第1章

THEincreaseofthetownsofManhattan，as，forthesakeofconvenience，weshalltermNewYorkandheradjuncts，inallthatcontributestotheimportanceofagreatcommercialmart，rendersthemoneofthemostremarkableplacesofthepresentage。Withinthedistinctrecollectionsoflivingmen，theyhavegrownfromacityofthefifthorsixthclasstobeneartheheadofallthepurelytradingplacesoftheknownworld。Thattherearesufficientcausesforthisunparalleledprosperity，willappearintheanalysisofthenaturaladvantagesoftheport，initsposition，security，accessories，andscale。

TheStateofNewYorkhadbeensteadilyadvancinginpopulation，resources，andpower，eversincethepeaceof1785。AtthattimeitborebutasecondaryrankamongwhatwerethenconsideredthegreatStatesoftheConfederacy。Massachusetts，properandsingly，thenoutnumberedus，whileNewEngland，collectively，musthavehadsomesixorseventimesourpeople。Averyfewyearsofpeace，however，broughtmaterialchanges。In1790，theyearinwhichthefirstcensusunderthelawofCongresswastaken，theStatealreadycontained340，120souls，whileNewEnglandhadafewmorethanamillion。Itisworthyofremarkthat，sixtyyearssince，theentireStatehadbutlittlemorethanhalfofthepopulationoftheManhattanesetownsatthepresentmoment！Eachsucceedingcensusdiminishedtheseproportions，untilthatofl830，whenthereturnfortheStateofNewYorkgave1，372，812，andforNewEngland1，954，709。Atthistime，andforaconsiderableperiodprecedingandsucceedingit，itwasfoundthattheproportionbetweenthepeopleoftheStateofNewYorkandthepeopleofthecity，wasaboutastentoone。

Between1830and1840，theformerhadsofarincreasedinnumbersastopossessasmanypeopleasALLNewEngland。Inthenextdecade，thisproportionwasexceeded；andthelatereturnsshowthatNewYork，singly，haspassedaheadofallherenterprisingneighborsinthatsectionoftheUnion。Atthesametime，theoldproportionbetweentheStateandthetown——or，tobemoreaccurate，theTOWNSontheBayofNewYorkanditswaters——hasbeenentirelylost，fivetoonebeingnearthetruthatthepresentmoment。Itiseasytoforeseethatthetimeisnotverydistantwhentwotoonewillbemaintainedwithdifficulty，asbetweentheStateanditscommercialcapital。

Boldastheforegoingpredictionmayseem，thefactsofthelasthalfcenturywill，wethink，justifyit。IftheManhattantowns，orManhattan，asweshallnotscrupletotermtheseveralplacesthatcomposetheprosperoussisterhoodatthemouthoftheHudson——anamethatismoreancientandbetteradaptedtothehistory，associations，andconvenienceoftheplacethananyother——continuetoprosperastheyhavedone，erethecloseofthepresentcenturytheywilltaketheirstationamongthecapitalsofthefirstrank。Itmayrequirealongerperiodtocollecttheaccessoriesofafirst—classplace，forthesearetheproductsoftimeandcultivation；thoughthefacilitiesofintercourse，thespiritoftheage，andtheequalizingsentimentthatmarksthecivilizationoftheepoch，willgreatlyhasteneverythingintheshapeofimprovement。

NewYorkwillprobablyneverpossessanychurchesofanarchitecturetoattractattentionfortheirmagnitudeandmagnificence。Thepolicyofthecountry，whichseparatesreligionfromthestate，precludesthis，byconfiningalltheexpendituresofthisnaturetotheseveralparishes，fewofwhicharerichenoughtodomorethanerectedificesofmoderatedimensionsandcost。TheRomishChurch，somuchaddictedtoaddressingthesenses，manifestssomedesiretoconstructitscathedrals，buttheyarenecessarilyconfinedtothelimitsandornamentssuitedtotheresourcesofabranchofthechurchthat，inthiscountry，isbynomeansaffluent。ThemannerinwhichtheAmericansaresubdividedintosectsalsoconflictswithanycommendabledesirethatmayexisttobuildglorioustemplesinhonoroftheDeity：

andconvenienceismoreconsultedthantaste，perhaps，inallthatrelatestoecclesiasticalarchitecture。Nevertheless，asensibleimprovementinthisrespecthasoccurredwithinthelastfewyears，towhichweshallelsewhereadvert。

