Ifthistalkweretrue，I，forone，shouldnotgreatlycaretotoilintheserviceofnaturalknowledge.IthinkIwouldjustassoonbequietlychippingmyownflintaxe，afterthemannerofmyforefathersafewthousandyearsback，asbetroubledwiththeendlessmaladyofthoughtwhichnowinfestsusall，forsuchreward.ButIventuretosaythatsuchviewsarecontraryaliketoreasonandtofact.ThosewhodiscourseinsuchfashionseemtometobesointentupontryingtoseewhatisaboveNature，orwhatisbehindher，thattheyareblindtowhatstarestheminthefaceinher.
Ishouldnotventurethustospeakstronglyifmyjustificationwerenottobefoundinthesimplestandmostobviousfacts，——ifitneededmorethananappealtothemostnotorioustruthstojustifymyassertion，thattheimprovementofnaturalknowledge，whateverdirectionithastaken，andhoweverlowtheaimsofthosewhomayhavecommencedit——hasnotonlyconferredpracticalbenefitsonmen，but，insodoing，haseffectedarevolutionintheirconceptionsoftheuniverseandofthemselves，andhasprofoundlyalteredtheirmodesofthinkingandtheirviewsofrightandwrong.
Isaythatnaturalknowledge，seekingtosatisfynaturalwants，hasfoundtheideaswhichcanalonestillspiritualcravings.Isaythatnaturalknowledge，indesiringtoascertainthelawsofcomfort，hasbeendriventodiscoverthoseofconduct，andtolaythefoundationsofanewmorality.
Letustakethesepointsseparately;andfirst，whatgreatideashasnaturalknowledgeintroducedintomen’sminds？
IcannotbutthinkthatthefoundationsofallnaturalknowledgewerelaidwhenthereasonofmanfirstcamefacetofacewiththefactsofNature;whenthesavagefirstlearnedthatthefingersofonehandarefewerthanthoseofboth;thatitisshortertocrossastreamthantoheadit;thatastonestopswhereitisunlessitbemoved，andthatitdropsfromthehandwhichletsitgo;thatlightandheatcomeandgowiththesun;thatsticksburnawayinafire;thatplantsandanimalsgrowanddie;thatifhestruckhisfellowsavageablowhewouldmakehimangry，andperhapsgetablowinreturn，whileifheofferedhimafruithewouldpleasehim，andperhapsreceiveafishinexchange.Whenmenhadacquiredthismuchknowledge，theoutlines，rudethoughtheywere，ofmathematics，ofphysics，ofchemistry，ofbiology，ofmoral，economical，andpoliticalscience，weresketched.Nordidthegermofreligionfailwhensciencebegantobud.Listentowordswhich，thoughnew，areyetthreethousandyearsold：——
WheninheaventhestarsaboutthemoonLookbeautiful，whenallthewindsarelaid，Andeveryheightcomesout，andjuttingpeakAndvalley，andtheimmeasurableheavensBreakopentotheirhighest，andallthestarsShine，andtheshepherdgladdensinhisheart.[44]
IfthehalfsavageGreekcouldshareourfeelingsthusfar，itisirrationaltodoubtthathewentfurther，tofindaswedo，thatuponthatbriefgladnesstherefollowsacertainsorrow，——thelittlelightofawakenedhumanintelligenceshinessomereasparkamidsttheabyssoftheunknownandunknowable;seemssoinsufficienttodomorethanilluminatetheimperfectionsthatcannotberemedied，theaspirationsthatcannotberealised，ofman’sownnature.Butinthissadness，thisconsciousnessofthelimitationofman，thissenseofanopensecretwhichhecannotpenetrate，liestheessenceofallreligion;andtheattempttoembodyitintheformsfurnishedbytheintellectistheoriginofthehighertheologies.
Thusitseemsimpossibletoimaginebutthatthefoundationsofallknowledge——secularorsacred——werelaidwhenintelligencedawned，thoughthesuperstructureremainedforlongagessoslightandfeebleastobecompatiblewiththeexistenceofalmostanygeneralviewrespectingthemodeofgovernanceoftheuniverse.Nodoubt，fromthefirst，therewerecertainphenomenawhich，totherudestmind，presentedaconstancyofoccurrence，andsuggestedthatafixedorderruled，atanyrate，amongthem.IdoubtifthegrossestofFetishworshipperseverimaginedthatastonemusthaveagodwithinittomakeitfall，orthatafruithadagodwithinittomakeittastesweet.Withregardtosuchmattersasthese，itishardlyquestionablethatmankindfromthefirsttookstrictlypositiveandscientificviews.
But，withrespecttoallthelessfamiliaroccurrenceswhichpresentthemselves，unculturedman，nodoubt，hasalwaystakenhimselfasthestandardofcomparison，asthecentreandmeasureoftheworld;norcouldbewellavoiddoingso.Andfindingthathisapparentlyuncausedwillhasapowerfuleffectingivingrisetomanyoccurrences，henaturallyenoughascribedotherandgreatereventstootherandgreatervolitionsandcametolookupontheworldandallthatthereinis，astheproductofthevolitionsofpersonslikehimself，butstronger，andcapableofbeingappeasedorangered，ashehimselfmightbesoothedorirritated.Throughsuchconceptionsoftheplanandworkingoftheuniverseallmankindhavepassed，orarepassing.Andwemaynowconsiderwhathasbeentheeffectoftheimprovementofnaturalknowledgeontheviewsofmenwhohavereachedthisstage，andwhohavebeguntocultivatenaturalknowledgewithnodesirebutthatof\"increasingGod’shonourandbetteringman’sestate.\"[45]
Forexample，whatcouldseemwiser，fromamerematerialpointofview，moreinnocent，fromatheologicalone，toanancientpeople，thanthattheyshouldlearntheexactsuccessionoftheseasons，aswarningsfortheirhusbandmen;orthepositionofthestars，asguidestotheirrudenavigators？[46]Butwhathasgrownoutofthissearchfornaturalknowledgeofsomerelyusefulacharacter？Youallknowthereply.Astronomy，——whichofallscienceshasfilledmen’smindswithgeneralideasofacharactermostforeigntotheirdailyexperience，andhas，morethananyother，rendereditimpossibleforthemtoacceptthebeliefsoftheirfathers.
