Distribution，accordingtothemostsuperficialinterpretation，isdistributionofproducts；itisthusremovedfartherfromproductionandmadequasi—independentofit。But，beforedistributionbecomesdistributionofproducts，itis（1）distributionofthemeansofproduction，and（2）（whichisanotheraspectofthesamesituation）distributionofthemembersofsocietyamongthevarioustypesofproduction（thesubsumingoftheindividualsunderdefiniterelationsofproduction）。
Itisevidentthatthedistributionofproductsismerelyaresultofthisdistribution——whichiscomprisedintheproductionprocessanddeterminesthestructureofproduction。Toexamineproductiondivorcedfromthisdistributionwhichisaconstituentpartofit，isobviouslyidleabstraction；whereasconverselythedistributionofproductsisautomaticallydeterminedbythatdistributionwhichformsaprimaryfactorofproduction。Ricardo，theeconomistofproduction_parexcellence_，whoseobjectwastheunderstandingofmodernproductionandofitsdistinctsocialstructure，forthisveryreasondeclaresthatdistribution，_not_production，isthepropersubjectofcontemporarypoliticaleconomy。Thisisawitnesstothebanalityofthoseeconomistswhoproclaimproductionasaneternaltruth，andconfinehistorytothedomainofdistribution。
Thequestionastotherelationbetweenthatformofdistributionthatdeterminesproductionandproductionitself，belongsobviouslytothesphereofproduction。Ifitshouldbesaidthat，inthiscaseatleast，sinceproductionmustproceedfromaspecificdistributionofthemeansofproduction，distributionistothisextentantecedentto，andaprerequisiteof，production，thenthereplywouldbeasfollows。
Productionhasindeeditsconditionsandprerequisiteswhichareconstituentelementsofit。Attheveryoutset，thesemayhaveseemedtobenaturallyevolved。Inthecourseofproduction，however，theyaretransformedfromnaturallyevolvedfactorsintohistoricalones，and，althoughtheymayappearasnaturalpreconditionsforanyoneperiod，theyarethehistoricalresultofanotherperiod。Forexample，theemploymentofmachineryledtochangesinthedistributionofboththemeansofproductionandtheproduct。Modern，large—scalelandedpropertyhasbeenbroughtaboutnotonlybymoderntradeandmodernindustry，butalsobytheapplicationofthelattertoagriculture。
Theabove—mentionedquestionscanbeultimatelyresolvedintothis:whatroledogeneralhistoricalconditionsplayinproductionandtherelationsofproductiontothehistoricaldevelopmentasawhole？Thisquestionclearlybelongstotheanalysisanddiscussionofproduction。
Inthetrivialform，however，inwhichthesequestionshavebeenraisedabove，theycanbedealtwithquitebriefly。Conquestsmayleadtoeitherofthreeresults。
—Theconqueringnationmayimposeitsownmodeofproductionupontheconqueredpeople（thiswasdone，forexample，bytheEnglishinIrelandduringthiscentury，andtosomeextentinIndia）；or，—itmayrefrainfrominterferingintheoldmodeofproductionandbecontentwithtribute（e。g。，TurksandRomans）；or，—interactionmaytakeplacebetweenthetwo，givingrisetoanewsystemasasynthesis（thisoccurredpartlyintheGermanicconquests）。
Inanycase，itisthemodeofproduction——whetherthatoftheconqueringnation，oroftheconquered，orthenewsystembroughtaboutbyamergingofthetwo——thatdeterminesthenewmodeofdistributionemployed。Althoughthelatterappearstobeapreconditionofthenewperiodofproduction，itisinitsturnaresultofproduction，aresultnotsimplyoccassionedbythehistoricalevolutionofproductioningeneral，butbyaspecifichistoricalformofproduction。
TheMongols，forexample，whocauseddevastationinRussia，actedinaccordancewiththeirmodeofproduction（cattlebreeding）forwhichlarge，uninhabitedtractsareafundamentalrequirement。TheGermanicbarbarians，whosetraditionalmodeofproductionwasagriculturewiththeaidofserfs，andwholivedscatteredoverthecountryside，couldmoreeasilyadapttheRomanprovincestotheirrequirementsbecausetheconcentrationoflandedpropertycarriedouttherehadalreadyuprootedtheolderagriculturalrelations。Itisalong—establishedviewthatovercertainepochs，peoplelivedbyplunder。Butinordertobeabletoplunder，theremustbesomethingtobeplundered，andthisimpliesproduction。Moreover，themannerofplunderdependsitselfonthemannerofproduction——e。g。，astock—jobbingnationcannotberobbedinthesamewayasanationofcowherds。
Themeansofproductionmayberobbeddirectlyintheformofslaves。
Butinthatcase，itisnecessarythatthestructureofproductioninthecountrytowhichtheslaveisabductedadmitsofslavelabor，or（asinSouthAmerica，etc。）amodeofproductionappropriatetoslavelaborhastobeevolved。