Itwillbeintheirtrade，theirresources，theiractivity，andtheirinfluenceontherestoftheworld，aswellasintheirpopulation，thatthetownsofManhattanwillbefirstentitledtorankwiththelargercapitalsofEurope。Soobvious，rapid，andnaturalhasbeentheadvanceofalltheplaces，thatitisnoteasyforthemindtoregardanythingbelongingtothemasextraordinary，oroutofrule。ThereisnotaportinthewholecountrythatislessindebtedtoartandthefosteringhandofGovernmentthanthis。Itistrue，certainforts，mostofthemofverydoubtfulnecessity，havebeenconstructedfordefence；butnoattackhavingeverbeencontemplated，or，ifcontemplated，attempted，theyhavebeendeadlettersinthehistoryofitsprogress。WearenotawarethatGovernmenthaseverexpendedonecentinthewatersofManhattan，exceptforthesurveys，constructionoftheaforesaidmilitaryworks，andtheerectionofthelighthouses，thatformapartofthegeneralprovisionforthesafenavigationoftheentirecoast。SomemoneyhasbeenexpendedfortheimprovementoftheshallowwatersoftheHudson；

butithasbeenasmuch，ormore，fortheadvantageoftheuppertowns，andthetradecoastwise，generally，thanforthespecialbenefitofNewYork。

TheimmensenaturaladvantagesofthebaysandislandsatthemouthoftheHudsonhave，inagreatdegree，supersededthenecessityofsuchassistance。Naturehasmadeeverymaterialprovisionforamartofthefirstimportance：andperhapsithasbeenfortunatethatthetownshavebeenleft，likehealthfulandvigorouschildren，managedbyprudentparents，totaketheinclinationandgrowthpointedouttothembythissafestandbestofguides。

Londonisindebtedtoartificialcauses，inagreatdegree，foritsgrowthandpower。Thatgreatlawoftrade，whichrenderssettlingplacesindispensable，hascontributedtoherprosperityandcontinuedascendency，longafterthedaywhenrivalportsarecarryingawayherfleetsandcommerce。Sheisaproofofthedifficultyofshakingacommercialsuperioritylongestablished。

Scarceacargothatenterstheportsofthekingdomthatdoesnotpaytributetoherbankersormerchants。ButLondonisapoliticalcapital，andthatinacountrywheretherepresentationoftheGovernmentismoreimposing，possessinggreaterinfluence，thaninanyotherChristiannation。TheEnglisharistocracy，whichwieldstherealauthorityofthestate，heremakesitsannualexhibitionofluxuryandwealth，suchastheworldhasneverbeheldanywhereelse，ancientRomepossiblyexcepted，andhashadalargeshareinrenderingLondonwhatitis。

