第1章

ThreeLecturesontheRateofWagesDeliveredbeforetheUniversityofOxfordinEasterTerm1830

WithaPrefaceontheCausesandRemediesofthePresentDisturbancesBelliquecausasetvitiaetmodosTractas，etincediaperignesSuppositoscineridoloso。

ByNassauWilliamSeniorofMagdalenCollege，A。M。;

LateProfessorofPoliticalEconomyTheSecondEditionLondon;

JohnMurray，AlbemarleStreetMDCCXXXI

LONDON:

PrintedbyWilliamClowks，StamfordStreetPREFACE。ThefollowingLecturescontainlittlethatisnotwellknowntomanyofmyreaders，andstilllessthatispeculiarlyand

exclusivelyappropriatetothepresentemergency。Theywerewrittenanddeliveredinaperiodofprofoundtranquillity;but

wearenowinastatewhichmayrequiretheexertionsofeveryindividualamongtheeducatedclasses，andmanymayhave

toassistinexecuting，oreveninoriginatingmeasuresforthereliefofthelabouringpopulation，whoarenotyetsufficientlyfamiliarwiththeprinciplesaccordingtowhichthatreliefistobeafforded。Undersuchcircumstances，ithasappearedtomethatadvantagemightbederivedfromashortexplanationofthe

ambiguitiesandfallacieswhichmostobscurethesubjectofwages——themostdifficultandthemostimportantofallthebranchesofpoliticaleconomy。Myprincipalobject，however，hasbeentodrawattentiontotheelementaryproposition，thattherateofwagesdependson

theextentofthefundforthemaintenanceoflabourers，comparedwiththenumberoflabourerstobemaintained。This

propositionissonearlyself—evident，thatitmayappearscarcelytodeserveaformalstatement;stilllesstobedweltonasif

itwereadiscovery。Itistruethatitisobviousandtrite;but，perhaps，onthatveryaccount，itspracticalconsequenceshave

beenneglected。Inthefirstplace，ifthispropositionbeadmitted，manyprevalentopinionsrespectingtheeffectsof

unproductiveconsumption，ofmachinery，andoffree—trade，mustbeabandoned;andtoshowthis，istheobjectofthe

secondandthirdofthefollowingLectures。Andinthesecondplace，itmustalsofollowthattherateofwagescanbe

raised，or，whatisnearlythesame，theconditionofthelabouringclassesimproved，onlybyeitherincreasingthefundfortheirmaintenance，ordiminishingthenumbertobemaintained。Theprincipalmeansbywhich—thefundforthemaintenanceoflabourerscanbeincreased，isbyincreasingtheproductivenessoflabour。Andthismaybedone，——First，Byallowingeverymantoexerthimselfinthewaywhich，fromexperience，hefindsmostbeneficial;byfreeing

industryfromthemassofrestrictions，prohibitions，andprotectingduties，withwhichtheLegislature，sometimesin

well—meaning。ignorance，sometimesinpity，andsometimesinnationaljealousy，haslabouredtocrushormisdirecther

efforts;and，Secondly，Byputtinganendtothatunhappysystemwhich，inthesoutherncounties，hasdissociatedlabourfrom

subsistence——hasmaddwadesnotamatterofcontractbetweenthemasterandtheworkman，butarightintheone，anda

taxontheother;and，byremovingthemotivesforexertion，hasrendered，asfarasithasbeenpossible，thelabourerunworthyofhishire。Theonlyeffectualandpermanentmeansofpreventingtheundueincreaseofthenumbertobemaintained，istoraisethe

moralandintellectualcharacterofthelabouringpopulation;toimprove，or，Ifearwemustsay，tocreatehabitsof

prudence，ofself—respect，andofself—restraint;toequalize，asbynaturetheyareequal，thewagesofthesingleandthe

married，andnolongertomakeafamilythepassporttoallowance。Butthesearenecessarilygradualmeasures——theyare

preventive，notremedial。Theonlyimmediateremedyforanactualexcessinoneclassofthepopulation，istheancientandapprovedone，coloniamdeducere。Itisofgreatimportancetokeepinmind，thatnotonlyisemigrationthesoleimmediateremedy，butthatitisaremedypreparatorytotheadoptionandnecessarytothesafetyofeveryother。Theprincipalcausethecalamitiesthatwearewitnessing，hasbeenthedisturbancewhichthepoor—laws，asatpresent

administeredinthesouthofEngland，havecreatedinthemostextensiveandthemostimportantofallpoliticalrelations，therelationbetweentheemployerandthelabourer。Theslave（usingthatwordinitsstrictsense）cannotchoosehisowner，hisemployment，orhisresidence;hiswholeservices

arethepropertyofanother，andtheirvalue，howeverhigh，giveshimnoadditionalclaim。Ontheotherhand，heisentitled

tosubsistenceforhimselfandhisfamily:clothing，lodging，food，medicalattendance——everything，inshort，whichis

necessarytokeephiminhealthandstrengthisprovidedforhim，fromthesamemotives，andwiththesameliberality，that

theyareprovidedfortheotherdomesticanimalsofhismaster。Heisboundtolabour，andhasarighttobemaintained。

Extremeidlenessmaysubjecthimtothelash，butextraordinarydiligencecannotbetterhiscondition。Heisequally

incapableofbeingbenefitedbyself—restraint，orinjuredbyimprovidence。Whilesingle，hereceivesabaresubsistence;ifhe

haveafamily，hismaintenancerisesinpreciseproportiontohiswants:theprudentialchecktopopulationdoesnotexist——

itiskeptdown，ifatall，byoppressiononthepartofthemaster，orviceonthatoftheslave。This，notwithstandingthe

variousdegreesofmitigationwhichhavebeenintroducedbycustomorbylaw，isinsubstancetheconditionofslaves，whereverslaveryexists。Insuchacountrydistressbegins，not，asinthecaseofafreecountry，withthelowerorders，butwiththehigher。Abad

system，therefore，cancontinuetheremuchlonger，becausetheclassaffectedhavefarthertofall;and，forthesamereason，

theruin，whenitdoescome，issuddenandirretrievable。Whilemisgovernment，byexcessiveorill—placedtaxation，by

commercialrestrictions，byallowinginsecurityofpersonorproperty，byapplyinganyartificialstimulustopopulation，or

underanyotherofits。numerousforms，isgraduallywastingthesurplusthatbelongstolandlordsandcapitalists，theslave

populationmayscarcelyfeelitseffects。Subsistenceisalltheyareentitledto，andthattheymustreceiveaslongastheir

labourproducesit。Buttheinstantthatsurplusisgone，anddistressreachesthosewhosepreviousmaintenancewasonly

equaltotheirnecessities，whatistherebetweenthemandabsolutedestruction？Iftheevilswhichhavebeensolong

accumulatinginsomeofourWestIndianislandshadaffectedafreecountry，thewholepopulationwould，longago，have

risentoredressthem。Butasyet，theyhavereachedonlytheslave—owner。Hehasfoundhispropertygraduallywasting

away;hehasfoundthathisslaveseveryyearconsumealargerandalargerproportionofwhattheyproduce;butevenstill

hehassomethingtolose:andwhilethatisthecase，theirsituationisunaffected。Whenthewholeproducehasbecomeonly

sufficienttofeedthenegroes，——atimewhich，underthepresentsystem，israpidlyadvancinginsomeoftheolderislands，

——thewhitesmustabandonthemasafieldforallthemoralandphysicalevilthatslaves，helplessbyeducationanddesperatefromwant，willmutuallysufferandinflict（1）Thefreeman（usingthatterminitsfullmeaning，）isthemasterofhisexertions，andofhisresidence。Hemayrefusetoquit

thespot，ortochangetheemployment，inwhichhislabourhasbecomeunprofitable。Ashemayrefusetolabouratall，be

mayaskforhisservicesWhateverremunerationhethinksfit;butasnooneisboundtopurchasethoseservices，andasno

oneisobligedtoaffordhimfood，clothing，oranyofthenecessariesoflife，heisforced，ifhewouldsubsist，tofollowthe

trade，anddwellintheplace，andexertthediligencewhichwillmakehisservicesworthpurchasing;andheisforcedto

offerthemforsale，bythesamenecessitywhichforcesthecapitalisttoofferhimwagesinexchangeforthem。Andthe

bargainissettled，likeallotherfreebargains，bytherespectivemarketvaluesofthethingsexchanged。Asmarriagehasno

tendency。toincreasethevalueofhislabour，ithasnotendencytoincreasehisremuneration。Hedefersit，therefore，tillthe

savingsmadewhilehewassingleaffordafundtomeettheexpensesofafamily;andpopulationiskeptdownbytheonlycheckthatisconsistentwithmoralorphysicalwelfare——theprudentialcheck:Tothisstateofthingsthereisanearapproachamongthelabouringclassesinthemostadvanceddistrictsofthecontinent

ofEurope，inthelowlandsofScotland，andeventhroughouttheBritishempire，amongthebesteducatedofthoseclasses

whoderivetheirchiefsubsistencefromtheirexertions，includingprofessionalpersons，domesticservants，skilledartisans，andthatportionoftheshopkeeperswhoseprofitsare，infact，principallythewagesoftheirlabour。Thepoor—laws，asadministeredinthesoutherndistrictsofEngland，areanattempttounitetheirreconcilableadvantagesof

freedomandservitude。Thelaboureristobeafreeagent，butwithoutthehazardsoffreeagency;tobefreefromthe

coercion，buttoenjoytheassuredsubsistenceoftheslave。Heisexpectedtobediligent，thoughhehasnofearofwant;