Astronomy，——whichtellsthemthatthissovastandseeminglysolidearthisbutanatomamongatoms，whirling，nomanknowswhither，throughillimitablespace;whichdemonstratesthatwhatwecallthepeacefulheavenaboveus，isbutthatspace，filledbyaninfinitelysubtlematterwhoseparticlesareseethingandsurging，likethewavesofanangrysea;whichopensuptousinfiniteregionswherenothingisknown，oreverseemstohavebeenknown，butmatterandforce，operatingaccordingtorigidrules;whichleadsustocontemplatephaenomenatheverynatureofwhichdemonstratesthattheymusthavehadabeginning，andthattheymusthaveanend，buttheverynatureofwhichalsoprovesthatthebeginningwas，toourconceptionsoftime，infinitelyremote，andthattheendisasimmeasurablydistant.
Butitisnotalonethosewhopursueastronomywhoaskforbreadandreceiveideas.Whatmoreharmlessthantheattempttoliftanddistributewaterbypumpingit;whatmoreabsolutelyandgrosslyutilitarian？YetoutofpumpsgrewthediscussionsaboutNature’sabhorrenceofavacuum;andthenitwasdiscoveredthatNaturedoesnotabhoravacuum，butthatairhasweight;andthatnotionpavedthewayforthedoctrinethatallmatterhasweight，andthattheforcewhichproducesweightisco—extensivewiththeuniverse，——inshort，tothetheoryofuniversalgravitationandendlessforce.
Whilelearninghowtohandlegasesledtothediscoveryofoxygen，andtomodernchemistry，andtothenotionoftheindestructibilityofmatter.
Again，whatsimpler，ormoreabsolutelypractical，thantheattempttokeeptheaxleofawheelfromheatingwhenthewheelturnsroundveryfast？Howusefulforcartersandgigdriverstoknowsomethingaboutthis;andhowgoodwereit，ifanyingeniouspersonwouldfindoutthecauseofsuchphaenomena，andthenceeduceageneralremedyforthem.SuchaningeniouspersonwasCountRumford;[47]andheandhissuccessorshavelandedusinthetheoryofthepersistence，orindestructibility，offorce.Andintheinfinitelyminute，asintheinfinitelygreat，theseekersafternaturalknowledgeofthekindscalledphysicalandchemical，haveeverywherefoundadefiniteorderandsuccessionofeventswhichseemnevertobeinfringed.
Andhowhasitfaredwith\"Physick\"andAnatomy？Havetheanatomist，thephysiologist，orthephysician，whosebusinessithasbeentodevotethemselvesassiduouslytothateminentlypracticalanddirectend，thealleviationofthesufferingsofmankind，——havetheybeenabletoconfinetheirvisionmoreabsolutelytothestrictlyuseful？Ifeartheyaretheworstoffendersofall.Foriftheastronomerhassetbeforeustheinfinitemagnitudeofspace，andthepracticaleternityofthedurationoftheuniverse;ifthephysicalandchemicalphilosophershavedemonstratedtheinfiniteminutenessofitsconstituentparts，andthepracticaleternityofmatterandofforce;andifbothhavealikeproclaimedtheuniversalityofadefiniteandpredicableorderandsuccessionofevents，theworkersinbiologyhavenotonlyacceptedallthese，buthaveaddedmorestartlingthesesoftheirown.For，astheastronomersdiscoverintheearthnocentreoftheuniverse，butaneccentric[48]speck，sothenaturalistsfindmantobenocentreofthelivingworld，butoneamidstendlessmodificationsoflife;andastheastronomersobservethemarkofpracticallyendlesstimesetuponthearrangementsofthesolarsystemsothestudentoflifefindstherecordsofancientformsofexistencepeoplingtheworldforages，which，inrelationtohumanexperience，areinfinite.
Furthermore，thephysiologistfindslifetobeasdependentforitsmanifestationofparticularmoleculararrangementsasanyphysicalorchemicalphenomenon;andwhereverheextendshisresearches，fixedorderandunchangingcausationrevealthemselves，asplainlyasintherestofNature.
NorcanIfindthatanyotherfatehasawaitedthegermofReligion.Arising，likeallotherkindsofknowledge，outoftheactionandinteractionofman’smind，withthatwhichisnotman’smind，ithastakentheintellectualcoveringsofFetishismorPolytheism;ofTheismorAtheism;ofSuperstitionorRationalism.
Withthese，andtheirrelativemeritsanddemerits，Ihavenothingtodo;butthisitisneedfulformypurposetosay，thatifthereligionofthepresentdiffersfromthatofthepast，itisbecausethetheologyofthepresenthasbecomemorescientificthanthatofthepast;becauseithasnotonlyrenouncedidolsofwoodandidolsofstone，butbeginstoseethenecessityofbreakinginpiecestheidolsbuiltupofbooksandtraditionsandfine—spunecclesiasticalcobwebs：andofcherishingthenoblestandmosthumanofman’semotions，byworship\"forthemostpartofthesilentsort\"attheAltaroftheUnknown.