NewYorkhasnoneofthisadventitiousaid。BothoftheGovernments，thatoftheUnitedStatesandthatoftheState，havelongbeentakenfromher，leavinghernothingofthissortbutherownlocalauthorities。ButrepresentationformsnopartofthemachineryofAmericanpolicy。Itissupposedthatmanistoointellectualandphilosophicaltoneedit，inthisintellectualandphilosophicalcountry，PAREXCELLENCE。Althoughsuchisthetheory，thewholestruggleinprivatelifeislimitedtotheimpressionmadebyrepresentationinthehandsofindividuals。ThatwhichtheGovernmenthasimprovidentlycastaside，societyhasseizedupon：andhundredswhohavenoclaimtodistinctionbeyondthepossessionofmoney，profitbythemistaketoplacethemselvesinpositionsperhapsthattheyarenotalwaysexactlyqualifiedtofill。Ofallsocialusurpations，thatofmeremoneyistheleasttolerable——asonemayhaveaveryfullpursewithemptybrainsandvulgartastesandhabits。Thewisdomofthusthrowingthecontrolofafeatureofsociety，thatisofmuchmoremomentthaniscommonlysupposed，intothechapterofcommercialaccidentsmaywellhequestionedSomecrudeattemptshavebeenmadetobringthecirclesofNewYorkwithinthecontrolofacodepreparedandpromulgatedthroughthepublicpress。Theywhohavemadetheseabortiveattemptshavebeenlittleawareofthepowerwithwhichtheyhavetocontend。Napoleonhimself，whocouldcausetheconscriptiontoentereveryman’sdwelling，couldnotbringthecoteriesoftheFaubourgunderhisinfluence。Inthisrespect，societywillmakeitsownlaws，appealtoitsownopinions，andsubmitonlytoitsownedicts。Associationisbeyondthecontrolofanyregularandpeacefulgovernment，restingoninfluencesthatseem，inagreatmeasure，tobefoundedinnature——themostinflexibleofallrulers。Tastes，conditions，connections，habits，andevenprejudices，unitetoformadynastythatneverhasyetbeendethroned。NewYorkisnearertoastateofnature，probably，asregardsallitscustomsandassociations，thananyotherwell—establishedplacethatcouldbenamed。Withsixhundredthousandsouls，collectedfromallpartsofChristendom——withnoupperclassrecognizedby，orinanymannerconnectedwith，theinstitutions，itwouldseemthatthecirclesmightenacttheirownlaws，andthepopularprinciplebebroughttobearsociallyontheusagesofthetown——referringfashionandopinionaltogethertoasortofpopularwill。Theresultisnotexactlywhatmightbeexpectedunderthecircumstances，thepastbeingintermingledwiththepresenttime，inspiteoftheoriesandvariousopposinginterests；and，inmanyinstances，capriceisfoundtobestrongerthanreason。

{conscription=themilitarydraft；theFaubourg=thefashionableneighborhoodsofParis；thepopularprinciple=

democracy}

Wehavenodesiretoexaggerate，ortocolorbeyondtheirclaims，theimportanceofthetownsofManhattan。NoonecanbetterunderstandthevastchasmwhichstillexistsbetweenLondonandNewYork，andhowmuchthelatterhastoachievebeforeshecanlayclaimtobethecounterpartofthatmetropolisofChristendom。Itisnotsomuchourintentiontodilateonexistingfacts，astoofferageneralpicture，includingthepast，thepresent，andthefuture，thatmayaidthemindinformingsomethinglikeajustestimateoftherealimportanceandprobabledestiniesofthisemporiumoftheNewWorld。

Itisnowjustthree—and—twentyyearssince，that，inanotherwork，weventuredtopredictthegreatfortunesthatwereinreserveforthisAmericanmart，givingsomeofthereasonsthatthenoccurredtousthathadatendencytoproducesucharesult。

Thesepredictionsdrewdownuponussneers，nottosayderision，incertainquarters，wherenothingthatshadowsforththegrowingpowerofthisrepubliciseverreceivedwithfavor。Theinterveningperiodhasmorethanfulfilledourexpectations。Inthisshortinterval，thepopulationoftheManhattantownshasmorethantrebled，whiletheirwealthandimportancehaveprobablyincreasedinagreatlymagnifiedproportion。Shouldthenextquarterofacenturyseethisratioingrowthcontinued，Londonwouldbeverycloselyapproachedinitsleadingelementofsuperiority——numbers。WehavelittledoubtthatthepresentcenturywillbringaboutchangesthatwillplacetheemporiumoftheOldWorldandthatoftheNewnearlyonalevel。ThisopinionisgivenwithaperfectknowledgeofthevastincreaseoftheEnglishcapitalitself，andwithadueallowanceforitscontinuance。Wepropose，inthebodyofthiswork，tofurnishthereasonsjustifyingtheseanticipations。

{anotherwork=JamesFenimoreCooper，\"NotionsoftheAmericans：

PickedupbyaTravellingBachelor\"（Philadelphia：Carey，LeaandCarey，1828）——adetaileddescription，intheguiseofletterswrittenbyafictitiousBelgiantraveler，ofthegeography，history，economy，government，andcultureoftheUnitedStates}