Lawsmayperpetuateaparticularmeansofproduction——e。g。，land，incertainfamilies。Theselawsacquireeconomicsignificanceonlyiflarge—scalelandedpropertyisinkeepingwiththesocialmodeofproduction——asforinstanceinBritain。AgriculturewascarriedoninFranceonasmallscale，despitetheexistenceoflargeestates，whichwerethereforeparcelledoutbytheRevolution。Butisitpossible（e。g。，bylaw）toperpetuatethedivisionoflandintosmalllots？
Landedpropertytendstobecomeconcentratedagain，despitetheselaws。
Theinfluenceexercisedbylawsonthepreservationofexistingconditionsofdistribution，andtheeffecttheytherebyexertonproductionhastobeexaminedseparately。
（c）Lastly，ExchangeandCirculationCirculationismerelyaparticularphaseofexchange，orofexchangeregardedinitstotality。
Sinceexchangeissimplyanintermediatephasebetweenproductionanddistribution，whichisdeterminedbyproduction，andconsumption；sinceconsumptionismoreoveritselfanaspectofproduction，thelatterobviouslycomprisesalsoexchangeasoneofitsaspects。
Firstly，itisevidentthatexchangeofactivitiesandskills，whichtakesplaceinproductionitself，isadirectandessentialpartofproduction。Secondly，thesameappliestotheexchangeofproductsinsofarasthisexchangeisameanstomanufacturethefinishedproductintendedforimmediateconsumption。Theactionofexchangeinthisrespectiscomprisedintheconceptofproduction。Thirdly，whatisknownasexchangebetweendealeranddealer，bothwithrespecttoitsorganizationandasaproductiveactivity，isentirelydeterminedbyproduction。Exchangeappearstoexistindependentlyalongsideproductionanddetachedfromitonlyinthelaststage，whentheproductisexchangedforimmediateconsumption。But，（1）noexchangeispossiblewithoutdivisionoflabor，whetherthisisnaturallyevolvedorisalreadytheresultofanhistoricalprocess；
（2）privateexchangepresupposesprivateproduction；
（3）theintensityofexchange，itsextentandnature，aredeterminedbythedevelopmentandstructureofproduction——
e。g。，exchangebetweentownandcountry，exchangeinthecountryside，inthetown，etc。Allaspectsofexchangetothisextentappeareithertobedirectlycomprisedinproductionorelsedeterminedbyit。
Theconclusionwhichfollowsfromthisis，notthatproduction，distribution，exchangeandconsumptionareidentical，butthattheyarelinks，orsections，ofasinglewhole，differentaspectofoneunit。
Productionisthedecisivephasebothwithregardtothecontradictoryaspectsofproductionandwithregardtotheotherphases。Theprocessalwaysstartsafreshwithproduction。Thatexchangeandconsumptioncannotbethedecisiveelements，isobvious，andthesameappliestodistributioninthesenseofdistributionofproducts。distributionofthefactorsofproductionthusdeterminesthespecificmodeofconsumption，distribution，exchangeandthe_specificrelationsofthesedifferentphasestooneanother_。Production，_inthenarrowsense_，however，isinitsturnalsodeterminedbytheotheraspects。Forexample，ifthemarket，orthesphereofexchange，expands，thenthevolumeofproductiongrowsandtendstobecomemoredifferentiated。
Productionalsochangesinconsequencetochangesindistribution——
e。g。，concentrationofcapital，differentdistributionofthepopulationintownandcountryside，andthelike。Productionis，finally，determinedbythedemandsofconsumption。Thereisaninteractionbetweenthevariousaspects。Suchinteractiontakesplaceinanyorganicentity。
KarlMarxINTRODUCTIONTO
ACONTRIBUTIONTOACRITIQUEOFPOLITICALECONOMY
WrittenbetweenendofAugustandmiddleSeptember1857。
MarxintendedthistobetheIntroductiontohis_ContributiontoaCritiqueofPoliticalEconomy_（1859），but，ashisPrefacetothatworknotes，hedecidedtoomitit。
Theunfinishedroughdraft，whichwasfoundamongMarx’spapersafterhisdeath。Firstpublished1903，in_DieNeueZeit_。Wouldbecomethefirstmanuscriptinthe_Grundrisse_。
I。PRODUCTION，CONSUMPTION，DISTRIBUTION，EXCHANGE（CIRCULATION）
3。TheMethodofPoliticalEconomyWhenexaminingagivencountryfromthestandpointofpoliticaleconomy，webeginwithitspopulation，thedivisionofthepopulationintoclasses，townandcountry，thesea，thedifferentbranchesofproduction，exportandimport，annualproductionandconsumption，prices，etc。