provident，thoughhispayrisesashisfamilyincreases;attachedtoamasterwhoemployshiminpursuanceofavestryresolution;andgratefulfortheallowancewhichthemagistratesorderhimasaright。Inthenaturalstateoftherelationbetweenthecapitalistandthelabourer，whentheamountofwagestobepaid，andof

worktobedone，arethesubjectsofafreeandopenbargain;whenthelabourerobtains，andknowsthatheistoobtainjust

whathisservicesareworthtohisemployer，hemustfeelanyfallinthepriceofhislabourtobeanevil，butisnotlikelyto

complainofitasaninjustice。Greaterexertionandseverereconomyarehisfirstresourcesindistress;andwhattheycannot

supply，hereceiveswithgratitudefromthebenevolent。Theconnexionbetweenhimandhismasterhasthekindlinessofa

voluntaryassociation，inwhicheachpartyisconsciousofbenefit，andeachfeelsthathisownwelfaredepends，toacertain

extent，onthewelfareoftheother。Buttheinstantwagesceasetobeabargain——theinstantthelabourerispaid，not

accordingtohisvalue，buthiswants，heceasestobeafreeman。Heacquirestheindolence，theimprovidence，therapacity，

andthemalignity，butnotthesubordinationofaslave。Heistoldthathehasarighttowages，butthatheisboundto

work？Whoistodecidehowhardheoughttowork，orhowhardhedoeswork？Whoistodecidewhatamountofwages

hehasarightto？Asyet，thedecisionhasbeenmadebytheoverseersandthemagistrates。Buttheywereinterestedparties。

Thelabourerhasthoughtfittocorrectthatdecision。Forthepresenthethinksthathehasarightto2s。3d。adayinwinter，

and2s。6d。insummer。Andouronlyhopeseemstobe，thatthepromiseofsuchwageswillbribehimintoquiet。Butwho

candoubtthathewillmeasurehisrightsbyhiswishes，orthathiswisheswillextendwiththeprospectoftheir

gratification？Thepresenttidemaynotcompletetheinundation，butitwillbeadreadfulerrorifwemistaketheebbfora

permanentrecedingofthewaters。Abreachhasbeenmadeintheseawall，andwitheverysucceedingirruptiontheywill

swellhigherandspreadmorewidely。Whatwearesufferingisnothingtowhatwehavetoexpect。Nextyear，perhaps，the

labourerwillthinkitunjustthatheshouldhavelessthan4s。adayinwinter，and5s。insummer;——andwoetothetyrantswhodenyhimhisright！Itistrue，thatsucharightcouldnotbepermanentlyenforced;——itistrue，thatifthelabourerburnsthecorn—ricksinwhich

hissubsistenceforthecurrentyearisstored——ifheconsumesinidlenessorinriotthetimeandtheexertionsonwhichnext

year\'sharvestdepends——ifhewastesinextravagantwages，ordrivestoforeigncountries，thecapitalthatistoassistand

renderproductivehislabour，hewillbethegreatestsuffererinthecommonruin。Thosewhohavepropertymayescape

withaportionofittosomecountryinwhichtheirrightswillbeprotected;butthelabourermustremaintoenjoyhisownworks——tofeelthattherealrewardsforplunderanddevastationarewantanddisease。Buthavetheconsequencesofthepresent。systemeverbeenexplainedtothelabourer？Isnothisrighttogoodwages。

re—echoedfromallpartsofthecountryIshenottold——\'Dwellintheland，andverilythoushallbefed？\'Doesnotthe

HonourableMemberwhohasaffixedthismottotohiswork，assume，thatthefundoutofwhichthelaboureristobefedis

practicallyinexhaustible？Andcanwordsmorestronglyimplythathissufferingsarisefromtheinjusticeofhissuperiors？

Havenotevenmagistratesandlandlordsrecommendedthedestruction，or，whatisthesame，bothinprincipleaudeffect，

thedisuseoftheverymachinesofwhichtheobjectistorenderlabourmoreefficientintheproductionofthearticles

consumedbythelabourer——intheproductionofthatveryfundontheextentofwhich，comparedwiththenumberto。be

maintained，theamountofwagesdepends？Andisthereanyrealdifferencebetweenthisconductandtheburningofa

rick—yard？Threshing—machinesarethepresentobjectsofhostility，ploughswillbethenext;spadeswillthenbefoundto

diminishemployment;andwhenithasbeenmadepenaltogiveadvantagetolabourbyanytoolorinstrumentWhatever，thelaststepmustbetoprohibittheuseoftheright—hand。Havesufficientpainsbeentakeneventoexposetheabsurdityofwhatappearssoobvioustothepopulace——thatthe

landlordsoughttoreducetheirrentsandtheclergytheirtithe，andthenthefarmerwouldgivebetterwages？Ifthefarmer

hadhislandfornothing，stillitwouldnotbehisinteresttogiveanymanmorewagesforaday\'sworkthanhisday\'swork

wasworth。Hecould。betteraffordit，nodoubt，tobepaidasatax;butwhyshouldthefarmerpaythattaxmorethanthe

physicianortheshopkeeper？Ifthefarmeristoemploy，atthisadvancedrateofwages，onlywhomhechooses，thedistress

willbeincreased，sincehewil！employonlythatsmallernumberwhoselabourisworththeirincreasedpay。Ifheisto

employacertainproportionofthelabourers，howevernumerous，inhisparish，heis，infact，topayrentandtithesas

before，withthisdifferenceonly，thattheyaretobepaidtopaupers，insteadoftothelandlordandtheparson;andthatthe

paymentisnotafixedbutanindefinitesum，andasumwhichmusteveryyearincrease。inanacceleratedratio，asthe

increaseofpopulationrushestofillupthisnewvacuum，tillrent，tithes，profit，andcapital，arealleatenup，andpauperism

produceswhatmaybecalleditsnaturaleffects——fortheyaretheeffectswhich，ifunchecked，itmustultimatelyproduce——famine，pestilence，andcivilwar。Thatthiscountrycanpreserveitsprosperity，orevenitssocialexistence，ifthestateoffeelingwhichIhavedescribed

becomesuniversalamongthe。lowerclasses，。Ithinknoonewillbeboldenoughtomaintain。Thatitisextensively

prevalent，andthat，underthepresentadministrationofthepoor—laws，itwill，atnoremoteperiod，becomeuniversalinthe

southerndistricts，appearstometobeequallyclear。Butwho，inthepresentstateofthosedistricts，willventuretocarry

intoexecutionarealandeffectualalterationofthepoor—laws？Remove，byemigration，thepauperismthatnowoppressesthosedistricts，andsuchanalteration，thoughitmayremaindifficult，willceasetobeimpracticable。Again，thecorn—laws，bytheirtendencytoraisethepriceofsubsistence，bytheruinwhichtheyhaveinflictedonthe

internalcorn—trade，andthestimuluswhichtheyhavegiventotheincreaseoftheagriculturalpopulation，havewithout

doubtbeenamongstthecausesofthepresentdistress;andif，whilethepopulationofEnglandandWalescontinuesto

increaseattherateof500personsaday，theintroductionofforeigncornissubject，underordinaryprices，toaprohibitive

duty，thoselawswillbecomeeverydaymoremischievous，andlessremediable。Buttherepealofthoselaws，however

gradual（andonlyagradualrepealcanbethoughtof），would，underthepresentpressureofpauperism，tendtoaggravatetheagriculturaldistress。Lightenthatpressure，andwemaygraduallyreverttotheonlysafesystem——thesystemoffreedom。Thisobservation，indeed，isonlyoneexampleofageneralrule。Naturehasdecreedthattheroadtogoodshallbethrough

evil——thatnoimprovementshalltakeplaceinwhichthegeneraladvantageshallnotbeaccompaniedbypartialsuffering。

Theobviousremedyistoremovethosewhoselabourhasceasedtobeprofitable，toacountrythatwillaffordroomfor

theirexertions。Fewinventions，duringthepresentcentury，haveconferredgreaterbenefitsonthelabouringclassesthan

thatofthepower—loom。Bydiminishingtheexpenseofclothing，ithasbeenasource，notmerelyofcomfort，butofhealth

andlongevity。Butitsproximateeffectwastospreadruinamongthehand—weavers;toreducealmostallofthemtoamere

subsistence，andmanytothemostabjectwant。Eversinceitsintroduction，thousandshavebeenpiningawayundermisery，

notalleviatedevenbyhope;withnorationalexpectation，butthattheensuingyearwouldbemorecalamitousthanthe

passingone:andthiswithoutfault，withoutevenimprovidence。\'Ifithadbeenthoughtthattheremovalofafellow—creaturefrommiserytohappinessisworth？2，theymightnowhaveformedaflourishingsettlementinBritishAmerica。Thehostilityofmany，coupledwiththeindifferenceofalmostallothers，toanysystematicplanofemigration，isaground

forregretandalarm，considerednotonlyasacause，butasasymptom。Itisalamentableproofofignoranceastothereal

stateof。thecountry，orofcarelessnessastoitswelfare，orofadeterminationtomakenosacrificeforitsrelief。