Seventeenyearssince，thewriterreturnedhomefromalongresidenceinEurope，duringwhichhehaddweltforyearsinmanyofthelargesttownsofthatquarteroftheworld。AtaconvivialpartyinoneofthemostconsiderabledwellingsinBroadway，theconversationturnedonthegreatimprovementsthathadthenbeenmadeinthetown，withsundryallusionsthatwereintendedtodrawouttheopinionsofatravelleronasubjectthatjustlyeverhasaninterestwiththeManhattanese。Inthatconversationthewriter——hismemoryimpressedwiththeobjectswithwhichhehadbeenfamiliarinLondonandParis，andRome，Venice，Naples，etc。，andfeelinghowveryprovincialwastheplacewherehewas，aswellasitsgreatneedofchangetoraiseittothelevelofEuropeanimprovement——venturedtosaythat，inhisopinion，speakingofBroadway，\"Therewasnotabuildinginthewholestreet，afewspecialcasesexcepted，thatwouldprobablybestandingthirtyyearshence。\"Thewriterhasreasontoknowthatthisopinionwasdeemedextravagant，andwasregardedasaconsequenceofEuropeanratherthanofAmericanreasoning。Ifthesameopinionwereutteredto—day，itwouldmeetwithmorerespect。BuildingsnowstandinBroadwaythatmaygodowntoanothercentury，fortheyareonalevelwiththewantsandtastesofacapital；butnonesuch，withasingleexception，existedatthetimeofwhichwearewriting。

{seventeenyearssince=CooperhadreturnedtoNewYorkinNovember1833，afterasevenyearsojourninEurope}

InthesefactsaretobefoundtheexplanationofthewantofancientedificesinAmerica。Twocenturiesandahalfarenoveryremoteantiquity，butweshouldregardbuildingsofthat，orevenofamuchlessage，withgreaterinterest，didthecountrypossessthem。Butnothingwasconstructedacenturysincethatwasworthpreservingonaccountofitsintrinsicmerits；and，beforetimecanthrowitsinterestaroundthem，edificeafteredificecomesdown，tomakewayforasuccessorbettersuitedtothewantsandtastesoftheage。InthisrespectNewYorkisevenworseoffthantheotherancientplacesofthecountry——ancientasthingscanberegardedinAmerica——itsgreatgrowthandcommercialspiritdemandingsacrificesthatPhiladelphiaandBostonhaveasyetescaped。Itisquitewithinthescopeofprobablethings，that，inaveryfewyears，thereshouldnotbestandingintheoldtownasinglestructureofanysort，thatwastherepreviouslytotheRevolution。Asforthenewtowns，Brooklyn，Williamsburgh，etc。，theyhadnoexistenceworthalludingtoanteriortothecommencementofthepresentcentury。

Ifanydwellingistobefoundwithinthelimitsofeither，thatcanclaimamoreremoteorigin，itissomefarmhousethathasbeenswallowedupbythemodernimprovements。

Thatwhichistrueofthetowns，inthisrespect，isequallytrueofthewholecountry。Adwellingthathasstoodhalfacenturyisregardedasasortofspecimenofantiquity，andonethathasseentwicethatnumberofyears，ofwhichafewaretobefound，especiallyamongthedescendantsoftheDutch，islookeduponwithsomesuchreverenceasisfeltbythemoderntravelleringazingatthetombofCeciliaMetella，ortheamphitheatreofVerona。

{tombofCeciliaMetella=themostfamousmonumentontheAppianWayoutsideRome，commemoratingthewifeofCrassus（d。53BC），whoasmemberoftheFirstTriumvirate，joinedwithCaesarandPompeytoendtheRomanRepublic；amphitheatreofVerona=builtbytheEmperorDiocletianabout290A。D。tostagegladiatorcombats，itisoneofthelargestsurvivingRomanamphitheaters}

Theworldhashadastrikingexampleofthepotencyofcommerceasopposedtothatofeventhesword，intheabortivepolicyofNapoleontoexcludeEnglandfromthetradeoftheContinent。Attheverymomentthatthispotentateofunequalledmeansandironrulewasdoingallhecouldtoachievehisobject，thegoodsofManchesterfoundtheirwayintohalfofhisdependentprovinces，andtheThameswascrowdedwithshippingwhichbelongedtostatesthattheemperorsupposedtobeunderhiscontrol。