Itwouldseemtobetheproperthingtostartwiththerealandconcreteelements，withtheactualpreconditions——e。g。，tostartinthesphereofthewholeeconomywithpopulation——whichformsthebasisandthesubjectofthewholesocialprocessofproduction。Closerconsiderationshows，however，thatthisiswrong。Populationisanabstractionif，forinstance，onedisregardstheclassesofwhichitiscomposed。Theseclasses，inturn，remainemptytermsifonedoesnotknowthefactorsonwhichtheydepend——e。g。，wage—labor，capital，andsoon。Thesepresupposeexchange，divisionoflabor，prices，etc。Forexample，capitalwithoutwage—labor，withoutvalue，money，prices，etc。，isnothing。Ifoneweretotakepopulationasthepointofdeparture，itwouldbeaveryvaguenotionofacomplexwholeandthroughcloserdefinition，onewouldarriveanalyticallyatincreasinglysimpleconcepts；fromimaginaryconcreteterms，onewouldmovetomoreandmoretenuousabstractions，untilonereachedthemostsimpledefinition。
Fromthere，itwouldbenecessarytomakethejourneyagainintheoppositedirectionuntilonearrivedoncemoreattheconceptofpopulation，whichisthistimenotavaguenotionofawhole，butatotalitycomprisingmanydeterminationsandrelations。Thefirstcourseisthehistoricalonetakenbypoliticaleconomyattisinception。The17thcenturyeconomists，forexample，alwaystookastheirstarting—pointthelivingorganism，thepopulation，thenation，thestate，severalstates，etc。，butanalysisledthemalways，intheend，tothediscoveryofafewdecisiveabstract，generalrelations（suchasdivisionoflabor，money，andvalue）。Whentheseseparatefactorsweremoreorlessclearlydeducedandestablished，economicsystemswereevolvedwhichfromsimpleconcepts，suchaslabor，divisionoflabor，demand，exchangevalue，advancedtocategorieslikestate，internationalexchangeandworldmarket。Thislatterisobviouslythecorrectscientificmethod。Theconcreteconceptisconcretebecauseitisasynthesisofmanydefinitions，thusrepresentingtheunityofdiverseaspects。Itappears，therefore，inreasoningasasumming—up，aresult，andnotasthestarting—point——althoughitistherealpointoforigin，andthusalsothepointoforiginofperceptionandimagination。
Thefirstprocedureattenuatesmeaningfulimagestoabstractdefinitions；thesecondleadsfromabstractdefinitionsbywayofreasoningtothereproductionoftheconcretesituation。Hegelaccordinglyconceivedtheillusoryideathattherealworldistheresultofthinking，whichcausesitsownsynthesis，itsowndeepening，anditsownmovement；whereasthemethodofadvancingfromtheabstracttotheconcreteissimplythewayinwhichthinkingassimilatestheconcreteandreproducesitasaconcretementalcategory。Thisis，however，bynomeanstheprocessofevolutionoftheconcreteworlditself。Forexample，thesimplesteconomiccategory——e。g。，exchangevalue——presupposespopulation，apopulationmoreoverwhichproducesunderdefiniteconditions，aswellasadistinctkindoffamily，orcommunity，orstate，etc。Exchangevaluecannotexistexceptasanabstract，_unilateral_relationofanalreadyexistingconcreteorganicwhole。Butexchangevalueasacategoryleadsanantediluvianexistence。Thus，toconsciousness——andthiscomprisesphilosophicalconsciousness——whichregardsthecomprehendingmindastherealman，andhencethecomprehendedworldassuchastheonlyrealworld；toconsciousness，therefore，theevolutionofcategoriesappearsastheactualprocessofproduction——which，unfortunately，isgivenanimpulsefromoutside——whoseresultistheworld；andthis（whichishoweveragainatautologicalexpression）istrueinsofarastheconcretetotalityregardedasaconceptualmentaltotality，asamentalfact，isindeedaproductofthinking，ofcomprehension；butitisbynomeansaproductoftheideawhichevolvesspontaneouslyandwhothinkproceedsoutsideandaboveperceptionandimagination，butistheresultoftheassimilationandtransformationofperceptionsandimagesintoconcepts。Thetotalityasaconceptualentityseenbytheintellectisaproductofthethinkingintellect，whichassimilatestheworldintheonlywayopentoit，awaywhichdiffersfromtheartistic，religiousandpracticallyintelligentassimilationoftheworld。Theconcretesubjectremainsoutsidetheintellectandindependentofit——thatis，solongastheintellectadoptsapurelyspeculative，purelytheoreticalattitude。Thesubject，society，mustalwaysbeenvisagedthereforeasthepreconditionofcomprehension，evenwhenthetheoreticalmethodisemployed。
Buthavenotthesesimplecategoriesalsoanindependenthistoricalornaturalexistenceprecedingthatofthemoreconcreteones？Thisdepends。Hegel，forexample，correctlytakesownership——thesimplestlegalrelationofthesubject——asthepointofdepartureofthephilosophyoflaw。Noownershipexists，however，beforethefamilyortherelationsofmasterandservantareevolved，andthesearemuchmoreconcreterelations。Itwould，ontheotherhand，becorrecttosaythatfamiliesandentiretribesexistwhichhaveasyetonly_possessions_