Wearetoldthatemigrationwouldbeexpensive，andagainwearetoldthatthevacuumwouldbefilledup。###第2章Itistrue，thattoremoveamillionofpersonsmight，perhaps，cost？2，000，000sterling;thatistosay，mightcostasmuch

asthedirectexpenditureofthreemonthswar;andthatanexpenditureof？2，000，000sterlingisanevil。Butinthefirst

place，ithasbeendemonstrated（2）thattheexpenseofkeepingpaupersathomeisfargreaterthanthatoftheirremoval。It

maybenecessarytorepeat，thoughithasoftenbeenremarkedbefore，thatthereliefisaffordednotonlytothose

individualswhoemigrate，buttothemuchgreaternumberwhoremain。Ifthereare450labourersinadistrictwhich

requiresthefullemployment，andaffordsthefullsubsistenceofonly400，all，ornearlyall，willbeindistress，andbythe

emigrationoffiftyallwillberelieved。And，inthesecondplace，evenifthebalanceofexpensewereonthesideof

removingaportionofoursurpluspopulation，isnoexpensebeyondthatoftheirmerekeeptobefearedfromtheir

presence？Ifthepresentinsurrectionspread（anditwillspreadifthepeasantryaretold，as。practicallytheyhavebeentold，

thatforriotandrebellionthreedays\'imprisonmentisthepunishment，andariseofwagesthereward）;iftheravageofthe

countryreacts，asitwillreact，onthetowns;if，whentradebeginstolanguish，themastermanufacturers，accordingtotheir

latepractice，dismisstheirworkmen，andthemanufacturingworkmen，intheirturn，destroymachinery;ifthefoundations，

notmerelyofourwealth，butofourexistence，arethusimpaired，willtwelvemillions，ortwentymillions，orevenahundredmillionssterlingrepresenttheloss？Itistrue，thatifweadopttopreventivemeasures，ifwepersistblindlyinourcourseoferror，thetemporaryreliefafforded

byemigrationwillcometoanend，andthevacuumwill，insixteenorseventeenyears，befilledup。Butisitcertainthatwe

shallnotprofitbyexperience？Havewearight，or，rather，arewecompelled，toassume，asalinkintheargument，thatwe

andoursuccessorsmustbemadmen？Ifamanhasbeenoutrunninghisincome，isitquitecertainthatwecandohimno

goodbypayinghisdebts，onthegroundthatifhegoesoninthesamethoughtlessexpenditure，hewillagainbeinvolvedas

deeplyasever？Andevengrantingthatthevacuumwillbefilledup，willitbenothingtohaveobtainedsixteenyears\'

respite？——tohaveweatheredtheexistingstorm？——tohaveadjournedthecrisistoaperiodwhichmaybemorefavourable，andcannotpossiblybelessso？Wearetoldthatthelabourersformthestrengthofthecountry，andthattodiminishtheirnumberistoincurvoluntary

feebleness。Butdoesthepauper，——themanwhoselabourisnotworthhissubsistence，whoconsumesmorethanhe

produces，——doesheaddtothestrengthofthecountry？WhenIhearsuchremarks，Ifancymyselfstandingbythebedsideof

auapoplecticpatient，andhearingtilenurseandthefriendsprohibittilelancet。\'Theblood，\'saysone，\'isthesupportoflife:

howcanyouthinkofdiminishingitinhispresentstateofweakness\'\'Ifyoudodiminishit，\'criesoutanother，\'withhis

habitsoffreeliving，itwillberenewed;inayearthevacuumwillbefilledup。\'Butisitimpossiblethatthebloodcanbein

excess？Isitcertainthathishabitsareunchangeable？Shallwelethimdielow，lestweshouldhavetobleedhimagainayearhence？Itwillbeobserved，thatIhaveassumedthatthepaupersarewillingtoemigrate。Thattheyhavebeensoasyet，is

unquestionable:Ihope，IhadalmostsaidItrust，thattheystillcontinuetobeso。Butiftheyareallowed。tofixthelabour

theyaretogive，andthewagestheyaretoreceive;iftheyaretohelpthemselves，whileitlasts，fromthewholepropertyof

thecountry，itistoomuchtoexpectthattheywillnotpreferidleness，riot，andplunderathome，tosubsistence，however

ample，tobeearnedbytoilandhardshipabroad。Butthisonlyshowsthedanger，themadnessofdelay。Whilewearedeliberating，orevenbeforewehavebeguntodeliberate，\'themomentforapplyingtheremedyispassingaway。Hitherto，ithasbeencommontodefendeveryexistingpracticeasagreeabletocommonsense，inoppositiontothe

visionaryschemesofpoliticaltheorists;to。pleadexperienceinbehalfofeverythingthathaslongprevailed，andto

deprecatenewexperiments。Itishightimethatthosewhoprofesstovenerateexperienceshouldnow，atlength，showthat

theycanlearnfromit。Towhathascommonprejudice，reigningunderthetitleofcommonsense，broughtus？Havethepracticalmenwhohavehithertoadministeredoursystemofpoor—lawssavedusfrombeingbroughttotheverybrinkof

ruin？Orhavetheysuggestedanyeffectualmeansforstoppingourdownwardcareer？Surelycommonsense，iftherebeany

suchthinginthecountry，willnow，atlast，bearwitnesstothetruthofBacon\'smaxim，thathewhodreadsnewremedies，

mustexpectnewevils！\'

Lincoln\'sInn，December3，1830。

LECTUREI。DefinitionofHighandLowWagesThelabourersformthemassofeverycommunity。Theinquiryintothecausesaffectingwagesis，therefore，themost

importantbranchofpoliticaleconomy。InthefollowingLecturesIpropose，first，toexplainsomeambiguitiesintheterms

highandlowwages;secondly，tostatetheproximatecausewhichregulatestheamountofwages;andlastly，toexpose

someprevalenterrorsrespectingthatcause;leavingtheremotercauses，thecauseoftheproximatecause，fordiscussioninasubsequentcourse。Wagesaretheremunerationreceivedbythelabourerinrecompenseforhavingexertedhisfacultiesofmindandbody;and

theyaretermedhighorlow，inproportiontotheextentofthatremuneration。Thatextenthasbeenestimatedbythreedifferentmeasures;andthewordshighandlowwageshave，consequently，beenusedinthreedifferentsenses。First。Wageshavebeen。termedhighorlow，accordingtotheamountofmoneyearnedbythelabourerwithinagiven

period，withoutanyreferencetothecommoditieswhichthatmoneywouldpurchase;aswhenwesaythatwageshaverisensincethereignofHenryVII，becausethelabourernowreceives1s。6d。or2。s。aday，andthenreceivedonly4絛。Secondly。Theyhavebeentermedhighorlow，accordingtothequantityandqualityofthecommoditiesobtainedbythe

labourer，withoutanyreferencetohisreceiptsinmoney;aswhenwesaythatwageshavefallensincethereignofHenryVII，becausethelabourerthenearnedtwopecksofwheataday，andnowearnsonlyone。Thirdly。Theyhavebeentermedhighorlow，accordingtotheshareorproportionwhichthelabourerreceivesoftheproduceofhisownlabour，withoutanyreferencetothetotalamountofthatproduce。Thefirstnomenclature，thatwhichmeasureswagessimplybytheiramountinmoney，isthepopularone。Thesecond，that

whichconsiderswagessimplywithreferencetothequantityandqualityofthecommoditiesreceivedbythelabourer，orto

speakmorecorrectly，purchaseablewithhismoneywages，wasthatgenerallyadoptedbyAdamSmith。Thethird，that

whichconsiderswagesashighorlow，simplywithreferencetothelabourer\'sshareorproportionofwhatheproduces，wasintroducedbyMr。Ricardo，andhasbeencontinuedbymanyofhisfollowers。ThislastuseofthewordshighandlowwageshasalwaysappearedtomeoneofthemostunfortunateofMr。Ricardo\'s

manyinnovationsinthelanguageofpoliticaleconomy。Inthefirstplace，ithasatendencytowithdrawourattention，even

whenwearcconsideringthesubjectofwages，fromthefactswhichmostinfluencethelabourer\'scondition。Toascertain

whetherhiswagesarehighorlow，wearedesiredtoinquire，notwhetherheisillorwellpaid，——notwhetherheiswellor

illfed，orclothed，orlodged，orwarmed，butsimplywhatproportionofwhatheproducescomestohisshare。Duringthe

lastfourorfiveyears，manyahand—weaverhasreceivedonly8s。3d。forproducing，byafortnight\'sexertion，awebthatthe

capitalisthassoldfor8s。4d。Acoal—merchantoftenpayshismentwoguineasaweek，andchargeshisemployersfortheir

servicestwoguineasandahalf。But，accordingtoMr。Ricardo\'snomenclature，thewagesoftheweaver，at4s。1絛。a

week，aremuchhigherthanthoseofthecoal—heaverattwoguineas，sincetheweaverreceives99percentofthevalueofhislabour，whilethecoalheaverhadonly80percent。And，evenifthenomenclatureinquestionwerefreefromthisobjection——evenifthepointonwhichitendeavourstofix

theattentionwerethemostimportant，insteadofbeingtheleastimportant。incidenttowages，itstillwouldbeinconvenient

fromitsobscurity。Nowritercanhopetobeconsistentintheuseoffamiliarwordsinasensealwaysdifferentfromtheir

establishedmeaning，andoftendirectlyopposedtoit;stilllesscanhehopetobealwaysunderstood。EvenMr。Ricardo，

thoughheprofessestomeanbyhighwagesagreatproportion，hasinseveralplacesconsideredthemasproductiveof

consequenceswhichwouldfollowonlyiftheysignifiedagreatamount。Andhisfollowersandopponentshave，almost

uniformly，supposedthosewordstomeanagreatamount。SincethepublicationofMr。Ricardo\'swork，ithasbeen

receivedasanaxiom，amongthedabblersinpoliticaleconomy，that，accordingtotheestablisheddoctrinesofthescience，

highwagesandhighprofitsareincompatible;and，therefore，thateithertheleadingdoctrinesofpoliticaleconomyarefalse，

ortheinterests。ofthelabourerandthecapitalistarealwaysdirectlyopposedtooneanother。Theformeropinionhasbeen

adoptedbythelargeclasswhodonotattendtowhattheyread;thelatter，bythestilllargerclasswhodonotattendtowhattheysee。Thetwoothermeaningsofthewordshighandlowwages，thatwhichreferstothemoney，andthatwhichreferstothe

commodities，receivedbythelabourer，arebothequallyconvenient，ifweconsidertherateofwagesatthesametimeand

place;forthentheybothmeanthesamething。Atthesametimeandplace，thelabourerwhoreceivesthehighestwages

necessarilyreceivesthemostcommodities。Butwhenwerefertodifferentplaces，ordifferenttimes，thewordshighorlow

wagesdirecttheattentiontoverydifferentsubjects，asweunderstandthemtomeanmoreorlessinmoney，ormoreorless

incommodities。Thedifferenceswhichhavetakenplaceintheamountofmoneywagesatdifferenttimes，informusof

scarcelyanythingbuttheabundanceorscarcityofthepreciousmetalsatthosetimes:factswhichareseldomofmuch

importance。Thedifferencesintheamountofmoneywagesindifferentplacesatthesametime，areofmuchmore

importance，sincetheyindicatethedifferentvaluesofthelabourofdifferentcountriesinthegeneralmarketoftheworld。