Suchareafewofthenewconceptionsimplantedinourmindsbytheimprovementofnaturalknowledge.Menhaveacquiredtheideasofthepracticallyinfiniteextentoftheuniverseandofitspracticaleternity;theyarefamiliarwiththeconceptionthatourearthisbutaninfinitesimalfragmentofthatpartoftheuniversewhichcanbeseen;andthat，nevertheless，itsdurationis，ascomparedwithourstandardsoftime，infinite.Theyhavefurtheracquiredtheideathatmanisbutoneofinnumerableformsoflifenowexistingontheglobe，andthatthepresentexistencesarebutthelastofanimmeasurableseriesofpredecessors.Moreover，everysteptheyhavemadeinnaturalknowledgehastendedtoextendandrivetintheirmindstheconceptionofadefiniteorderoftheuniverse——whichisembodiedinwhatarecalled，byanunhappymetaphor，thelawsofNature——andtonarrowtherangeandloosentheforceofmen’sbeliefinspontaneity，orinchangesotherthansuchasariseoutofthatdefiniteorderitself.
Whethertheseideasarewellorillfoundedisnotthequestion.
Noonecandenythattheyexist，andhavebeentheinevitableoutgrowthoftheimprovementofnaturalknowledge.Andifso，itcannotbedoubtedthattheyarechangingtheformofmen’smostcherishedandmostimportantconvictions.
Andasregardsthesecondpoint——theextenttowhichtheimprovementofnaturalknowledgehasremodelledandalteredwhatmaybetermedtheintellectualethicsofmen，——whatareamongthemoralconvictionsmostfondlyheldbybarbarousandsemi—barbarouspeople？
Theyaretheconvictionsthatauthorityisthesoundestbasisofbelief;thatmeritattachestoareadinesstobelieve;thatthedoubtingdispositionisabadone，andscepticismasin;thatwhengoodauthorityhaspronouncedwhatistobebelieved，andfaithhasacceptedit，reasonhasnofurtherduty.Therearemanyexcellentpersonswhoyetholdbytheseprinciples，anditisnotmypresentbusiness，orintention，todiscusstheirviews.AllIwishtobringclearlybeforeyourmindsistheunquestionablefact，thattheimprovementofnaturalknowledgeiseffectedbymethodswhichdirectlygivethelietoalltheseconvictions，andassumetheexactreverseofeachtobetrue.
Theimproverofnaturalknowledgeabsolutelyrefusestoacknowledgeauthority，assuch.Forhim，scepticismisthehighestofduties;
blindfaiththeoneunpardonablesin.Anditcannotbeotherwise，foreverygreatadvanceinnaturalknowledgehasinvolvedtheabsoluterejectionofauthority，thecherishingofthekeenestscepticism，theannihilationofthespiritofblindfaith;andthemostardentvotaryofscienceholdshisfirmestconvictions，notbecausethemenhemostveneratesholdthem;notbecausetheirverityistestifiedbyportentsandwonders;butbecausehisexperienceteacheshimthatwheneverhechoosestobringtheseconvictionsintocontactwiththeirprimarysource，Nature——
wheneverhethinksfittotestthembyappealingtoexperimentandtoobservation——Naturewillconfirmthem.Themanofsciencehaslearnedtobelieveinjustification，notbyfaith，butbyverification.
Thus，withoutforamomentpretendingtodespisethepracticalresultsoftheimprovementofnaturalknowledge，anditsbeneficialinfluenceonmaterialcivilisation，itmust，Ithink，beadmittedthatthegreatideas，someofwhichIhaveindicated，andtheethicalspiritwhichIhaveendeavouredtosketch，inthefewmomentswhichremainedatmydisposal，constitutetherealandpermanentsignificanceofnaturalknowledge.
Iftheseideasbedestined，asIbelievetheyare，tobemoreandmorefirmlyestablishedastheworldgrowsolder;ifthatspiritbefated，asIbelieveitis，toextenditselfintoalldepartmentsofhumanthought，andtobecomeco—extensivewiththerangeofknowledge;if，asourraceapproachesitsmaturity，itdiscovers，asIbelieveitwill，thatthereisbutonekindofknowledgeandbutonemethodofacquiringit;thenwe，whoarestillchildren，mayjustlyfeelitourhighestdutytorecognisetheadvisablenessofimprovingnaturalknowledge，andsotoaidourselvesandoursuccessorsinourcoursetowardsthenoblegoalwhichliesbeforemankind.
ALIBERALEDUCATION[49]
ThebusinesswhichtheSouthLondonWorkingMen’sCollegehasundertakenisagreatwork;indeed，Imightsay，thatEducation，withwhichthatcollegeproposestograpple，isthegreatestworkofallthosewhichliereadytoaman’shandjustatpresent.
And，atlength，thisfactisbecominggenerallyrecognised.Youcannotgoanywherewithouthearingabuzzofmoreorlessconfusedandcontradictorytalkonthissubject——norcanyoufailtonoticethat，inonepointatanyrate，thereisaverydecidedadvanceuponlikediscussionsinformerdays.Nobodyoutsidetheagriculturalinterestnowdarestosaythateducationisabadthing.Ifanyrepresentativeoftheoncelargeandpowerfulparty，which，informerdays，proclaimedthisopinion，stillexistsinthesemi—fossilstate，hekeepshisthoughtstohimself.Infact，thereisachorusofvoices，almostdistressingintheirharmony，raisedinfavourofthedoctrinethateducationisthegreatpanaceaforhumantroubles，andthat，ifthecountryisnotshortlytogotothedogs，everybodymustbeeducated.
Thepoliticianstellus，\"Youmusteducatethemassesbecausetheyaregoingtobemasters.\"Theclergyjoininthecryforeducation，fortheyaffirmthatthepeoplearedriftingawayfromchurchandchapelintothebroadestinfidelity.Themanufacturersandthecapitalistsswellthechoruslustily.Theydeclarethatignorancemakesbadworkmen;thatEnglandwillsoonbeunabletoturnoutcottongoods，orsteamengines，cheaperthanotherpeople;
andthen，Ichabod！Ichabod！[50]theglorywillbedepartedfromus.