andnot_property_。Thesimplercategoryappears，thus，asarelationofsimplefamilyortribalcommunitiestoproperty。Insocietieswhichhavereachedahigherstage，thecategoryappearsasacomparativelysimplerelationexistinginamoreadvancedcommunity。Theconcretesubstratumunderlyingtherelationofownershipis，however，alwayspresupposed。Onecanconceiveanindividualsavagewhohaspossessions；
possessioninthiscase，however，isnotalegalrelation。Itisincorrectthatinthecourseofhistoricaldevelopmentpossessiongaverisetothefamily。Onthecontrary，possessionalwayspresupposesthis\"moreconcretecategory\"。Onemay，nevertheless，concludethatthesimplecategoriesrepresentrelationsorconditionswhichmayreflecttheimmatureconcretesituationwithoutasyetpositingthemorecomplexrelationorconditionwhichisconceptuallyexpressedinthemoreconcretecategory；ontheotherhand，thesamecategorymayberetainedasasubordinaterelationinmoredevelopedconcretecircumstances。
Moneymayexistandhasexistedinhistoricaltimebeforecapital，banks，wage—labor，etc。，cameintobeing。Inthisrespect，itcanbesaidthatthesimplercategoryexpressesrelationsinamoreadvancedentity；relationswhichalreadyexistedhistoricallybeforetheentityhaddevelopedtheaspectsexpressedinamoreconcretecategory。Theprocedureofabstractreasoningwhichadvancesfromthesimplesttomorecomplexconceptstothatextentconformstoactualhistoricaldevelopment。
Itistrue，ontheotherhand，thattherearecertainhighly—developed（butneverthelesshistoricallyimmature）socialformationswhichemploysomeofthemostadvancedeconomicforms——e。g。，cooperation，developeddivisionoflabor，etc。——withouthavingdevelopedanymoneyatall——
forinstance，Peru。InSlavoniccommunities，too，money——andit’sprecondition，exchange——isoflittleornoimportancewithintheindividualcommunity，butisusedontheborderswherecommercewithothercommunitiestakesplace；anditisaltogetherwrongtoassumethatexchangewithinthecommunityisanoriginalconstituentelement。Onthecontrary，inthebeginningexchangetendstoariseintheintercourseofdifferentcommunitieswithoneanother，ratherthanamongmembersofthesamecommunity。Moreover，althoughmoneybeginstoplayaconsiderableroleveryearlyandindiverseways，itisknowntohavebeenadominantfactorinantiquityonlyamongnationsdevelopedinaparticulardirection——i。e。，merchantnations。EvenamongGreeksandRomans（themostadvancednationsofantiquity）moneyreachesitsfulldevelopment，whichispresupposedinmodernbourgeoissociety，onlyintheperiodoftheirdisintegration。Thefullpotentialofthisquitesimplecategorythusemergeshistoricallynotinthemostadvancedphasesofsociety，anditcertainlydoesnotpenetrateintoalleconomicrelations。Forexample:taxesinkindanddeliveriesinkindremainedthebasisoftheRomanempireevenattheheightofitsdevelopment；
indeed，acompletely—evolvedmonetarysystemexistedinRomeonlyinthearmy，anditneverpermeatedthewholecomplexoflabor。Althoughthesimplercategory，therefore，mayhaveexistedhistoricallybeforethemoreconcretecategory，itscompleteintensiveandextensivedevelopmentcanneverthelessoccurinacomplexsocialformation，whereasthemoreconcretecategorymayhavebeenfullyevolvedinamoreprimitivesocialformation。
Laborseemstobeaverysimplecategory。Thenotionoflaborinthisuniversalform（aslaboringeneral）isalsoextremelyold。
Nevertheless，\"labor\"inthissimplicityiseconomicallyconsideredjustasmodernacategoryastherelationswhichgiverisetothissimpleabstraction。TheMonetarySystem，forexample，stillregardswealthquiteobjectivelyasathingexistingindependentlyintheshapeofmoney。Comparedwiththisstandpoint，itwasasubstantialadvancewhenthemanufacturingorMercantilesystemtransferredthesourceofwealthfromtheobjecttothesubjectiveactivity——mercantileorindustriallabor——butitstillconsideredthatonlythiscircumscribedactivityitselfproducedmoney。Incontrasttothissystem，thePhysiocratsassumethataspecificforoflabor——agriculture——createswealth，andtheyseetheobjectnolongerintheguiseofmoney，butasaproductingeneral，astheuniversalresultoflabor。Inaccordancewiththestillcircumscribedactivity，theproductremainsanaturallydevelopedproduct，anagriculturalproduct，aproductoftheland_parexcellence_。