Buteventhesedifferencesaffordnopremises，fromwhichthepositiveconditionofthelabouringclasses，inanycountry，

canbeinferred，andbutimperfectgroundsforestimatingtheirrelativecondition。Theonlydatawhichenableusto

ascertainthe。actualsituationofthelabourersatanygiventimeandplace，ortheircomparativesituationofdifferenttimes

andplaces，arethequantityandqualityofthecommoditieswhichformtheirwages，ifpaidinkind，orarepurchaseable

withtheirwages，ifpaidinmoney。Andastheactualorcomparativesituationofthelaboureristheprincipalobjectofthe

followinginquiry，Ishallusethewordwages，toexpress，notthemoney，butthecommodities，whichthelabourerreceives;

andIshallconsiderwagestoriseasthequantityorqualityofthosecommoditiesisincreasedorimproved，andtofallasthatquantityorqualityisdiminishedordeteriorated。Itisobvious，too，thatthelabourer\'ssituationdoesnotdependontheamountwhichhereceivesatanyonetime，butonhis

averagereceiptsduringagivenperiod——duringaweek，amonth，orayear;andthatthelongertheperiodtaken，themore

accuratewillbetheestimate。Weeklywageshave，ofcourse，moretendencytoequalitythandailyones，andannualthan

monthly;and，ifwecouldascertaintheamountearnedbyamanduringfive，orten，ortwentyyears，weshouldknowhis

situationbetterthanifweconfinedourattentiontoasingleyear。Thereis，however，somuchdifficultyinascertainingthe

amountofwagesduringverylongperiods，that，Ithink，asingleyearwillbethebestthatwecantake。Itcomprehends

what，inmostclimates，areverydifferent，summerandwinterwages;itcomprehendsalsotheperiodduringwhichthemost

importantvegetableproductionscometomaturityintemperateclimates，andonthataccounthasgenerallybeenadoptedbypoliticaleconomistsastheaverageperiodforwhichcapitalissupposedtobeadvanced。Ishouldobserve，thatIinclude，aspartofthewagesofthemarriedlabourer，thoseofhiswifeandunemancipatedchildren。

Toomitthemwouldleadtoinaccurateestimatesofthecomparativesituationofthelabourersindifferentcountries，orin

differentoccupations。Inthoseemploymentswhicharecarriedonundershelter，andwiththeassistanceofthatmachinery

whichaffordspower，andrequireshumanaidonlyforitsdirection，theindustryofawoman，orachild，approachesin

efficiencytothat。ofafull—grownman。Agirloffourteencanmanageapower—loomnearlyaswellasherfather;butwhere

strength，orexposuretotheseasons，arerequired，littlecanbedonebythewife，orthegirls，orevenbytheboys，untilthey

approachtheageatwhichtheyusuallyquittheirfather\'shouse。Theearningsoftilewifeandchildrenofmanya

Manchesterweaverorspinnerexceed，orequal，thoseofhimself。Thoseofthewifeandchildrenofanagriculturallabourer，

orofacarpenter，orcoal—heaver，aregenerallyunimportant——whilethehusband，ineachcase，receive15s。，aweek;theweeklyincomeoftheonefamilymaybe30s。，andthatoftheotheronly17s。or18s。Itmustbeadmitted。however。thattheworkmandoesnotretainthewholeofthisapparentpecuniaryadvantage。Thewifeistakenfromherhouseholdlabours，andapartofincreasedwagesisemployedin

purchasing，whatmightotherwise，beproducedathome。Themoralinconveniencesarestillgreater。Theinfantchildren

sufferfromthewantofmaternalattention，andthosewhoareolderfromthedeficiencyofreligious，moral，andintellectual

education，andchildishrelaxationandamusemcnt。TheestablishmentofinfantandSundayschools，andlawsregulatingthe

numberofhoursduringwhichchildrenmaylabour，arepalliativesoftheseevils，buttheymustexist。toacertaindegree，

wheneverthelabourofthewifeandchildrenisthesubjectofsale;and。thoughnot，perhaps。strictlywithintheprovinceofpoliticaleconomy。mustneverbeomittedinanyestimateoftilecausesaffectingthewelfareofthelabouringclasses。ThelastpreliminarypointtowhichIhavetocallyourattentionis，thedifferencebetweentherateofwagesandthepriceoflabour。Ifmenweretheonlylabourers，andifeverymanworkedeq，lallyhard，andforthesamenumberofhours，duringtheyear，

thesetwoexpressionswouldbesynonymous。Ifeachman，forinstance，workedthreehundreddaysduringeachyear，and

tenhoursduringeachday，one—three—thousandthpartofeachman\'syearlywageswouldbethepriceofanhour\'slabour。

Butneitherofthesepropositionsistrue。Theyearlywagesofafamilyofteninclude，aswehaveseen，theresultsofthe

labourofthewifeandchildren。Andfewthingsarelessuniformthanthenumberofworkingdaysduringtheyear，orofworkinghoursduringtheday，orthedegreeofexertionundergoneduringthosehours。TheestablishedannualholidaysinProtestantcountries;arebetweenfiftyandsixty。InmanyCatholiccountriestheyexceed

onehundred。AmongtheHindoos，theyaresaidtooccupynearlyhalftheyear。Buttheseholidaysareconfinedtoacertainportionofthepopulation;thelabourofasailor，orasoldier，oramenialservant，admitsofscarcelyanydistinctionofdays。Again，innorthernandsouthernlatitudes，thehoursofout—doorlabourarelimitedbythedurationoflight;andin\'all

climatesbytheweather。WhenthelabouterWorksundershelter，thedailyhoursoflabourmaybeuniformthroughoutthe

year。And，independentlyofnaturalcauses，thedailyhoursoflabourvaryindifferentcountries，andindifferent

employmentsinthesamecountry。Thedailyhoursoflabourare，perhaps，longerinFrancethaninEngland，and，certainly，

arelongerinEnglandthaninHindostan。InManchester，themanufacturergenerallyworkstwelvehoursaday;inBirmingham，ten:aLondonshopmanisseldomemployedmorethaneightornine。Thereisstillmorediscrepancybetweentheexertionsmadebydifferentlaboursinagivenperiod。Theyareoften，indeed，。

unsusceptibleofcomparison。Thereisnocommonmeasureofthetoilsundergonebyaminerandatailor，orofthoseofa

shopmanandanironfounder。Andlabourwhichisthesameinkind，mayvaryindefinitelyinintensity。Manofthewitnesses

examinedbytheCommitteeonArtisansandMachinery（Sessionof1824）wereEnglishmanufacturers，whohadworkedin

France。TheyagreeastothecomparativeindolenceoftheFrenchlabourer，evenduringhishoursofemployment。Oneof

thewitnesses，AdamYoung，hadbeentwoyearsinoneofthebestmanufactoriesinAlsace。Heisasked，\'Didyoufindthe

spinnersthereasindustriousastilespinnersinEngland？\'andreplies，\'No;aspinnerinEnglandwilldotwiceasmuchasa

Frenchman。Theygetupatfourinthemorning，andworktilltenatnight;butourspinnerswilldoasmuchinsixhoursas

theywillinten。\'

\'HadyouanyFrenchmenemployedunderyou？\'——\'Yes;eight，attwofrancsaday。\'

\'Whathadyouaday？\'——\'Twelvefrancs。\'\'SupposingyouhadhadeightEnglishcardersunderyou，howmuchmoreworkcouldyouhavedone？\'——\'Withone

