofgreatesttalentis，atfirst，apttooverlook，thoughonthemthejustnessofhisconclusions，andconsequentlytheprudenceofhisconduct，entirelydepend。Nottomention，that，toayoungbeginner，thegeneralobservationsandmaximsoccurnotalwaysontheproperoccasions，norcanbeimmediatelyappliedwithduecalmnessanddistinction。Thetruthis，anunexperiencedreasonercouldbenoreasoneratall，wereheabsolutelyunexperienced；andwhenweassignthatcharactertoanyone，wemeanitonlyinacomparativesense，andsupposehimpossessedofexperience，inasmallerandmoreimperfectdegree。