ItwasanimmenseadvancewhenAdamSmithrejectedallrestrictionswithregardtotheactivitythatproduceswealth——forhim，itwaslaborassuch，neithermanufacturing，norcommercial，noragriculturallabor，butallofthem。Theabstractuniversalitywhichcreateswealthimpliesalsotheuniversalityoftheobjectsdefinedaswealth:theyareproductsassuch，oroncemorelaborassuch，butinthiscasepast，materializedlabor。HowdifficultandimmenseatransitionthatwasisdemonstratedbythefactthatAdamSmithhimselfoccassionallyrelapsesoncemoreintothePhysiocraticsystem。Itmightseemthatinthiswaymerelyanabstractexpressionwasfoundforthesimplestandmostancientrelationinwhichhumanbeingsactasproducers——irrespectiveofthetypeofsocietytheylivein。Thisistrueinonerespect，butnotinanother。
Thefactthatthespecifickindoflaborisirrelevantpresupposesahighly—developedcomplexofactuallyexistingkindsoflabor——noneofwhichisanymoretheall—importantone。Themostgeneralabstractionsariseonthewholeonlywhenconcretedevelopmentismostprofuse，sothataspecificqualityisseentobecommontomanyphenomena，orcommontoall。Thenitisnolongerperceivedsolelyinaparticularform。Thisabstractionoflaboris，ontheotherhand，bynomeanssimplytheconceptualresultantofavarietyofexistingconcretetypesoflabor。Thefactthattheparticularkindoflaboremployedisimmaterialisappropriatetoaformofsocietyinwhichindividualseasilypassfromonetypeoflabortoanother，theparticulartypeoflaborbeingaccidentaltothemandthereforeirrelevant。Labor，notonlyasacategorybutinreality，hasbecomeameanstocreatewealthingeneral，andhasceasedtobetiedasanattributetoaparticularindividual。ThisstateofaffairsismostpronouncedintheUnitedStates，themostmodernformofbourgeoissociety。Theabstractcategory\"labor\"，\"laborassuch\"，labor_sansphrase_，thepointofdepartureinmoderneconomics，thusbecomesapracticalfactonlythere。
Thesimplestabstraction，whichplaysadecisiveroleinmodernpoliticaleconomy，anabstractionwhichexpressesanancientrelationexistinginallsocialformations，neverthelessappearstobeactuallytrueinthisabstractformonlyasacategoryofthemostmodernsociety。ItmightbesaidthatphenomenawhicharehistoricalproductsintheUnitedStates——e。g。，theirrelevanceoftheparticulartypeoflabor——appeartobeamongtheRussians（forinstance）naturallydevelopedpredispositions。Butinthefirstplace，thereisanenormousdifferencebetweenbarbarianshavingapredispositionwhichmakesitpossibletoemploytheminvarioustasks，andcivilizedpeoplewhoapplythemselvestovarioustasks。AsregardstheRussians，moreover，theirindifferencetotheparticularkindoflaborperformedisinpracticematchedbytheirtraditionalhabitofclingingfasttoverydefinitekindoflaborfromwhichtheyareextricatedonlybyexternalinfluences。
Theexamplesoflaborstrikinglydemonstrateshoweventhemostabstractcategories（despitetheirvalidityinallepochs）——preciselybecausetheyareabstractions——areequallyaproductofhistoricalconditionseveninthespecificformofabstractions，andtheyretaintheirfullvalidityonlyforandwithintheframeworkoftheseconditions。
Bourgeoissocietyisthemostadvancedandcomplexhistoricalorganizationofproduction。Thecategorieswhichexpressitsrelations，andanunderstandingofitsstructure，therefore，provideandaninsightintothestructureandtherelationsofproductionofallformerlyexistingsocialformationstheruinsandcomponentelementsofwhichwereusedinthecreationofbourgeoissociety。Someoftheseassimilatedremainsarestillcarriedonwithinbourgeoissociety；
others，however，whichpreviouslyexistedonlyinrudimentaryform，havebeenfurtherdevelopedandhaveattainedtheirfullsignificance，etc。
Theanatomyofmanisakeytotheanatomyoftheape。Ontheotherhand，rudimentsofmoreadvancedformsinthelowerspeciesofanimalscanonlybeunderstoodwhenthemoreadvancedformsarealreadyknown。
Bourgeoiseconomythusprovidesakeytotheeconomyofantiquity，etc。，butitisquiteimpossible[togainthisinsight]inthemannerofthoseeconomistswhoobliterateallhistoricaldifferencesandwhoseeinallsocialphenomenononlybourgeoisphenomenon。Ifoneonlyknowsrent，itispossibletounderstandtribute，etc。，buttheydonothavetobetreatedasidentical。
Sincebourgeoissocietyis，moreover，onlyacontradictoryformofdevelopment，itcontainsrelationsofearliersocietiesoftenmerelyinverystuntedform，orevenintheformoftravesties——e。g。，communalownership。Thus，althoughitistruethatthecategoriesofbourgeoiseconomyarevalidforallothersocialformations，thishastobetaken_cumgranosalis_，fortheymaycontaintheminanadvanced，stunted，caricatured，etc。，form——thatis，alwayswithsubstantialdifferences。