{abortivepolicy=intheearlyyearsofthe19thcenturytheFrenchEmperorNapoleonhadsought，largelyunsuccessfully，toblockadeEnglandfromtradewithEurope}

Astothenotionoftherearisinganyrivalports，south，tocompetewithNewYork，itstrikesusasachimera。NewOrleanswillalwaysmaintainaqualifiedcompetitionwitheveryplacenotwashedbythewatersofthegreatvalley；butNewOrleansisnothingbutalocalport，afterall——ofgreatwealthandimportance，beyondadoubt，butnotthemartofAmerica。

NewYorkisessentiallynationalininterests，position，andpursuits。NoonethinksoftheplaceasbelongingtoaparticularState，buttotheUnitedStates。Therevenuepaidintothetreasury，atthispoint，comesinreality，fromthepocketsofthewholecountry，andbelongstothewholecountry。Thesameistrueofhersalesandtheirproceeds。Indeed，thereisverylittlepoliticalsympathybetweentheplacesatthemouthoftheHudson，andtheinterior——thevulgarprejudiceofenvy，andthejealousyofthepowerofcollectedcapital，causingthecountrytodistrustthetown。

Weareawarethatthegoverningmotiveofcommerce，allovertheworld，istheloveofgain。Itdiffersfromtheloveofgaininitsloweraspects，merelyinitsgreaterimportanceanditsgreateractivity。Thesecauseittobemoreengrossingamongmerchantsthanamongthetillersofthesoil：still，factsprovethatthisstateofthingshasmanyrelievingshades。Themanwhoisaccustomedtodealinlargesumsisusuallyraisedabovethemoresordidvicesofcovetousnessandavariceindetail。Therearerichmisers，certainly，buttheyareexceptions。Wedonotbelievethatthemerchantisonetittlemoremercenarythanthehusbandmaninhismotives，whileheiscertainlymuchmoreliberalofhisgains。Onedealsinthousands，theotherintensandtwenties。Itisseldom，however，thatafailingmarket，orasterileseason，drivestheowneroftheploughtodesperation，andhisprinciples，ifhehaveany，maybepreserved；whilethelossesorrisksofaninvestmentinvolvingmorethanthemerchantreallyowns，suspendhimforatimeonthetenter—hooksofcommercialdoubt。Themanthusplacedmusthavemorethanacommonshareofintegrity，toreasonrightwheninteresttemptshimtodowrong。

Notwithstandingthegenerallyfallaciouscharacterofthegoverningmotiveofallcommercialcommunities，thereismuchtomitigateitsselfishness。Thehabitofregardingtheentirecountryanditsinterestswithafriendlyeye，andofassociatingthemselveswithitsfortunes，liberalizesitsmindandwishes，andconfersacatholicspiritthatthecapitalofamereprovincedoesnotpossess。Boston，forinstance，isleaguedwithLowell，andLawrence，andCambridge，andseldomactscollectivelywithoutbetrayingitsprovincialmood；whileNewYorkreceiveshergoodsandherboastedlearningbylargetran{s}shipments，withoutanyspecialconsciousnessofthetransactions。Thishabitofgeneralizingininterestsencouragesthecatholicspiritmentioned，andwillaccountforthenationalityofthegreatmartofagreatandmuchextendedcountry。Thefeelingwouldbeapttoendurethroughmanychanges，andkeepalivetheconnectionofcommerceevenafterthatofthepoliticalrelationsmayhaveceased。NewYork，atthismoment，contributesherfullsharetotheprosperityofLondon，thoughsheowesnoallegiancetoSt。

James。

TheAmericanUnion，however，hasmuchmoreadhesivenessthaniscommonlyimagined。Thediversityandcomplexityofitsinterestsformanetworkthatwillbefound，likethewebofthespider，topossessapowerofresistancefarexceedingitsgossamerappearance——onestrongenoughtoholdallthatitwaseverintendedtoinclose。Theslaveinterestisnowmakingitsfinaleffortforsupremacy，andmenaredeceivedbythethroesofadepartingpower。Theinstitutionofdomesticslaverycannotlast。