Andafewvoicesareliftedupinfavourofthedoctrinethatthemassesshouldbeeducatedbecausetheyaremenandwomenwithunlimitedcapacitiesofbeing，doing，andsuffering，andthatitisastruenow，asiteverwas，thatthepeopleperishforlackofknowledge.
Thesemembersoftheminority，withwhomIconfessIhaveagooddealofsympathy，aredoubtfulwhetheranyoftheotherreasonsurgedinfavouroftheeducationofthepeopleareofmuchvalue——
whether，indeed，someofthemarebaseduponeitherwiseornoblegroundsofaction.Theyquestionifitbewisetotellpeoplethatyouwilldoforthem，outoffearoftheirpower，whatyouhaveleftundone，solongasyouronlymotivewascompassionfortheirweaknessandtheirsorrows.And，ifignoranceofeverythingwhichisneedfularulershouldknowislikelytodosomuchharminthegoverningclassesofthefuture，whyisit，theyaskreasonablyenough，thatsuchignoranceinthegoverningclassesofthepasthasnotbeenviewedwithequalhorror？
Comparetheaverageartisanandtheaveragecountrysquire，anditmaybedoubtedifyouwillfindapintochoosebetweenthetwoinpointofignorance，classfeeling，orprejudice.Itistruethattheignoranceisofadifferentsort——thattheclassfeelingisinfavourofadifferentclassandthattheprejudicehasadistinctsavourofwrong—headednessineachcase——butitisquestionableiftheoneiseitherabitbetter，orabitworse，thantheother.
Theoldprotectionisttheoryisthedoctrineoftradesunionsasappliedbythesquires，andthemoderntradesunionismisthedoctrineofthesquiresappliedbytheartisans.Whyshouldwebeworseoffunderoneregimethanundertheother？
Again，thisscepticalminorityaskstheclergytothinkwhetheritisreallywantofeducationwhichkeepsthemassesawayfromtheirministrations——whetherthemostcompletelyeducatedmenarenotasopentoreproachonthisscoreastheworkmen;andwhether，perchance，thismaynotindicatethatitisnoteducationwhichliesatthebottomofthematter？
Oncemore，thesepeople，whomthereisnopleasing，venturetodoubtwhethertheglorywhichrestsuponbeingabletoundersellalltherestoftheworld，isaverysafekindofglory——whetherwemaynotpurchaseittoodear;especiallyifwealloweducation，whichoughttobedirectedtothemakingofmen，tobedivertedintoaprocessofmanufacturinghumantools，wonderfullyadroitintheexerciseofsometechnicalindustry，butgoodfornothingelse.
And，finally，thesepeopleinquirewhetheritisthemassesalonewhoneedareformedandimprovededucation.Theyaskwhethertherichestofourpublicschoolsmightnotwellbemadetosupplyknowledge，aswellasgentlemanlyhabits，astrongclassfeeling，andeminentproficiencyincricket.Theyseemtothinkthatthenoblefoundationsofourolduniversitiesarehardlyfulfillingtheirfunctionsintheirpresentpostureofhalf—clericalseminaries，halfracecourses，wheremenaretrainedtowinaseniorwranglership，[51]oradouble—first，[52]ashorsesaretrainedtowinacup，withaslittlereferencetotheneedsofafter—lifeinthecaseofamanasinthatoftheracer.And，whileaszealousforeducationastherest，theyaffirmthat，iftheeducationofthericherclassesweresuchastofitthemtobetheleadersandthegovernorsofthepoorer;and，iftheeducationofthepoorerclassesweresuchastoenablethemtoappreciatereallywiseguidanceandgoodgovernance，thepoliticiansneednotfearmob—
law，northeclergylamenttheirwantofflocks，northecapitalistsprognosticatetheannihilationoftheprosperityofthecountry.
Suchisthediversityofopinionuponthewhyandthewhereforeofeducation.Andmyhearerswillbepreparedtoexpectthatthepracticalrecommendationswhichareputforwardarenotlessdiscordant.Thereisaloudcryforcompulsoryeducation.WeEnglish，inspiteofconstantexperiencetothecontrary，preserveatouchingfaithintheefficacyofactsofParliament;andI
believeweshouldhavecompulsoryeducationinthecoursesofnextsession，ifthereweretheleastprobabilitythathalfadozenleadingstatesmenofdifferentpartieswouldagreewhatthateducationshouldbe.
Someholdthateducationwithouttheologyisworsethannone.
Othersmaintain，quiteasstrongly，thateducationwiththeologyisinthesamepredicament.Butthisiscertain，thatthosewhoholdthefirstopinioncanbynomeansagreewhattheologyshouldbetaught;andthatthosewhomaintainthesecondareinasmallminority.
Atanyrate\"makepeoplelearntoread，write，andcipher，\"sayagreatmany;andtheadviceisundoubtedlysensibleasfarasitgoes.But，ashashappenedtomeinformerdays，thosewho，indespairofgettinganythingbetter，advocatethismeasure，aremetwiththeobjectionthatitisverylikemakingachildpractisetheuseofaknife，fork，andspoon，withoutgivingitparticleofmeat.Ireallydon’tknowwhatreplyistobemadetosuchanobjection.
Butitwouldbeunprofitabletospendmoretimeindisentangling，orratherinshowinguptheknotsin，theravelledskeinsofourneighbours.Muchmoretothepurposeisittoaskifwepossessanyclueofourownwhichmayguideusamongtheseentanglements.