Whatiscalledhistoricalevolutiondepends，ingeneral，onthefactthatthelatestformregardsearlieronesasstagesinthedevelopmentofitself，andconceivesthemalwaysinaone—sidedmanner——sinceonlyrarely，andunderquitespecialconditions，isasocietyabletoadoptacriticalattitudetowardsitself。Inthiscontext，wearenot，ofcourse，discussinghistoricalperiodswhichthemselvesbelievethattheyareperiodsofdecline。TheChristianreligionwasabletocontributetoanobjectiveunderstandingofearliermythologiesonlywhenitsself—criticismwas，toacertainextent，prepared，asitwerepotentially。Similarly，onlywhentheself—criticismofbourgeoissocietyhadbegun，wasbourgeoispoliticaleconomyabletounderstandthefeudal，ancient，andorientaleconomies。Insofarasbourgeoispoliticaleconomydidnotsimplyidentifyitselfwiththepastinamythologicalmanner，itscriticismofearliereconomies——especiallyofthefeudalsystemagainstwhichitstillhadtowageadirectstruggle——resembledthecriticismthatChristianitydirectedagainstheathenism，orwhichProtestantismdirectedagainstCatholicism。
Justas，ingeneral，whenexamininganyhistoricalperiodorsocialscience，soalsointhecaseofthedevelopmentofeconomiccategoriesisitalwaysnecessarytorememberthatthesubject（inthiscontext，contemporarybourgeoissociety）ispresupposedbothinrealityandinthemind，andthatthereforecategoriesexpressformsofexistenceandconditionsofexistence（andsometimesmerelyseparateaspects）ofthisparticularsociety，thesubject；thusthecategory，_evenfromthescientificstandpoint_，bynomeansbeginsatthemomentwhenitisdiscussed_assuch_。Thishastoberemembered，becauseitprovidesimportantcriteriaforthearrangementofthematerial。Forexample，nothingseemsmorenaturalthantobeginwithrent——i。e。，landedproperty，sinceitisassociatedwiththeearth，thesourceofallproductionandalllife——andagriculture，thefirstformofproductioninallsocietiesthathaveattainedameasureofstability。Butnothingwouldbemoreerroneous。Thereis，ineverysocialformation，abranchofproductionwhichdeterminesthepositionandimportanceofallothers；andtherelationsobtaininginthisbranchaccordinglydeterminetherelationsofallotherbranches，aswell。Itisasthoughlightofaparticularhuewerecastuponeverything，tingingallothercolorsandmodifyingtheirspecialfeatures；orasifaspecialetherdeterminedthespecificgravityofeverythingfoundinit。Letustake，asanexample，pastoraltribes。（Tribeslivingexclusivelyonhuntingorfishingarebeyondtheboundarylinefromwhichrealdevelopmentbegins。）Acertaintypesofagriculturalactivityoccursamongthem，andthisdetermineslandownership。Itiscommunalownershipandretainsthisforminalargerorsmallermeasure，accordingtothedegreetowhichthesepeoplemaintaintheirtraditions——e。g。，communalownershipamongtheSlavs。Amongsettledagriculturalpeople——settledalreadytoalargeextent——whereagriculturepredominated，asinsocietiesofantiquityandthefeudalperiod，evenmanufacture（itsstructureandtheformsofpropertycorrespondingthereto）have，insomemeasure，specificallyagrarianfeatures。Manufactureiseithercompletelydependentonagriculture，asintheearlierRomanperiod，orasintheMiddleAges，itcopiesinthetownandinitsconditionstheorganizationofthecountryside。EvenintheMiddleAges，capital——
unlessitwassolelymoneycapital——consistedofthetraditionaltools，etc。，andretainedaspecificallyagrariancharacter。Thereversetakesplaceinbourgeoissociety。Agriculture，toanincreasingextent，becomesjustabranchofindustryandiscompletelydominatedbycapital。Thesameappliestorent。Inallformsinwhichlandedpropertyisthedecisivefactor，naturalrelationsstillpredominate；intheformsinwhichthedecisivefactoriscapital，social，historically—evolvedelementspredominate。Rentcannotbeunderstoodwithcapital，butcapitalcanbeunderstoodwithoutrent。Capitalistheeconomicpowerthatdominateseverythinginbourgeoissociety。Itmustformboththepointofdepartureandtheconclusionandithastobeexpoundedbeforelandedproperty。Afteranalyzingcapitalandlandedpropertyseparately，theirinterconnectionmustbeexamined。