Itisopposedtothespiritoftheage；andthefigmentsofMr。

Calhoun，inaffirmingthattheTerritoriesbelongtotheStates，insteadoftheGovernmentoftheUnitedStates；andthecelebrateddoctrineoftheequilibrium，forwhichwelookinvainintotheConstitutionforasinglesoundargumenttosustainit，aremerelytheexpiringeffortsofareasoningthatcannotresistthecommonsenseofthenation。Asitishealthfultoexhaustallsuchquestions，letusturnasideamoment，togiveapassingglanceatthisverymaterialsubject。

{Calhoun=SenatorJohnC。Calhoun（1782—1850}ofSouthCarolina}

AtthetimewhentheConstitutionwasadopted，threeclassesofpersonswere\"heldtoservice\"inthecountry——apprentices，redemptioners，andslaves。Thetwofirstclasseswerebynomeansinsignificantin1789，andtheredemptionerswererapidlyincreasinginnumbers。Inthatday，itlookedasifthisspeculativeimportationoflaborersfromEuropewastoformamaterialpartofthedomesticpolicyoftheNorthernStates。Nowthenegroisahumanbeing，aswellasanapprenticeoraredemptioner，thoughtheConstitutiondoesnotconsiderhimastheequalofeither。ItisagreatmistaketosupposethattheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates，asitnowexists，recognizesslaveryinanymannerwhatever，unlessitbetomarkitasaninterestthathaslessthanthecommonclaimtotheordinaryrightsofhumanity。Intheapportionment，orrepresentationclause，theredemptionerandtheapprenticecountseachasaman，whereasfiveslavesareenumeratedasonlythreefreemen。Thefreeblackiscountedasaman，inallparticulars，andisrepresentedassuch，buthisfellowinslaveryhasonlythreefifthsofhispoliticalvalue。

ThisisthecelebratedclauseinwhichtheConstitutionissaidtorecognizeslavery。Toourviewtheclauseisperfectlyimmaterialinthissense，makingthesimpleprovisionthatsolongasaStateshallchoosetokeepaportionofherpeopleinthissubordinatecondition，sheshallenjoyonlythislimiteddegreeofrepresentation。Tous，itappearstobeaconcessionmadetofreedom，andnottoslavery。Thereisnoobligation，unlessself—imposed，toadmitanybutaminorityofherwhitestotheenjoymentofpoliticalpower，aristocracybeing，intruth，morecloselyassimilatedtorepublicanismthandemocracy。

RepublicanismmeansthesovereigntyofpublicTHINGSinsteadofthatofPERSONS；ortherepresentationoftheCOMMONinterests，inlieuofthoseofamonarch。ThereisnocommonprincipleofpopularswayrecognizedintheConstitution。InthegovernmentoftheseveralStatesmonarchyisdenounced，butdemocracyisnowhereproclaimedorinsistedon。Markeddifferencesinthedegreesofpopularcontrolexistedinthecountryin1789；andthoughtimeislesseningthem，arestilltobefoundamongus。

Thecloseconsiderationofallthesefacts，wefeelpersuadedwillgiveacoloringtosomeofthemostimportantinterestsofthecountry，differingessentiallyfromthosethathavebeenlooselyadoptedintheconflictsofparties，andmanyheresiesappeartoustohavecreptintothepoliticalcreedoftheRepublic，purelyfromthestrugglesoffaction。Whenmenhaveaspecificandimportantpurposeinview，itisbutnaturaltheyshouldbendmostofitscollateralconnectionstothesupportoftheirownobjects。WeconceivethattheConstitutionhasthusbeenlargelymisinterpreted，andtheywholiveattheepochoftherenowned\"equilibrium\"andofthe\"rightsofthepeopleoftheSovereignStates，\"willhaveseenmemorableexamplesofthetruthofthisposition。