Andbywayofabeginning，letusaskourselves——Whatiseducation？
Aboveallthings，whatisouridealofathoroughlyliberaleducation？——ofthateducationwhich，ifwecouldbeginlifeagain，wewouldgiveourselves——ofthateducationwhich，ifwecouldmouldthefatestoourownwill，wewouldgiveourchildren？Well，I
knownotwhatmaybeyourconceptionsuponthismatter，butIwilltellyoumine，andIhopeIshallfindthatourviewsarenotverydiscrepant.
Supposeitwereperfectlycertainthatthelifeandfortuneofeveryoneofuswould，onedayorother，dependuponhiswinningorlosingagameofchess.Don’tyouthinkthatweshouldallconsiderittobeaprimarydutytolearnatleastthenamesandthemovesofthepieces;tohaveanotionofagambit，andakeeneyeforallthemeansofgivingandgettingoutofcheck？Doyounotthinkthatweshouldlookwithadisapprobationamountingtoscorn，uponthefatherwhoallowedhisson，orthestatewhichalloweditsmembers，togrowupwithoutknowingapawnfromaknight？
Yetitisaveryplainandelementarytruth，thatthelife，thefortune，andthehappinessofeveryoneofus，and，moreorless，ofthosewhoareconnectedwithus，dodependuponourknowingsomethingoftherulesofagameinfinitelymoredifficultandcomplicatedthanchess.Itisagamewhichhasbeenplayedforuntoldages，everymanandwomanofusbeingoneofthetwoplayersinagameofhisorherown.Thechessboardistheworld，thepiecesarethephenomenaoftheuniverse，therulesofthegamearewhatwecallthelawsofNature.Theplayerontheothersideishiddenfromus.Weknowthathisplayisalwaysfair，just，andpatient.Butalsoweknow，toourcost，thatheneveroverlooksamistake，ormakesthesmallestallowanceforignorance.Tothemanwhoplayswell，thehigheststakesarepaid，withthatsortofoverflowinggenerositywithwhichthestrongshowsdelightinstrength.Andonewhoplaysillischeckmated——withouthaste，butwithoutremorse.
MymetaphorwillremindsomeofyouofthefamouspictureinwhichRetzsch[53]hasdepictedSatanplayingatchesswithmanforhissoul.
Substituteforthemockingfiendinthatpictureacalm，strongangelwhoisplayingforlove，aswesay，andwouldratherlosethanwin——andIshouldacceptitasanimageofhumanlife.
Well，whatImeanbyEducationislearningtherulesofthismightygame.Inotherwords，educationistheinstructionoftheintellectinthelawsofNature，underwhichnameIincludenotmerelythingsandtheirforces，butmenandtheirways;andthefashioningoftheaffectionsandofthewillintoanearnestandlovingdesiretomoveinharmonywiththoselaws.Forme，educationmeansneithermorenorlessthanthis.Anythingwhichprofessestocallitselfeducationmustbetriedbythisstandard，andifitfailstostandthetest，Iwillnotcalliteducation，whatevermaybetheforceofauthority，orofnumbers，upontheotherside.
Itisimportanttorememberthat，instrictness，thereisnosuchthingasanuneducatedman.Takeanextremecase.Supposethatanadultman，inthefullvigourofhisfaculties，couldbesuddenlyplacedintheworld，asAdamissaidtohavebeen，andthenlefttodoashebestmight.Howlongwouldhebeleftuneducated？Notfiveminutes.Naturewouldbegintoteachhim，throughtheeye，theear，thetouch，thepropertiesofobjects.Painandpleasurewouldbeathiselbowtellinghimtodothisandavoidthat;andbyslowdegreesthemanwouldreceiveaneducationwhich，ifnarrow，wouldbethorough，real，andadequatetohiscircumstances，thoughtherewouldbenoextrasandveryfewaccomplishments.
AndiftothissolitarymanenteredasecondAdamor，betterstill，anEve，anewandgreaterworld，thatofsocialandmoralphenomena，wouldberevealed.Joysandwoes，comparedwithwhichallothersmightseembutfaintshadows，wouldspringfromthenewrelations.Happinessandsorrowwouldtaketheplaceofthecoarsermonitors，pleasureandpain;butconductwouldstillbeshapedbytheobservationofthenaturalconsequencesofactions;
or，inotherwords，bythelawsofthenatureofman.
ToeveryoneofustheworldwasonceasfreshandnewastoAdam.
Andthen，longbeforeweweresusceptibleofanyothermodesofinstruction，Naturetookusinhand，andeveryminuteofwakinglifebroughtitseducationalinfluence，shapingouractionsintoroughaccordancewithNature’slaws，sothatwemightnotbeendeduntimelybytoogrossdisobedience.NorshouldIspeakofthisprocessofeducationaspastforanyone，beheasoldashemay.
Foreverymantheworldisasfreshasitwasatthefirstday，andasfullofuntoldnoveltiesforhimwhohastheeyestoseethem.
AndNatureisstillcontinuingherpatienteducationofusinthatgreatuniversity，theuniverse，ofwhichweareallmembers——NaturehavingnoTest—Acts.[54]
ThosewhotakehonoursinNature’suniversity，wholearnthelawswhichgovernmenandthingsandobeythem，arethereallygreatandsuccessfulmeninthisworld.Thegreatmassofmankindarethe\"Poll，\"[55]whopickupjustenoughtogetthroughwithoutmuchdiscredit.Thosewhowon’tlearnatallareplucked;[56]andthenyoucan’tcomeupagain.Nature’spluckmeansextermination.
ThusthequestionofcompulsoryeducationissettledsofarasNatureisconcerned.Herbillonthatquestionwasframedandpassedlongago.But，likeallcompulsorylegislation，thatofNatureisharshandwastefulinitsoperation.Ignoranceisvisitedassharplyaswilfuldisobedience——incapacitymeetswiththesamepunishmentascrime.Nature’sdisciplineisnotevenawordandablow，andtheblowfirst;buttheblowwithouttheword.