Itwouldbeinexpedientandwrongthereforetopresenttheeconomiccategoriessuccessivelyintheorderinwhichtheyhaveplayedthedominantroleinhistory。Onthecontrary，theirorderofsuccessionisdeterminedbytheirmutualrelationinmodernbourgeoissocietyandthisisquitethereverseofwhatappearstobenaturaltothem，orinaccordancewiththesequenceofhistoricaldevelopment。Thepointatissueisnottherolethatvariouseconomicrelationshaveplayedinthesuccessionofvarioussocialformationsappearinginthecourseofhistory；evenlessisittheirsequence\"asconcepts\"（Proudhon）（anebulousnotionofthehistoricalprocess），buttheirpositionwithinmodernbourgeoissociety。
Itispreciselythepredominanceofagriculturalpeopleintheancientworldwhichcausedthemerchantnations——Phoenicians，Carthaginians——
todevelopinsuchpurity（abstractprecision）intheancientworld。
Forcapitalintheshapeofmerchantormoneycapitalappearsintheabstractformwherecapitalhasnotyetbecomethedominantfactorinsociety。LombardsandJewsoccupiedthesamepositionwithregardtomediaevalagrariansocieties。
Anotherexampleofthevariousroleswhichthesamecategorieshaveplayedatdifferentstagesofsocietyarejoint—stockcompanies，oneofthemostrecentfeaturesofbourgeoissociety；buttheyarisealsoinitsearlyperiodintheformoflargeprivilegedcommercialcompanieswithrightsofmonopoly。
Theconceptofnationalwealthfindsitswayintotheworksoftheeconomistsofthe17thcenturyasthenotionthatwealthiscreatedforthestate，whosepower，ontheotherhand，isproportionaltothiswealth——anotionwhichtosomeextentstillsurvivesevenamong18thcenturyeconomists。Thisisstillanunintentionallyhypocriticalmannerinwhichwealthandtheproductionofwealthareproclaimedtobethegoalofmodernstates，andproductionitselfisregardedsimplyasameansforproducingwealth。
Thedispositionofmaterialhasevidentlytobemadeinsuchawaythat[section]
One—comprisesgeneralabstractdefinitions，which，therefore，appertaininsomemeasuretoallsocialformations，butinthesensesetforthearlier。
Two—thecategorieswhichconstitutetheinternalstructureofbourgeoissocietyandonwhichtheprincipalclassesarebased。Townandcountry。Thethreelargesocialclasses；
exchangesbetweenthem。Circulation。The（private）creditsystem。
Three—thestateastheepitomeofbourgeoissociety。Analysisofitsrelationstoitself。The\"unproductive\"classes。Taxes。
Nationaldebt，publiccredit，Population，Colonies，Emigration。
Four—internationalconditionsofproduction。Internationaldivisionoflabor。Internationalexchange。Exportandimport。Rateofexchange。
Five—worldmarketandcrises。
KarlMarxINTRODUCTIONTO
ACONTRIBUTIONTOACRITIQUEOFPOLITICALECONOMY
WrittenbetweenendofAugustandmiddleSeptember1857。
MarxintendedthistobetheIntroductiontohis_ContributiontoaCritiqueofPoliticalEconomy_（1859），but，ashisPrefacetothatworknotes，hedecidedtoomitit。
Theunfinishedroughdraft，whichwasfoundamongMarx’spapersafterhisdeath。Firstpublished1903，in_DieNeueZeit_。Wouldbecomethefirstmanuscriptinthe_Grundrisse_。
I。PRODUCTION，CONSUMPTION，DISTRIBUTION，EXCHANGE（CIRCULATION）
4。ProductionMeansofProductionandConditionsofProduction。ConditionsofProductionandCommunication。PoliticalformsandFormsofCognitioninRelationtotheConditionsofProductionandCommunication。LegalRelations。FamilyRelations。
Notesregardingpointswhichhavetobementionedinthiscontextandshouldnotbeforgotten。
1。_War_develops[certainfeatures]earlierthanpeace；thewayinwhich——asaresultofwar，andinthearmies，etc。——certaineconomicconditions——e。g……wage—labor，machinery，etc。——wereevolvedearlierthanwithincivilsociety。therelationsbetweenproductivepowerandconditionsofcommunicationarelikewiseparticularlyobviousintheArmy。
2。Therelationofthehithertoexistingidealistichistoriographytorealistichistoriography。Inparticularwhatisknownashistoryofcivilization，theoldhistoryofreligionandstates。
（Thevariouskindsofhistoriographyhithertoexistingcouldalsobediscussedinthiscontext；theso—calledobjective，subjective（moralandothers），philosophical[historiography]。）
3。Secondaryandtertiaryphenomena，ingeneral_derived_andtransmitted_，i。e。，non—primary，conditionsofproduction。Theinfluenceofinternationalrelations。
4。Reproachesaboutthematerialismofthisconception:relationtonaturalisticmaterialism。
5。Dialecticsoftheconceptsproductivepower（meansofproduction）andrelationsofproduction；thelimitsofthisdialecticalconnection，whichdoesnotabolishtherealdifferences，havetobedefined。