Thefirstpopularerror，then，thatweshallventuretoassail，isthatconnectedwiththeprevalentnotionofthesovereigntyoftheStates。WedonotbelievethattheseveralStatesofthisUnionare，inanylegitimatemeaningoftheterm，sovereignatall。Wearefullyawarethatthiswillberegardedasabold，andpossiblyasapresumingproposition，butweshallendeavortoworkitoutwithsuchmeansaswemayhaveatcommand。

Welaydownthefollowingpremisesastooindisputabletoneedanyargumentstosustainthem：viz。，theauthoritywhichformedthepresentConstitutionoftheUnitedStateshadthelegalpowertodoso。ThatauthoritywasintheGovernmentoftheStates，respectively，andnotintheirpeopleinthepopularsignification，butthroughtheirpeopleinthepoliticalmeaningoftheterm，andwhatwasthendonemustberegardedasactsconnectedwiththecompositionandnatureofgovernments，andofnominorordifferentinterestsofhumanaffairs。

Itbeingadmitted，thatthepowerwhichformedthegovernment，waslegitimate，weobtainoneofthepurestcompactsfortheorganizationofhumansocietythatprobablyeverexisted。Theancientallegiance，underwhichtheColonieshadgrownuptoimportance，hadbeenextinguishedbysolemntreaty，andtheStatesmetinConvention，sustainedbyallthelawtheyhadandbackedineveryinstancebyinstitutionsthatweremoreorlesspopular。Thehistoryoftheworldcannot，probably，furnishanotherinstanceofthesettlementofthefundamentalcompactofagreatnationundercircumstancesofsomuchobviousjustice。

ThisgivesunusualsolemnityandauthoritytotheConstitutionof1787，andinvestsitwithadditionalclaimstoouradmirationandrespect。

TheauthoritywhichformedtheConstitutionadmitted，wecomenexttotheexaminationofitsacts。ItisapparentfromthedebatesandproceedingsoftheConvention，thattwoopinionsexistedinthatbody；theoneleaningstronglytowardtheconcentrationofpowerinthehandsoftheFederalGovernment，andtheotherdesirousofleavingasmuchaspossiblewiththerespectiveStates。TheprinciplethatthepowerswhicharenotdirectlyconcededtotheUnionshouldremaininfirsthands，wouldseemnevertohavebeendenied；andsomeyearsaftertheorganizationoftheGovernment，itwassolemnlyrecognizedinanamendment。Wearenotdisposed，however，tolookforargumentstothedebatesanddiscussionsoftheConvention，inourviewoftenadeceptiveanddangerousmethodofconstruingalaw，sincethevoteisveryfrequentlygivenonevenconflictingreasons。

Differentmindsarriveatthesameresultsbydifferentprocesses；anditisnounusualthingformentodenyeachother’spremiseswhiletheyaccepttheirconclusions。Weshalllook，therefore，solelytothecompactitself，asthemostcertainmodeofascertainingwhatwasdone。

NoonewilldenythatallthegreatpowersofsovereigntyaredirectlyconcededtotheUnion。Therighttomakewarandpeace，tocoinmoney，maintainarmiesandnavies，&c。，&c。，inthemselvesovershadowmostofthesovereigntyoftheStates。Theamendatoryclausewouldseemtoannihilateit。BytheprovisionsofthatclausethreefourthsoftheStatescantakeawayallthepowersandrightsnowrestinginthehandsoftherespectiveStates，withasingleexception。Thisexceptiongivesbreadthandemphasistotheefficiencyoftheclause。ItwillberememberedthatallthiscanbedonewithinthepresentConstitution。Itisapartoftheoriginalbargain。Thus，NewYorkcanlegallybedeprivedoftheauthoritytopunishfortheft，tolayouthighways，toincorporatebanks，andalltheordinaryinterestsoverwhichsheatpresentexercisescontrol，everyhumanbeingwithinherlimitsdissenting。Nowassovereigntymeanspowerinthelastresort，thisamendatoryclausemostclearlydeprivestheStateofallsovereignpowerthusputatthedispositionofConventionsoftheseveralStates；infact，thevotesoftheseConventions，orthatoftherespectivelegislaturesactinginthesamecapacity，isnothingbutthehighestspeciesoflegislationknowntothecountry；andnoothermodeofalteringtheinstitutionswouldbelegal。Itfollowsunavoidably，werepeat，thatthesovereigntywhichremainsintheseveralStatesmustbelookedforsolelyintheexception。Whatthenisthisexception？