Englishman，Icouldhavedonemorethan1didwiththoseeightFrenchmen。Itcannotbecalledworktheydo:itisonlylookingatit，andwishingitdone。\'\'DotheFrenchmaketheiryarnatagreaterexpense？\'——\'Yes;thoughtheyhavetheirhandsformuchlesswagesthaninEngland。\'——pp。590，582。Eveninthesamecountry，andinthesameemployments，similarinequalitiesareconstantlyobserved。Everyoneisaware

thatmuchmoreexertionisundergonebythelabourerbytask—workthanbytheday—labourer;bytheindependentday—labourerthanbythepauper;andevenbythepauperthanbytheconvict。Itisobviousthattherateofwagesislesslikelytobeuniformthantheprideoflabour，astheamountofwageswillbe

affected，inthefirstplace，byanyvariationsintheprice，and，inthesecondplace，byanyvariationsintheamount，ofthelabourexerted。###第3章TheaverageannualwagesoflabourinEngland，arethreetimesashighasinIreland;butasthelabourerinIrelandissaid

nottodomorethanone—thirdofwhatisdonebythelabourerinEngland，thepriceoflabourmay，inbothcountries，be

aboutequal。InEngland，thelabourerbytask—workearnsmuchmorethantheday—labourer;butasitiscertainlyas

profitabletoemployhim，thepriceofhislabourcannotbehigher。Itmaybesupposed，indeed，thatthepriceoflabouris

everywhere，andatalltimes，thesame;and，iftherewerenodisturbingcauses，——ifallpersonsknewperfectlywelltheir

owninterest，andstrictlyfollowedit，andtherewerenodifficultiesinmovingcapitalandlabourfromplacetoplace，and

fromemploymenttoemployment，——thepriceoflabour，atthesametime，wouldbeeverywherethesame。Butthese

difficultiesoccasionthepriceoflabourtovarymaterially，evenatthesametimeandplace;andvariations，bothinthe

amountofwagesandinthepriceoflabouratdifferenttimes，andindifferentplaces，areoccasioned，notonlybythesecauses，butbyotherswhichwillbeconsideredinasubsequentcourse。Thesevariationsaffectverydifferentlythelabourerandhisemployer。Theemployerisinterestedinkeepingdowntheprice

oflabour;butwhilethatpriceremainsthesame，whileatagivenexpensehegetsagivenamountofworkdone，his

situation\'remainsunaltered。Ifafarmercangetafieldtrenchedfor12l。itisindifferenttohimwhetherhepaysthewhole

ofthatsumtothreecapitalworkmen，ortofourordinaryones。Thethreewouldreceivehigherwagesthanthefour，butas

theywoulddoproportionablymorework，theirlabourwouldcomejustascheap。Ifthethreecouldbehiredatal。l0s。

a—piece，whilethefourrequired3l。a—piece，thoughthewagesofthethreewouldbehigher，thepriceoftheworkdonebythemwouldbelower。Itistruethatthecauseswhichraisetheamountofthelabourer\'swagesoftenraisetherateofthecapitalist\'sprofits。It;by

increasedindustry，onemanperformstheworkoftwo，boththeamountofwagesandtherateofprofitswillgenerallybe

raised。Buttherateofprofitwillberaised，notbytheriseofwages，butinconsequenceoftheadditionalsupplyoflabour

havingdiminisheditsprice，orhavingdiminishedtheperiodforwhichithadpreviouslybeennecessarytoadvancethat。price。Thelabourer，ontheotherhand，isprincipallyinterestedintheamountofwages。Theamountofhiswagesbeinggiven，it

is。certainlyhisinterestthatthepriceofhislabourshouldbehigh，foronthatdependsthedegreeofexertionimposedon

him。Butiftheamountofhiswagesbelow，hemustbecomparativelypoor，ifthatamountbehigh，hemustbe

comparativelyrich，whateverbehisremunerationforeachspecificactofexertion。Intheonecasehe。willhaveleisureand

want，——intheother，toilandabundance。Iamfarfromthinkingthattheevilsofsevereandincessantlabour，orthebenefits

ofacertaindegreeofleisure，oughttobeleftoutinanyestimateofhappiness。Butitisnotwithhappiness，butwith

wealth，thatIamconcernedasapoliticaleconomist;andIamnotonlyjustifiedinomitting，but，perhaps，amboundto

omit，allconsiderationswhichhavenoinfluenceonwealth。Infact，however，wealthandhappinessareveryseldom

opposed。Nature，whensheimposedonmanthenecessityoflabour，temperedhisrepugnancetoitbymaking

long—continuedinactivitypainful，andbystronglyassociatingwithexertiontheideaofitsreward。Thepoorand

half—employedIrishlabourer，orthestillpoorerand，lessindustrioussavage，isasinferiorinhappinessastieisinincometo

thehard—workedEnglishartisan。TheEnglishman\'sindustrymaysometimesbeexcessive，hisdesiretobetterhiscondition

maysometimesdrivehimontoilsproductiveofdiseaseillrecompensedbytheincreaseofhiswages，butthatsuchisnot

generallythecasemaybeprovedbycomparingthepresentdurationoflifeinEnglandwithitsformerduration，orwithits

durationinothercountries。Itisgenerallyadmitted，thatduringthelastfiftyyears，amarkedincreasehastakenplaceinthe

industryofourmanufacturingpopulation，andthattheyarenowthehardestworkinglabourersintheworld。Butduringthe

wholeofthatperiodtheaveragedurationoftheirliveshasbeenconstantlyincreasing，andappearsstilltoincrease:and

notwithstandingtheapparentunhealthinessofmanyoftheiroccupations，notwithstandingtheatmosphereofsmokeand

steaminwhichtheylabourforseventy—twohoursaweek，theyenjoylongerlifethanthelightly—toiledinhabitantsofthe

mostfavouredsoilsandclimates。Theaveragemortalityamongsavagenationsisthegreatestthatisknown。Inthe

continentofEuropeitisaboutoneinthirty—four。InEngland，aboutacenturyago，whenmorethanhalfofourpopulation

wasagricultural，itwassupposedtobeoneinthirty;fiftyyearsagoitwascalculatedatoneinforty;thirtyyearsagoatone

inforty—seven;twentyyearsagoatoneinfifty—two。Now，whentwo—thirdsofourlabourersaremanufacturers，andmore

thanone—thirddwellincities，itisestimatedatoneinfifty—eight。

LECTUREII。

POPULARERRORSONTHECAUSESAFFECTINGWAGES。HavinginthelastLecturemarkedthedistinctionwhichreallyexistsbetweenthepriceof\'labourandtheamountofwages，

Ishallforthefutureconsidereverylabouringfamilyasconsistingofthesamenumberofpersons，andexertingthesame

degreeofindustry。Onthatsupposition，thedistinctionbetweenthepriceoflabourandtheamountofwageswillbeatan

end;orrather，theonlydistinctionwillbe，thattheformerexpressiondesignatestheremunerationforeachspecific

exertion:thelatter，theaggregateofallthoseseparateremunerations，assummedupattheendofeachyear。Andthe

questiontobeansweredwillbe，whatarethecauseswhichdecidewhatinanygivencountry，andatanygivenperiod，shall

bethequantityandqualityofthecommoditiesobtainedbyalabouringfamilyduringayear？Theproximatecauseappears

tometobeclear。Thequantityandqualityofthecommoditiesobtainedbyeachlabouringfamilyduringayear，must

dependonthequantityandqualityofthecommoditiesdirectlyorindirectlyappropriatedduringtheyeartotheuseofthe。labouringpopulation，comparedwiththenumberoflabouringfamilies（includingunderthattermallthosewhodependon

theirownlabourforsubsistence）;or，tospeakmoreconcisely，ontheextentofthefundforthemaintenanceoflabourers，

comparedwiththenumberoflabourerstobemaintained。Thispropositionissonearlyself—evident，thatifpolitical

economywereanewscience，Ishouldassumeitwithoutfurtherremark。ButImustwarnyou，thatthispropositionis

inconsistentwithopinionswhichareentitledtoconsideration，somefromthe。numberiandothersfrom。the。authority。ofthosewhomaintainthem。First。Itisinconsistentwiththedoctrine，thattherateofwagesdependsontheproportionwhichthenumberoflabourers

beamtotheamountofcapitalinacountry。Thewordcapitalhasbeenusedinsomanysenses，thatitisdifficulttostate

thisdoctrineprecisely;butIknowofnodefinition。of:thattermwhichwillnotincludemanythingsthatarenotusedbythe

labouringclasses;andifmypropositionbecorrect，noincreaseordiminutionofthesethingscandirectlyaffectwages。Ifa

foreignmerchantweretocometosettleinthiscountry，andbringwithhimacargoofrawandmanufacturedsilk，lace，and

diamonds，thatcargowouldincreasethecapitalofthecountry;silks，lace，anddiamonds，wouldbecomemoreabundant，

andtheenjoymentsofthosewhousethemwouldbeincreased;buttheenjoymentsofthelabourers—wouldnotbedirectly

increased:indirectly，andconsequentially，theymightbeincreased。Thesilkmightbere—exportedinamanufacturedstate，

andcommoditiesfortheuseoflabourersimportedinreturn;andthen，andnottillthen，wageswouldrise;butthatrise

wouldbeoccasioned，notbythefirstadditiontothecapitalofthecountry，whichwasmadeintheformofsilk，butbythesubstitutedadditionmadeintheformofcommoditiesusedbythelabourer。Secondly。Itisinconsistentwiththedoctrine，thatwagesdependontheproportionbornebythenumberoflabourerstothe

revenueofthesocietyofwhichtheyaremembers。Intheexamplelastsuggested，oftheintroductionofanewsupplyof

laceordiamonds，therevenuesofthosewhouselaceordiamondswouldbein，creased;butaswagesarenotspenton

thosearticles，theywouldremainunaltered。Itispossible，indeed，tostatecasesinwhichtherevenueofalargeportionofa

communitymightbeincreased，andyetthewagesofthelabourersmightfallwithoutanincreaseoftheirnumbers。Iwill

supposetheprincipaltradeofIrelandtobetheraisingproducefortileEnglishmarket;andthatforeverytwohundred

acrestenfamilieswereemployedinraising，onhalftheland，theirownsubsistence，andontheremaindercornandother

exportablecropsrequiringequallabour。Undersuchcircumstances，ifademandshouldariseintheEnglishmarketfor

cattle，butchers\'—meat，andwool，insteadofcorn，itwouldbetheinterestoftheIrishlandlordsandfarmerstoconverttheir

estatesfromarableintopasture。Insteadoftenfamiliesforeverytwohundredacres，twomightbesufficient:onetoraise

thesubsistenceofthetwo，andtheothertotendthecattleandsheep。Therevenueofthelandlordsandthefarmerswould

beincreased，butalargeportionofthelabourerswouldbethrownoutofemployment;alargeportionofthelandformerly

employedinproducingcommoditiesfortheirusewouldbede。votedtotheproductionofcommoditiesfortheuseof