6。Theunequaldevelopmentofmaterialproductionand，e。g……，thatofart。Theconceptofprogressisonthewholenottobeunderstoodintheusualabstractform。Modernart，etc。Thisdisproportionisnotasimportantanddifficulttograspaswithinconcretesocialrelations——e。g……，ineducation。RelationsoftheUnitedStatestoEurope。However，thereallydifficultpointtobediscussedhereishowtherelationsofproductionaslegalrelationstakepartinthisunevendevelopment。Forexample，therelationsofRomancivillaw（thisappliesinsmallermeasuretocriminalandconstitutionallaw）
tomodernproduction。
7。Thisconceptappearstobeaninevitabledevelopment。Butvindicationofchance。How？（Freedom，etc。，aswell。）（Influenceofthemeansofcommunication。Worldhistorydidnotalwaysexist；
historyasworldhistoryisaresult。）
8。Thestarting—pointisofcoursethenaturallydeterminedfactors；
bothsubjectiveandobjective。Tribes，race，etc。
Asregardsart，itiswellknownthatsomeofitspeaksbynomeanscorrespondtothegeneraldevelopmentofsociety；nordotheythereforetothematerialsubstructure，theskeletonasitwereofitsorganization。Forexample，theGreekscomparedwithmodern[nations]，orelseShakespeare。Itisevenacknowledgedthatcertainbranchesofart——e。g……，the_epos_——cannolongerbeproducedintheirepoch—makingclassicformafterartisticproductionassuchhasbegun；
inotherwords，thatcertainimportantcreationswithinthecompassofartareonlypossibleatanearlystageinthedevelopmentofart。Ifthisisthecasewithregardtodifferentbranchesofartwithinthesphereofartitself，itisnotsoremarkablethatthiscouldalsobethecasewithregardtotheentiresphereofartanditsrelationtothegeneraldevelopmentofsociety。Thedifficultyliesonlyinthegeneralformulationofthesecontradictions。Assoonastheyarereducedtospecificquestionstheyarealreadyexplained。
Letustake，forexample，therelationofGreekart，andthatofShakespeare，tothepresenttime。WeknowthatGreekmythologyisnotonlythearsenalofGreekart，butalsoitsbasis。IstheconceptionofnatureandofsocialrelationswhichunderliesGreekimaginationandthereforeGreek[art]possiblewhenthereareself—actingmules，railways，locomotivesandelectrictelegraphs？WhatisaVulcancomparedwithRobertsandCo。，Jupitercomparedwiththelightningconductor，andHermescomparedwiththe_Creditmobilier_？Allmythologysubdues，controls，andfashionstheforcesofnatureintheimaginationandthroughimagination；itdisappears，therefore，whenrealcontrolovertheseforcesisestablished。WhatbecomesofFamaside—by—sidewithPrintingHouseSquare？GreekartpresupposedGreekmythology，inotherwordsthatnaturalandsocialphenomenaarealreadyassimilatedinanunintentionallyartisticmannerbytheimaginationofthepeople。ThisisthematerialofGreekart，notjustanymythology——i。e。，noteveryunintentionallyartisticmannerbytheimaginationofnature（herethetermcomprisesallphysicalphenomena，includingsociety）；Egyptianmythologycouldneverbecomethebasisof，orgiveriseto，Greekart。
Butatanyrate[itpresupposes]amythology；onnoaccount，however，asocialdevelopmentwhichprecludesamythologicalattitudetowardsnature——i。e。，anyattitudetonaturewhichmightgiverisetomyth；asocietythereforedemandingfromtheartistanimaginationindependentofmythology。
Regardedfromanotheraspect:isAchillespossiblewhenpowderandshothavebeeninvented？AndistheIliadpossibleatallwhentheprintingpressandevenprintingmachineexist？Isitnotinevitablethatwiththeemergenceofthepress，thesingingandthetellingandthemusecease——thatistheconditionsnecessaryforepicpoetrydisappear？
Thedifficultyweareconfrontedwithisnot，however，thatofunderstandinghowGreekartandepicpoetryareassociatedwithcertainformsofsocialdevelopment。Thedifficultyisthattheystillgiveusaestheticpleasureandareincertainrespectsregardedasastandardandunattainableideal。
Anadultcannotbecomeachildagain，orhebecomeschildish。Butdoesthenaiveteofthechildnotgivehimpleasure，anddoesnothehimselfendeavortoreproducethechild’sveracityonahigherlevel？Doesnotineveryepochthechildrepresentthecharacteroftheperiodinitsnaturalveracity？Whyshouldnotthehistoricalchildhoodofhumanity，whereitattaineditsmostbeautifulform，exertaneternalcharmbecauseitisastagethatwillneverrecur？Therearerudechildrenandprecociouschildren。Manyoftheancientpeoplesbelongtothiscategory。TheGreekswerenormalchildren。Thecharmtheirarthasforusdoesnotconflictwiththeimmaturestageofthesocietyinwhichitoriginated。Onthecontrary，itscharmisaconsequenceofthisandisinseparablylinkedwiththefactthattheimmaturesocialconditionswhichgaverise，andwhichalonecouldgiverise，tothisartcannotrecur。