Itisaprovisionwhichsays，thatnoStatemaybedeprivedofitsequalrepresentationintheSenate，withoutitsownconsent。

ItmightwellbequestionedwhetherthisprovisionoftheConstitutionrendersaSenateindispensabletotheGovernment。

Butwearewillingtoconcedethispointandadmitthatitdoes。

CanthevoteofasingleState，whichisoneofabodyofthirty，andwhichisboundtosubmittothedecisionofalegalmajority，bedeemedasovereignvote？AssumingthatthewholepoweroftheGovernmentoftheUnitedStateswereintheSenate，wouldanyoneStatebesovereigninsuchaconditionofthings？Wethinknot。

ButtheSenatedoesnotconstitutebyanymeansthewholeorthehalfoftheauthorityofthisGovernment；itslegislativepowerisdividedwithapopularbody，withouttheconcurrenceofwhichitcandonothing；thisdilutesthesovereigntytoadegreethatrendersitveryimperceptible，ifnotveryabsurd。Noristhisall。AfteralawispassedbytheconcurrenceofthetwohousesofCongressitissenttoaperfectlyindependenttribunaltodecidewhetheritisinconformitywiththeprinciplesofthegreatnationalcompact；thusdemonstrating，asweassume，thatthesovereigntyofthiswholecountryrests，notinitspeople，notinitsStates，butintheGovernmentoftheUnion。

Sovereignty，andthatofthemostabsolutecharacter，isindispensabletotherightofsecession：Nay，sovereignty，intheordinaryacceptationofthemeaningoftheterm，mightexistinaStatewithoutthisrightofsecession。WedoubtifitwouldbeheldsounddoctrinetomaintainthatanysingleStatehadarighttosecedefromtheGermanConfederation，forinstance；andmanyalliances，ormeretreaties，areheldtobesacredandindissoluble；theyareonlybrokenbyanappealtoviolence。

Everyhumancontractmaybesaidtopossessitsdistinctivecharacter。Thus，marriageistobedistinguishedfromapartnershipintrade，withoutrecurrencetoanyparticularformofwords。Marriage，contractedbyanyceremonywhatever，isheldtobeacontractforlife。Thesameistrueofgovernments：intheirnaturetheyareintendedtobeindissoluble。Wedoubtiftherebeaninstanceonrecordofagovernmentthateverexisted，underconditions，expressedorimplied，thatthepartsofitsterritorymightseparateatwill。Therearesomanycontrollingandobviousreasonswhysuchaprivilegeshouldnotremaininthehandsofsectionsordistricts，thatitisunnecessarytoadverttothem。Butafteracountryhasroundeditsterritory，constructeditslinesofdefence，establisheditssystemofcustom—houses，andmadealltheotherprovisionsforsecurity，convenience，andconcentration，thatarenecessarytotheaffairsofagreatnation，itwouldseemtobeverypresumptuoustoimputetoanyparticulardistricttherighttodestroyormutilateasystemregulatedwithsomuchcare。

TheonlymannerinwhichtherightofsecessioncouldexistinoneoftheAmericanStates，wouldbebyanexpressreservationtothateffect，intheConstitution。Thereisnosuchclause；diditexistitwouldchangethewholecharacteroftheGovernment，renderingitamerealliance，insteadofbeingthatwhichitnowis——alastingUnion。But，whatevermaybethelegalprinciplesconnectedwiththisserioussubject，therealwaysexists，inlargebodiesofmen，apowertochangetheirinstitutionsbymeansofthestronghand。Thisistermedtherightofrevolution，andithasoftenbeenappealedtotoredressgrievancesthatcouldberemovedbynootheragency。ItisundeniablethattheinstitutionofdomesticslaveryasitnowexistsinwhataretermedtheSouthernandSouth—WesternStatesofthiscountry，createsaninterestofthemostdelicateandsensitivecharacter。