England;andthefundforthemaintenanceofIrishlabourwouldfall，notwithstandingtheincreaseoftherevenueofthelandlordsandfarmers。Thirdly。Itisinconsistentwiththeprevalentopinion，thatthenon—residence\'oflandlords，fundedproprietors，mortgagees，

andotherunproductiveconsumers，canbedetrimentaltothelabouringinhabitantsofacountrythatdoesnotexportrawproduce。Inacountrywhichexportsrawproduce，wagesmaybeloweredbysuchnon—residence。IfanIrishlandlordresidesonhis

estate，herequirestheservicesofcertainpersons，whomustalsoberesidentthere，toministertohisdailywants。Hemust

haveservants，gardeners，andperhapsgamekeepers。Ifhebuildahouse，hemustemployresidentmasonsandcarpenters;

partofhisfurniturehemayimport，butthegreaterpartofitmustbemadeinhis。neighbourhood;aportionofhisland，or，

whatcomestothesamething，aportionofhisrent，mustbeemployedinproducingfood，clothing，andshelterforallthese

persons，andforthosewhoproducethatfood，clothingandshelter。IfheweretoremovetoEngland，allthesewantswould

besuppliedbyEnglishmen。ThelandandcapitalwhichwasformerlyemployedinprovidingthemaintenanceofIrish

labourers，wouldbeemployedinproducingcornandcattletobeexportedtoEnglandtoprovidethesubsistenceofEnglish

labourers。ThewholequantityofcommoditiesappropriatedtotheuseofIrishlabourerswouldbediminished，andthatappropriatedtotheuseofEnglishlabourersincreased，andwageswould，consequently，riseinEngland，andfallinIreland。Itistruethattheseeffectswouldnotbecoextensivewiththelandlord\'sincome。While，inIreland，hemusthaveconsumed

manyforeigncommodities。Hemusthavepurchasedtea，wine，andsugar，andotherthingswhichtheclimateandthe

manufactures\'ofIrelanddonotafford，andhemusthavepaidforthembysendingcornandcattletoEngland。Itistrue，

also，thatwhileinIrelandheprobablyemployedaportionofhislandandofhisrentsforotherpurposes，fromwhichthe

labouringpopulationreceivednobenefit，asadeerpark，orapleasuregarden，orinthemaintenanceofhorsesorhounds。

Onhisremoval，thatportionofhislandwhichwasa。parkwouldbeemployed，partlyinproducingexportable

commodities，andpartlyinproducingsubsistenceforitscultivators;andthatportionwhichfedhorsesforhisusemightbe

employedinfeedinghorsesforexportation。Thefirstofthesealterationswoulddogood;thesecondcoulddonoharm。

Normustweforgetthat，throughthecheapnessofconveyancebetweenEnglandandIreland，aportion，orperhapsall，of

thosewhomheemployedinIrelandmightfollowhimtoEnglandand，inthatcase，wagesinneithercountrywouldbe

affected。ThefundforthemaintenanceoflabourersinIreland，andthenumberoflabourerstobemaintained，wouldboth

beequallydiminished，andthefundforthemaintenanceoflabourersinEngland，andthenumberoflabourerstobemaintained，wouldbothbeequallyincreased。Butaftermakingallthesedeductions，andtheyareverygreat，fromthesupposedeffectoftheabsenteeismoftheIrish

proprietorsonthelabouringclassesinIreland，IcannotagreewithMr。M\'Cullochthatitisimmaterial。Icannotbutjoinin

thegeneralopinionthattheirreturn，thoughitwouldnotaffecttheprosperityoftheBritishempire，consideredasawhole，wouldbeimmediatelybeneficialtoIreland，thoughperhapstoomuchimportanceisattachedtoit。InMr。M\'Culloch\'scelebratedexaminationbeforethecommitteeonthestateofIreland，（4thReport，814，Sess。1825，）he

wasasked，\'SupposingthelargestexportofIrelandwereinlivecattle，andthataconsiderableportionofrenthadbeen

remittedinthatmanner，doesnotsuchamodeofproducingthemeansofpayingrentcontributelesstotheimprovementof

thepoorthananyextensiveemploymentOftheminlabourwouldproduce？\'——Hereplies，\'Unlessthemeansofpayingrentarechangedwhenthelandlordgoeshome，his。residencecanhavenoeffectwhatever。\'Wouldnot，\'heisasked，\'thepopulationofthecountrybebenefitedbytheexpenditureamongthemofacertainportionof

therentwhich（ifhehadbeenabsent）has（wouldhave）beenremitted（toEngland）？\'\'No，\'hereplies，\'Idonotseehowit

couldbebenefitedintheleast。IfyouhaveacertainvaluelaidoutagainstIrishcommoditiesintheonecase，youwillhave

acertainvaluelaidoutagainstthemintheother。ThecattleareeitherexportedtoEngland，ortheystayathome。Ifthey

areexported，thelandlordwillobtainanequivalentfortheminEnglishcommodities;iftheyarenot，hewillobtainan

equivalentfortheminIrishcommodities;sothatinbothcasesthelandlordlivesonthecattle，oronthevalueofthecattle:

andwhetherhelivesinIrelandorinEngland，thereisobviouslyjusttheverysameamountofcommoditiesforthepeopleofIrelandtosubsistupon。\'Thisreasoningassumesthatthelandlord，whileresidentinIreland，himselfpersonallydevoursallthecattleproducedonhis

estates;foronnoothersuppositioncantherebetheverysameamountofcommoditiesforthepeopleofIrelandtosubsistupon，whethertheircattleareretainedinIrelandorexported。Butwhenacountrydoesnotexportrawproduce，theconsequencesofabsenteeismareverydifferent。Thosewhoderivetheirincomesfromsuchacountrycannotpossiblyspendthemabroaduntiltheyhavepreviouslyspentthemathome。WhenaLeicestershirelandlordisresidentonhisestate，heemploysacertainportionofhisland，or，whatisthesame，of

hisrent，inmaintainingthepersonswhoprovideforhimthosecommoditiesandservices，whichmustbeproducedonthe

spotwheretheyareconsumed。IfheshouldremovetoLondon，hewouldwanttheservicesofLondoners，andtheproduce

oflandandcapitalwhichpreviouslymaintainedlabourersresidentinLeicester，wouldbesentawaytomaintainlabourers

residentinLondon。Thelabourerswouldprobablyfollow，andwagesinLeicestershireandLondonwouldthenbe

unaltered;butuntiltheydidso，wageswouldriseintheonedistrictandfallintheother。Atthesametime，astheriseand

fallwouldcompensateoneanother，asthefundforthemaintenanceoflabour，andthenumberoflabourerstobe

maintained，wouldeachremainthesame，thesameamountofwageswouldbedistributedamongthesamenumberofpersons，thoughnotpreciselyinthesameproportionasbefore。IfhewerenowtoremovetoParis，anewdistributionmusttakeplace。AsthepriceofrawproduceislowerinFrancethan

inEngland，andthedifferenceinhabitsandlanguagebetweenthetwocountriespreventsthetransferoflabourersfromthe

onetotheother，neitherthelabourersnortheproduceofhisestatescouldfollowhim。HemustemployFrenchlabourers，

andhemustconverthisshareoftheproduceofhisestates，or，whatisthesamething，hisrentintosomeexportableform

inordertoreceiveitabroad。Itmaybesupposedthathewouldreceivehisrentinmoney。Evenifheweretodoso，the

Englishlabourerswouldnotbeinjured，forastheydonoteatordrinkmoney，providedthesameamountofcommodities

remainedfortheiruse，theywouldbeunaffectedbytheexportofmoney。Butitisimpossiblethathecouldreceivehisrent

in。moneyunlesstiechosetosufferagratuitousloss。TherateofexchangebetweenLondonandParisisgenerallyratherin

favourofLondon，andscarcelyeversodeviatesfromparbetweenanytwocountries，astocovertheexpenseof

transferringthepreciousmetalsfromtheonetotheother，exceptingbetweenthecountrieswhichdo，andthosewhichdo

notpossessmines。TheremittancesfromEnglandtoFrancemustbesent，therefore，intheformofmanufactures，either

directlytoFrance，ortosomecountrywithwhichFrance。hascommercialrelations。Andhowwould\'thesemanufactures

beobtained？Ofcourseinexchangeforthelandlord\'srent。Hisshareoftheproduceofhisestateswouldnowgoto