Itislefttoyoutofindoutwhyyourearsareboxed.
Theobjectofwhatwecommonlycalleducation——thateducationinwhichmanintervenesandwhichIshalldistinguishasartificialeducation——istomakegoodthesedefectsinNature’smethods;topreparethechildtoreceiveNature’seducation，neitherincapablynorignorantly，norwithwilfuldisobedience;andtounderstandthepreliminarysymptomsofherpleasure，withoutwaitingfortheboxontheear.Inshort，allartificialeducationoughttobeananticipationofnaturaleducation.Andaliberaleducationisanartificialeducationwhichhasnotonlypreparedamantoescapethegreatevilsofdisobediencetonaturallaws，buthastrainedhimtoappreciateandtoseizeupontherewards，whichNaturescatterswithasfreeahandasherpenalties.
Thatman，Ithink，hashadaliberaleducationwhohasbeensotrainedinyouththathisbodyisthereadyservantofhiswill，anddoeswitheaseandpleasurealltheworkthat，asamechanism，itiscapableof;whoseintellectisaclear，cold，logicengine，withallitspartsofequalstrength，andinsmoothworkingorder;
ready，likeasteamengine，tobeturnedtoanykindofwork，andspinthegossamersaswellasforgetheanchorsofthemind;whosemindisstoredwithaknowledgeofthegreatandfundamentaltruthsofNatureandofthelawsofheroperations;onewho，nostuntedascetic，isfulloflifeandfire，butwhosepassionsaretrainedtocometoheelbyavigorouswill，theservantofatenderconscience;whohaslearnedtoloveallbeauty，whetherofNatureorofart，tohateallvileness，andtorespectothersashimself.
Suchanoneandnoother，Iconceive，hashadaliberaleducation;
forheis，ascompletelyasamancanbe，inharmonywithNature.
Hewillmakethebestofher，andsheofhim.Theywillgetontogetherrarely;sheashiseverbeneficentmother;heashermouthpiece，herconsciousself，herministerandinterpreter.
ONAPIECEOFCHALK[57]
IfawellweresunkatourfeetinthemidstofthecityofNorwich，thediggerswouldverysoonfindthemselvesatworkinthatwhitesubstancealmosttoosofttobecalledrock，withwhichweareallfamiliaras\"chalk.\"
Notonlyhere，butoverthewholecountyofNorfolk，thewell—
sinkermightcarryhisshaftdownmanyhundredfeetwithoutcomingtotheendofthechalk;and，onthesea—coast，wherethewaveshaveparedawaythefaceofthelandwhichbreaststhem，thescarpedfacesofthehighcliffsareoftenwhollyformedofthesamematerial.Northward，thechalkmaybefollowedasfarasYorkshire;onthesouthcoastitappearsabruptlyinthepicturesquewesternbaysofDorset，andbreaksintotheNeedlesoftheIsleofWight;[58]whileontheshoresofKentitsuppliesthatlonglineofwhitecliffstowhichEnglandoweshernameofAlbion.
Werethethinsoilwhichcoversitallwashedaway，acurvedbandofwhitechalk，herebroader，andtherenarrower，mightbefolloweddiagonallyacrossEnglandfromLulworthinDorset，toFlamboroughHead[59]inYorkshire——adistanceofovertwohundredandeightymilesasthecrowflies.
FromthisbandtotheNorthSea，ontheeast，andtheChannel，ontheSouth，thechalkislargelyhiddenbyotherdeposits;but，exceptintheWeald[60]ofKentandSussex，itentersintotheveryfoundationofallthesouth—easterncounties.
Attaining，asitdoesinsomeplaces，athicknessofmorethanathousandfeet，theEnglishchalkmustbeadmittedtobeamassofconsiderablemagnitude.Nevertheless，itcoversbutaninsignificantportionofthewholeareaoccupiedbythechalkformationoftheglobe，whichhaspreciselythesamegeneralcharactersasours，andisfoundindetachedpatches，someless，andothersmoreextensive，thantheEnglish.
Chalkoccursinnorth—westIreland;itstretchesoveralargepartofFrance，——thechalkwhichunderliesParisbeing，infact，acontinuationofthatoftheLondonbasin;itrunsthroughDenmarkandCentralEurope，andextendssouthwardtoNorthAfrica;whileeastward，itappearsintheCrimeaandinSyria，andmaybetracedasfarastheshoresoftheSeaofAral，inCentralAsia.
Ifallthepointsatwhichtruechalkoccurswerecircumscribed，theywouldliewithinanirregularovalaboutthreethousandmilesinlongdiameter——theareaofwhichwouldbeasgreatasthatofEurope，andwouldmanytimesexceedthatofthelargestexistinginlandsea——theMediterranean.
Thusthechalkisnounimportantelementinthemasonryoftheearth’scrust，anditimpressesapeculiarstamp，varyingwiththeconditionstowhichitisexposed，onthesceneryofthedistrictsinwhichitoccurs.Theundulatingdownsandroundedcoombs，coveredwithsweet—grassedturf，ofourinlandchalkcountry，haveapeacefullydomesticandmutton—suggestingprettiness，butcanhardlybecalledeithergrandorbeautiful.Butonoursoutherncoasts，thewall—sidedcliffs，manyhundredfeethigh，withvastneedlesandpinnaclesstandingoutinthesea，sharpandsolitaryenoughtoserveasperchesforthewarycormorantconferawonderfulbeautyandgrandeuruponthechalkheadlands.And，intheEast，chalkhasitsshareintheformationofsomeofthemostvenerableofmountainranges，suchastheLebanon.
Whatisthiswide—spreadcomponentofthesurfaceoftheearth？andwhencediditcome？
Youmaythinkthisnoveryhopefulinquiry.Youmaynotunnaturallysupposethattheattempttosolvesuchproblemsasthesecanleadtonoresult，savethatofentanglingtheinquirerinvaguespeculations，incapableofrefutationandofverification.