BirminghamorSheffield，orManchesterorLondon，tomaintainthelabourersemployedinproducingmanufactures，tobe

sentandsoldabroadforhisprofit。AnEnglishabsenteeemployshisincomepreciselyasifheweretoremainathomeand

consumenothingbuthardwareandcottons。Insteadoftheservicesofgardenersandservants，upholsterersandtailors，he

purchasesthoseofspinners，andweavers，andcutlers。Ineithercasehisincomeisemployedinmaintaininglabourers，

thoughtheclassoflabourersisdifferent;andineithercase，thewholefundforthemaintenanceoflabourers，andthenumberoflabourerstobemaintained，remainingunaltered，thewagesoflabourwouldnotbeaffected。###第4章But，infact，thatfundwouldberatherincreasedinquantityandratherimprovedinquality。Itwouldbeincreased，because

landpreviouslyemployedasapark，orinfeedingdog\'sandhorses，brharesandpheasants，wouldnowbeemployedin

producingfoodorclothingformen。Itwouldbeimproved，becausetheincreasedproductionofmanufacturedcommodities

wouldoccasionanincreaseddivisionoflabour，theuseofmoreandbettermachinery，andtheotherimprovementswhichwelongagoascertainedtobeitsnecessaryaccompaniments。Onedisadvantage，andoneonly，itappearstomewouldbetheresult。Theabsenteeinagreatmeasureescapesdomestic

taxation。Isayinagreatmeasure，becausehestillremainsliable，ifaproprietorofhousesorofland，tothosetaxeswhich

falluponrent:hepays，too，apartofthetaxesonthematerialsofmanufactures;andifitwereourpolicytotaxincomeor

exportedcommodities，hemightbeforcedtopaytothepublicrevenueevenmorethanhisformerproportion。But，under

ourpresentsystem，whichthrowsthebulkoftaxationoncommoditiesproducedforinternalconsumption，hereceivesthe

greaterpartofhisrevenuewithoutdeduction，and。insteadofcontributingtothesupportoftheBritishGovernment，

contributestosupportthat。ofFranceorItaly。Thisinconvenience，perhaps，aboutbalancestheadvantageswhichIhave

justmentioned，andleavesacommunitywhichexportsonlymanufactures，neitherimpoverishednorenrichedbytheresidenceabroadofitsunproductivemembers。Iought，perhaps，onthisoccasionagaintoremindyou，thatitistowealthandpovertythatmyattentionisconfined。Themoraleffectsofabsenteeismmustneverbeneglectedbyawriterwhoinquiresintothecauseswhichpromotethehappinessofnations，butarewithouttheprovinceofapoliticaleconomist。NordoIregretthat，theyareso，fortheyform

asubjectonwhichitisfarmoredifficulttoobtainsatisfactoryresults。Inonerespect，indeed，themoralquestionisthe

moresimple，asitisnotcomplicatedbytheconsiderationwhetherrawproduceormanufacturesareexported，orwhether

thenon—residentlandlordisabroad，orinsometownwithinhisowncountry。Ifhispresenceistobemorallybeneficialit

mustbehispresenceonhisownestate。Totheinhabitantsofthatestate，theplacetowhichheabsentshimselfis

indifferent。AdamSmithbelievedhisresidencetobemorallyinjurious。Theresidenceofacourt，heobserves（bookii。chap。

3），\'ingeneralmakestheinferiorsortofpeopledissoluteandpoor。Theinhabitantsofalargevillage，afterhavingmade

considerableprogressinmanufactures，havebecomeidleinconsequenceofagreatlordhavingtakenuphisresidencein

theirneighbourhood。\'AndMr。M\'Culloch，whosefidelityandintelligenceasanobservermaybereliedon，states，asthe

resultofhisownexperience，thatinScotlandtheestatesofabsenteesarealmostalwaysthebestmanaged……Much，of

coarse，dependsonindividualcharacter;butIaminclinedtobelievethatingeneralthepresenceofmenoflargefortune。is

morallydetrimental，andthatofmenofmoderatefortunemorallybeneficial，totheirimmediateneighbourhood。Thehabits

ofexpenseandindulgencewhich，indifferentgradations，prevailamongallthe。membersofagreatestablishment，are

mischievousas。examples，andperhapsstillmoresoassourcesofrepininganddiscontent……Thedrawingroomandstable

doharmtotheneighbouringgentry，andthehousekeeper\'sroomandservants\'halltotheir。inferiors。Butfamiliesof。moderateincome，includingunderthattermincomesbetween500l，and2000l，ayear，appeartobeplacedinthestation

mostfavourabletotheacquisitionofmoralanalintellectualexcellence，andtoitsdiffusion。amongtheirassociatesand

dependents。Ihavenodoubtthatawell—regulatedgentleman\'sfamily，removing。theprejudices，soothingthequarrels，

directingandstimulatingtheexertions，andawardingpraiseorblametotheconductofthevillagersroundthem，isamong

themostefficientmeansbywhichthecharacterofaneighbourhoodcanbeimproved……Itisthehappinessofthiscountry，

that。almosteveryparishhasaresidentfittedbyfortuneand，educationfortheseservices;andbound，notmerelyby

feelingsofpropriety，butasamatterofexpressandprofessionalduty，totheirperformance。Thedispersionthroughoutthe

countryofsomanythousandclericalfamilies，eachactinginitsowndistrictasasmallcentreofcivilization，isanadvantagetowhich，perhaps，wehavebeentoolongaccustomedtobeabletoappreciateitsextent。Still，however，Ithinkthateventhemoraleffectsofabsenteeismhavebeenexaggerated。Thosewhodeclaimagainstthe

12，000Englishfamiliessupposedtoberesidentabroad，seemtoforgetthatnotone—half，probablynotonequarter，ofthem，

iftheyweretoreturn，woulddwellanywherebutintowns，wheretheirinfluencewouldbewasted，orprobablynoteven

exerted。WhatdoesitsignifytotheConnaught，orNorthumbrian，orDevonshirepeasant，whetherhislandlordlivesin

Dublin，orLondon，orCheltenham，orRome？Andevenofthosewhowouldresideinthecountry，howmanywould

exercisethatinfluencebeneficially？Howmanywouldbefox—huntersorgame—preservers，orsurroundthemselveswith

dependentswhoseexamplewouldmorethancompensateforthevirtuesoftheirmasters？Nothingcanbemorerashthantopredictthatgoodwouldbetheresultofcauseswhicharequiteascapableofproducingevil。Theeconomicaleffectshavebeenstillmoregenerallymisunderstood;andIhaveoftenbeentemptedtowonderthat

doctrinessoclearasthosewhichIhavebeensubmittingtoyou，shouldbeadmittedwithreluctanceevenbythosewhofeel

theproofstobeunanswerable，andshouldberejectedatoncebyothers，asinvolvingaparadoxtoomonstroustobeworthexamination。Muchofthis，probably，arisesfromaconfusionoftheeconomicalwiththemoralpartofthequestion。Manywritersand

readersofpoliticaleconomyforgetthatwealthonlyiswithintheprovinceofthatscience;andthattheclearestproofthatabsenteeismdiminishesthevirtueorthehappinessof

theremainingmembersofacommunityisnoanswertoargumentswhichaimonlyatprovingthatitdoesnotdiminishtheirwealth。Anothersourceoferrorarisesfromthecircumstance，thatwhenthelandlordispresent，thegainisconcentrated，andthe

lossdiffused;whenheisabsent，thegainisdiffused，andthelossconcentrated。Whenhequitshisestate，wecanputour

fingeronthevillagetradesmanandlabourerwholosehiscustomandemployment。Wecannottracetheincreaseofcustom

andemploymentthatisconsequentlyscatteredamongmillionsofmanufacturers。Whenhereturns，weseethatthe

expenditureof2000l。or3000l。ayearinasmallcirclegiveswealthandspirittoitsinhabitants。Wedonotsee，however

clearlywemayinferit，thatsomuchthelessisexpendedinManchester，Birmingham，orLeeds。Theinhabitantsofhis

villageattributetheirgainandtheirlosstoitscauses;andtheircomplaintsandacknowledgmentsareloudinproportionto

thedegreeinwhichtheyfeeltheirintereststobeaffected。Nosinglemanufacturerisconsciousthattheaverageannual

exportofmorethanfortymillionssterlinghasbeenincreasedordiminishedtotheamountoftwoorthreethousand

pounds。Andevenifawareofthatincreaseordiminution，hewouldnotattributeittotheresidenceinYorkshireorParisof

agivenindividual，ofwhoseexistenceheprobablyisnotaware。Whentoobviousand\'palpableeffectsnothingistobe

opposedbutinferencesdeducedbyalong，thoughperfectlydemonstrativereasoningprocess，noonecandoubtwhichwillprevail，bothwiththeuneducatedandtheeducatedvulgar。Manypersons，also，areperplexedbytheconsideration，thatallthecommoditieswhichareexportedasremittancesofthe

absentee\'sincomeareexportsforwhichnoreturnisobtained;thattheyareasmuchlosttothiscountryasiftheywerea

tributepaidtoa:foreignstate，orevenasiftheywerethrownperiodicallyintothesea。Thisisunquestionablytrue;butit

mustberecollected，thatwhateverisunproductivelyconsumed，is，bytheverytermsoftheproposition，destroyed，without

producinganyreturn。Theonlydifferencebetweenthetwocasesis，thattheresidentlandlordperformsthatdestruction

here;theabsenteeperformsitabroad。Ineithercase，hefirstpurchasestheservicesofthoseWhoproducethethingswhich

heforhisbenefit，notfortheirs，istoconsume。Ifhestayshere，liepaysamantobrushacoat，orcleanapairofboots，or

arrangeatable——allwhichinanhourafterareintheirformercondition。Whenabroad，hepaysanequalsumforthe

productionofneedles，orcalicoes，whicharesentabroad，andequallyconsumedwithoutfurtherbenefittothosewho

producedthem。Theincomeofunproductiveconsumers，howeverpaid。isatribute;andwhethertheyenjoyithereor

elsewhere，istheirownconcern。Weknowthatamancannoteathiscakeandhaveit;anditisequallytruethathecannotsella—cake:toanotherandkeepitforhimself。ThelastcausetowhichIattributetheslowprogressofcorrectopinionsonthissubject，istheirdistastefulnesstothemost

influentialmembersofthecommunity。Nothingcanbemoreflatteringtolandlords，annuitants，mortgagees，and

fundholders，thantobetoldthattheirresidenceisofvitalimportancetothecountry。Nothingcanbemorehumiliatingthan

tobeassuredthatitisutterlyimmaterialtotherestofthecommunitywhethertheyliveinBrighton，orLondon，orParis。