Ifsuchwerereallythecase，Ishouldhaveselectedsomeothersubjectthana\"pieceofchalk\"formydiscourse.But，intruth，aftermuchdeliberation，Ihavebeenunabletothinkofanytopicwhichwouldsowellenablemetoleadyoutoseehowsolidisthefoundationuponwhichsomeofthemoststartlingconclusionsofphysicalsciencerest.
Agreatchapterofthehistoryoftheworldiswritteninthechalk.Fewpassagesinthehistoryofmancanbesupportedbysuchanoverwhelmingmassofdirectandindirectevidenceasthatwhichtestifiestothetruthofthefragmentofthehistoryoftheglobe，whichIhopetoenableyoutoread，withyourowneyes，tonight.
Letmeadd，thatfewchaptersofhumanhistoryhaveamoreprofoundsignificanceforourselves.IweighmywordswellwhenIassert，thatthemanwhoshouldknowthetruehistoryofthebitofchalkwhicheverycarpentercarriesaboutinhisbreeches—pocket，thoughignorantofallotherhistory，islikely，ifhewillthinkhisknowledgeouttoitsultimateresults，tohaveatruer，andthereforeabetter，conceptionofthiswonderfuluniverse，andofman’srelationtoit，thanthemostlearnedstudentwhoisdeep—
readintherecordsofhumanityandignorantofthoseofNature.
Thelanguageofthechalkisnothardtolearn，notnearlysohardasLatin，ifyouonlywanttogetatthebroadfeaturesofthestoryithastotell;andIproposethatwenowsettoworktospellthatstoryouttogether.
Weallknowthatifwe\"burn\"chalktheresultisquicklime.
Chalk，infact，isacompoundofcarbonicacidgas，andlime，andwhenyoumakeitveryhotthecarbonicacidfliesawayandthelimeisleft.
Bythismethodofprocedureweseethelime，butwedonotseethecarbonicacid.If，ontheotherhand，youweretopowderalittlechalkanddropitintoagooddealofstrongvinegar，therewouldbeagreatbubblingandfizzing，and，finally，aclearliquid，inwhichnosignofchalkwouldappear.Hereyouseethecarbonicacidinthebubbles;thelime，dissolvedinthevinegar，vanishesfromsight.Thereareagreatmanyotherwaysofshowingthatchalkisessentiallynothingbutcarbonicacidandquicklime.
Chemistsenunciatetheresultofalltheexperimentswhichprovethis，bystatingthatchalkisalmostwhollycomposedof\"carbonateoflime.\"
Itisdesirableforustostartfromtheknowledgeofthisfact，thoughitmaynotseemtohelpusveryfartowardswhatweseek.
Forcarbonateoflimeisawidelyspreadsubstance，andismetwithunderveryvariousconditions.Allsortsoflimestonesarecomposedofmoreorlesspurecarbonateoflime.Thecrustwhichisoftendepositedbywaterswhichhavedrainedthroughlimestonerocks，intheformofwhatarecalledstalagmitesandstalactites，iscarbonateoflime.Or，totakeamorefamiliarexample，thefurontheinsideofatea—kettleiscarbonateoflime;and，foranythingchemistrytellsustothecontrary，thechalkmightbeakindofgiganticfuruponthebottomoftheearth—kettle，whichiskeptprettyhotbelow.
Letustryanothermethodofmakingthechalktellusitsownhistory.Totheunassistedeyechalklookssimplylikeaverylooseandopenkindofstone.Butitispossibletogrindasliceofchalkdownsothinthatyoucanseethroughit——untilitisthinenough，infact，tobeexaminedwithanymagnifyingpowerthatmaybethoughtdesirable.Athinsliceofthefurofakettlemightbemadeinthesameway.Ifitwereexaminedmicroscopically，itwouldshowitselftobeamoreorlessdistinctlylaminatedmineralsubstanceandnothingmore.
Butthesliceofchalkpresentsatotallydifferentappearancewhenplacedunderthemicroscope.Thegeneralmassofitismadeupofveryminutegranules;but，imbeddedinthismatrix，areinnumerablebodies，somesmallerandsomelarger，but，onaroughaverage，notmorethanahundredthofaninchindiameter，havingawell—definedshapeandstructure.Acubicinchofsomespecimensofchalkmaycontainhundredsofthousandsofthesebodies，compactedtogetherwithincalculablemillionsofthegranules.
Theexaminationofatransparentslicegivesagoodnotionofthemannerinwhichthecomponentsofthechalkarearranged，andoftheirrelativeproportions.But，byrubbingupsomechalkwithabrushinwaterandthenpouringoffthemilkyfluid，soastoobtainsedimentsofdifferentdegreesoffineness，thegranulesandtheminuteroundedbodiesmaybeprettywellseparatedfromoneanother，andsubmittedtomicroscopicexamination，eitherasopaqueorastransparentobjects.Bycombiningtheviewsobtainedinthesevariousmethods，eachoftheroundedbodiesmaybeprovedtobeabeautifullyconstructedcalcareousfabric，madeupofanumberofchambers，communicatingfreelywithoneanother.Thechamberedbodiesareofvariousforms.Oneofthecommonestissomethinglikeabadlygrownraspberry，beingformedofanumberofnearlyglobularchambersofdifferentsizescongregatedtogether.ItiscalledGlobigerina，andsomespecimensofchalkconsistoflittleelsethanGlobigerinaandgranules.
LetusfixourattentionupontheGlobigerina.Itisthespoorofthegamewearetracking.Ifwecanlearnwhatitisandwhataretheconditionsofitsexistence，weshallseeourwaytotheoriginandpasthistoryofthechalk.