Thosewhoareawarehowmuchourjudgment，eveninmattersofscience，isinfluencedbyourwishes，willnotbe

surprisedatthe。prejudicesagainstadoctrinewhichforbidsthebulkoftheeducatedclasstobelievethatthey\'arebenefactorstotheircountry。bythemereactofresidingwithinitsshores。Imayappear，perhaps，tohavedwelttoomuchonasinglesubject;butnoprevalenterrorcanbeeffectuallyexposeduntil

itsprevalencehasbeenaccountedfor。Andthesearcerrorswhicharetobeheardineverysociety，andoftenfromthose

whosegeneralviewsinpollticaleconomyarecorrect。Theymaybecalledharmlesserrors，butnoerroris，infact，harmless;

andwhenthereissomuchinourhabitsthatreallyrequiresalteration，wemaylosesightoftherealandtheremediable

causesofevil，whileourattentionismisdirectedtoabsenteeism。

LECTUREIII。

POPULARERRORSONTHECAUSESAFFECTINGWAGES，（concluded。）IstatedinthelastLecture，thatthequantityandqualityofthecommoditiesobtainedbyeachlabouringfamilyduringthe

year，mustdependonthequantityandqualityofthecommoditiesdirectlyorindirectlyappropriatedduringtheyeartothe

useofthelabouringpopulation，comparedwiththenumberoflabouringfamilies;or，tospeakmoreconcisely，onthe

extentofthefundforthemaintenanceoflabourers，comparedwiththenumberoflabourerstobemaintained;andI

observed，thatthispropositionisinconsistentwithmanyopinionsentitledtoconsideration。ThreeofthoseopinionsIthenexamined;inthepresentLectureIshallconsidertheremainder。Fourthly。Itisinconsistentwiththedoctrinethatthegeneralrateofwagescan，exceptintwocases，bediminishedbytheintroductionofmachinery。Thetwocasesinwhichtheintroductionofmachinerycanproducesuchaneffect，arefirst，whenlabourisemployedinthe

constructionofmachinery，whichlabourwouldotherwisehavebeenemployedintheproductionofcommoditiesforthe

useoflabourers;and，secondly，whenthemachineitselfconsumescommoditieswhichwouldotherwisehavebeenconsumedbylabourers，andthattoagreaterextentthanitproducesthem。ThefirstcaseisputbyMr。Ricardo，inhischapteronMachinery;butinsodetailedaform，that，insteadofreadingit，Iwill

extractitssubstance，withaslightvariationoftheterms。Hesupposesacapitalisttocarryonthebusinessofa

manufacturerofcommoditiesfortheuseoflabourers;or，touseamoreconciseexpression，thebusinessofamanufacturer

ofwages。Hesupposeshimtohavebeeninthehabitofcommencingeveryyearwithacapitalconsistingofwagesfora

certainnumberoflabourers，whichwecalltwenty—six，andofemployingthatcapitalinhiringtwentymen，toreproduce，

duringtheyear，wagesforthewholetwenty—six，andsixtoproducecommoditiesforhimself。Henowsupposeshimto

employtenofhismenduringayearinproducing，notwages，butamachine，which，withtheaidofsevenmentokeepitin

repairandworkit，willproduceeveryyearwagesforthirteenmen。Attheendoftheyearthecapitalist\'ssituationwouldbe

unaltered:hewouldhavewagesforthirteenmen，theproduceofthelabourofhisothertenmenduringtheyear——andhis

machine，alsotileproduceofthelabouroftenmenduringtheyear，andthereforeofequalvalue。Andhissituationwouldcontinueunaltered。Everyyearhismachinewouldproducewagesforthirteenmen，ofwhomsevenmustbeemployedin

repairingandworkingit，andsixmight，asbefore，beemployedforthebenefitofthecapitalist。Butwehaveseenthat，

duringtheyearinwhichthemachinewasconstructed，onlytenmenwereemployedinproducingwagesinsteadoftwenty，

and，consequently，thatwageswereproducedforonlythirteenmeninsteadoffortwenty—six。Attheendofthatyear，

therefore，thefundforthemaintenanceoflabourwasdiminished，andwagesmustconsequently，havefallen。Itisofgreat

importancetorecollect，thattheonlyreasonforthisfallwasthediminutionoftheannualproduction。Thetwentymen

producedwages。fortwenty—sixmen:themachineproduceswagesforonlythirteen。Thevulgarerroronthissubject

supposestheeviltoarise，notfrom。itstrue—cause，theexpenseofconstructingthemachine，butfromtheproductive

powersofthatmachine。Sofaristhisfrombeingtrue，thatthoseproductivepowersarethespecificbenefitwhichistobe

setagainsttheevilofitsexpensiveness。If，insteadofwagesforthirteenmen，themachinecouldproducewagesforthirty，

itsuse，assoonasitcameintooperation，wouldhaveincreasedinsteadofdiminishingthefundforthemaintenanceof

labour。Thesameeffectwouldhavebeenproduced，ifthemachinecouldhavebeenobtainedwithoutexpense;or，ifthe

capitalist，insteadofbuildingitoutofhiscapital，hadbuiltitoutofhisprofits——if，insteadofwithdrawingtenmenfora

yearfromtheproductionofwages，hehademployedinitsconstruction，duringtwoyears，fiveofthemenwhomheis

supposedtohaveemployedinproducingcommoditiesforhisownuse。Ineithercase，theadditionalproduceobtainedfrom

themachinewouldhavebeenanadditionalfundforthemaintenanceoflabour;andwagesmust，accordingtomyelementaryproposition，haverisen。（3）Ihavethoughtitnecessarytostatethispossibleevilasapartofthetheoryofmachinery，butIamfarfromattachingany

practicalimportancetoit。Idonotbelievethatthereexistsuponrecordasingleinstanceinwhichthewholeannual

producehasbeendiminishedbytheuseofinanimatemachinery。Partlyinconsequenceoftheexpenseofconstructingthe

greaterpartofmachinerybeingdefrayedoutofprofitsorrent，andpartlyinconsequenceofthegreatproportionwhichthe

productivepowersofmachinerybeartotheexpenseofitsconstruction，itsuseisuniformlyaccompaniedbyanenormous

increaseofproduction。Theannualconsumptionofcottonwoolinthiscountry，beforetheintroductionofthespinning

jenny，didnotamountto100，000lbs。;itnowamountsto190，000，000。Sincethepower—loomcameintouse，thequantity

ofcottonclothmanufacturedforhomeconsumptionhasincreasedfrom227，000，000ofyards（theaverageannualamount

betweentheyears1816and1820），to400，000，000ofyards（theannualaveragefrom1824to1828（Huskisson\'sSpeech，

1830）。Thenumberofcopiesofbooksextantatanyoneperiodbeforetheinvention。oftheprinting—press，wasprobably

smallerthanthatwhichisnowproducedinasingleday。Mr。Ricardo\'sproposition，therefore（Princ。474），thattheuseof

machineryfrequentlydiminishesthequantityofthegrossproduceofacountry，is。erroneous，sofarasitdependsonthecasewhichhehassupposed，andofwhichIhavestatedthesubstance。Theotherexception，thatwherethemachineitselfconsumescommoditieswhichwouldotherwisehavebeenconsumedby

labourers，andthattoagreaterextentthanitproducesthem，appliesonlytothecaseofhorsesandworkingcattle，which

maybetermedanimatedmachines。Wewillsupposeafarmertoemployonhisfarmtwentymen，whoproduceannually

theirownsubsistence，andthatofsixothermenproducingcommoditiesfortheuseoftheirmaster。iffivehorses，

consuming，wewillsay，asmuchaseightmen，coulddotheworkoften，itwouldbeworththefarmer\'swhiletosubstitute

themforeightofhismen，ashewouldbeabletoincreasethenumberofpersonswhoworkforhisownbenefitfromsixto

eight。Butafterdeductingthesubsistenceofthehorses，thefundforthemaintenanceoflabourerswouldbereducedfrom

wagesfortwenty—sixmentowagesforeighteen。Icannotrefusetoadmitthatsuchcasesmayexist，ortodeplorethe

miserythatmustaccompanythem。Theyare，infact，nowoccurringinIreland，andareoccasioningmuchofthedistressof

thatcountry。Theyseem，indeed，tobethenaturalaccompanimentsofacertainperiodintheprogressofnational

improvement。Intheearlystagesofsociety，therankandeventhesafetyofthelandedproprietorisprincipallydetermined

bythenumberofhisdependents。Thebestmodeofincreasingthatnumberistoallowtheland，whichhedoesnotoccupy

ashisowndemesne，tobesubdividedintosmalltenements，eachcultivatedbyonefamily，andjustsufficientfortheir

support。Suchtenantscanofcoursepaylittlerent，buttheyarcenabledbytheirabundantleisure，andforcedbytheir

absolutedependence，toswelltheretinue，andaidthepoliticalinfluence，oftheirlandlordinpeace，andtofollowhisbanner

inpublicandprivatewar。CameronofLochiel，whoserentaldidnotexceed500l。ayear，carriedwithhimintotherebellion

of1745，eighthundredmenraisedfromhisowntenantry。Butintheprogressofcivilization，aswealthbecomesthe

principalmeansofdistinctionandinfluence，landownerspreferrenttodependents。Toobtainrent，that。