Asuggestionwhichmaynaturallyenoughpresentitselfis，thatthesecuriousbodiesaretheresultofsomeprocessofaggregationwhichhastakenplaceinthecarbonateoflime;that，justasinwinter，therimeonourwindowssimulatesthemostdelicateandelegantlyarborescentfoliage——provingthatthemeremineralwatermay，undercertainconditions，assumetheoutwardformoforganicbodies——sothismineralsubstance，carbonateoflime，hiddenawayinthebowelsoftheearth，hastakentheshapeofthesechamberedbodies.Iamnotraisingamerelyfancifulandunrealobjection.
Verylearnedmen，informerdays，haveevenentertainedthenotionthatalltheformedthingsfoundinrocksareofthisnature;andifnosuchconceptionisatpresentheldtobeadmissible，itisbecauselongandvariedexperiencehasnowshownthatmineralmatterneverdoesassumetheformandstructurewefindinfossils.
Ifanyoneweretotrytopersuadeyouthatanoyster—shell（whichisalsochieflycomposedofcarbonateoflime）hadcrystallizedoutofsea—water，Isupposeyouwouldlaughattheabsurdity.Yourlaughterwouldbejustifiedbythefactthatallexperiencetendstoshowthatoyster—shellsareformedbytheagencyofoysters，andinnootherway.Andiftherewerenobetterreasons，weshouldbejustified，onlikegrounds，inbelievingthatGlobigerinaisnottheproductofanythingbutvitalactivity.
Happily，however，betterevidenceinproofoftheorganicnatureoftheGlobigerinaethanthatofanalogyisforthcoming.Itsohappensthatcalcareousskeletons，exactlysimilartotheGlobigerinaeofthechalk，arebeingformed，atthepresentmoment，byminutelivingcreatures，whichflourishinmultitudes，literallymorenumerousthanthesandsofthesea—shore，overalargeextentofthatpartoftheearth’ssurfacewhichiscoveredbytheocean.
ThehistoryofthediscoveryoftheselivingGlobigerinae，andofthepartwhichtheyplayinrockbuilding，issingularenough.Itisadiscoverywhich，likeothersofnolessscientificimportance，hasarisen，incidentally，outofworkdevotedtoverydifferentandexceedinglypracticalinterests.
Whenmenfirsttooktothesea，theyspeedilylearnedtolookoutforshoalsandrocks;andthemoretheburthenoftheirshipsincreased，themoreimperativelynecessaryitbecameforsailorstoascertainwithprecisionthedepthsofthewaterstheytraversed.
Outofthisnecessitygrewtheuseoftheleadandsoundingline;
and，ultimately，marine—surveying，whichistherecordingoftheformofcoastsandofthedepthofthesea，asascertainedbythesounding—lead，uponcharts.
Atthesametime，itbecamedesirabletoascertainandtoindicatethenatureofthesea—bottom，sincethiscircumstancegreatlyaffectsitsgoodnessasholdinggroundforanchors.Someingenioustar，whosenamedeservesabetterfatethantheoblivionintowhichithasfallen，attainedthisobjectby\"arming\"thebottomoftheleadwithalumpofgrease，towhichmoreorlessofthesandormud，orbrokenshells，asthecasemightbe，adhered，andwasbroughttothesurface.But，howeverwelladaptedsuchanapparatusmightbeforroughnauticalpurposes，scientificaccuracycouldnotbeexpectedfromthearmedlead，andtoremedyitsdefects（especiallywhenappliedtosoundingingreatdepths）
Lieut.Brooke，[61]oftheAmericanNavy，someyearsagoinventedamostingeniousmachine，bywhichaconsiderableportionofthesuperficiallayerofthesea—bottomcanbescoopedoutandbroughtupfromanydepthtowhichtheleaddescends.
In1853，Lieut.BrookeobtainedmudfromthebottomoftheNorthAtlantic，betweenNewfoundlandandtheAzores，atadepthofmorethantenthousandfeet，ortwomiles，bythehelpofthissoundingapparatus.ThespecimensweresentforexaminationtoEhrenberg[62]
ofBerlin，andtoBaileyofWestPoint，[63]andthoseablemicroscopistsfoundthatthisdeep—seamudwasalmostentirelycomposedoftheskeletonsoflivingorganisms——thegreaterproportionofthesebeingjustliketheGlobigerinaealreadyknowntooccurinthechalk.
Thusfar，theworkhadbeencarriedonsimplyintheinterestsofscience，butLieut.Brooke’smethodofsoundingacquiredahighcommercialvalue，whentheenterpriseoflayingdownthetelegraph—
cable[64]betweenthiscountryandtheUnitedStateswasundertaken.
Foritbecameamatterofimmenseimportancetoknow，notonlythedepthoftheseaoverthewholelinealongwhichthecablewastobelaid，buttheexactnatureofthebottom，soastoguardagainstchancesofcuttingorfrayingthestrandsofthatcostlyrope.TheAdmiraltyconsequentlyorderedCaptainDayman，anoldfriendandshipmateofmine，toascertainthedepthoverthewholelineofthecable，andtobringbackspecimensofthebottom.Informerdays，suchacommandasthismighthavesoundedverymuchlikeoneoftheimpossiblethingswhichtheyoungprinceintheFairyTalesisorderedtodobeforehecanobtainthehandofthePrincess.
However，inthemonthsofJuneandJuly，1857，myfriendperformedthetaskassignedtohimwithgreatexpeditionandprecisionwithout，sofarasIknow，havingmetwithanyrewardofthatkind.
ThespecimensofAtlanticmudwhichheprocuredweresenttometobeexaminedandreportedupon.*
*SeeAppendixtoCaptainDayman’s\"Deep—seaSoundingsintheNorthAtlanticOcean，betweenIrelandandNewfoundland，madeinH.M.S.