Socialactivityandsocialconsumptionbynomeansexistsolelyintheformofadirectlycommunalactivityandadirectlycommunalconsumption，eventhoughcommunalactivityandcommunalconsumption——i.e.，activityandconsumptionthatexpressandconfirmthemselvesdirectlyinrealassociationwithothermen——occurwhereverthatdirectexpressionofsociality[Gesellschaftlichkeit]springsfromtheessentialnatureofthecontentoftheactivityandisappropriatetothenatureoftheconsumption.
ButevenifIamactiveinthefieldofscience，etc.——anactivitywhichIamseldomabletoperformindirectassociationwithothermen——IamstillsociallyactivebecauseIamactiveasaman.Itisnotonlythematerialofmyactivity——includingeventhelanguageinwhichthethinkerisactive——whichIreceiveasasocialproduct.Myownexistenceissocialactivity.ThereforewhatIcreatefrommyselfIcreateforsociety，consciousofmyselfasasocialbeing.
Myuniversalconsciousnessisonlythetheoreticalformofthatwhoselivingformistherealcommunity，society，whereasatpresentuniversalconsciousnessisanabstractionfromreallifeandassuchinhostileoppositiontoit.Hencetheactivityofmyuniversalconsciousness——asactivity——ismytheoreticalexistenceasasocialbeing.
Itis，aboveall，necessarytoavoidoncemoreestablishing\"society\"
asanabstractionoveragainsttheindividual.Theindividualisthesocialbeing.Hisvitalexpression——evenwhenitdoesnotappearinthedirectformofacommunalexpression，conceivedinassociationwithothermen——isthereforeanexpressionandconfirmationofsociallife.
Man’sindividualandspecies—lifearenottwodistinctthings，howevermuch——andthisisnecessarilyso——themodeofexistenceofindividuallifeisamoreparticularoramoregeneralmodeofthespecies—life，orspecies—lifeamoreparticularormoregeneralindividuallife.
Asspecies—consciousnessmanconfirmshisrealsociallifeandmerelyrepeatsinthoughthisactualexistence;conversely，species—beingconfirmsitselfinspecies—consciousnessandexistsforitselfinitsuniversality，asathinkingbeing.
Man，howevermuchhemaythereforebeaparticularindividual——anditisjustthisparticularitywhichmakeshimanindividualtotality，theidealtotality，thesubjectiveexistenceofthoughtandexperiencedsocietyforitself;healsoexistsinrealityasthecontemplationandtrueenjoymentofsocialexistenceandasatotalityofvitalhumanexpression.
Itistruethatthoughtandbeingaredistinct，butatthesametimetheyareinunitywithoneanother.
Deathappearsastheharshvictoryofthespeciesovertheparticularindividual，andseeminglycontradictstheirunity;buttheparticularindividualisonlyaparticularspecies—being，and，assuch，mortal.
（4）Justasprivatepropertyisonlythesensuousexpressionofthefactthatmanbecomesobjectiveforhimselfandatthesametimebecomesanalienandinhumanobjectforhimself，thathisexpressionoflife[Lebensausserung]ishisalienationoflife[Lebensentausserung]，andthathisrealizationisalossofreality，analienreality，sothepositivesupersessionofprivateproperty——i.e.，thesensuousappropriationofthehumanessenceandhumanlife，ofobjectivemanandofhumanworksbyandforman——shouldnotbeunderstoodonlyinthesenseofdirect，one—sidedconsumption，ofpossession，ofhaving.Manappropriateshisintegralessenceinanintegralway，asatotalman.Allhishumanelationstotheworld——seeing，hearing，smelling，tasting，feeling，thinking，contemplating，sensing，wanting，acting，loving——inshort，alltheorgansofhisindividuality，liketheorganswhicharedirectlycommunalinform，areintheirobjectiveapproachorintheirapproachtotheobjecttheappropriationofthatobject.Thisappropriationofhumanreality，theirapproachtotheobject，istheconfirmationofhumanreality.[Marx’snote：
Itisthereforejustasvariedasthedeterminationsofthehumanessenceandactivities.]Itishumaneffectivenessandhumansuffering，forsuffering，humanlyconceived，isanenjoymentoftheselfforman.
Privatepropertyhasmadeussostupidandone—sidedthatanobjectisonlyourswhenwehaveit，whenitexistsforusascapitalorwhenwedirectlypossess，eat，drink，wear，inhabitit，etc.，inshort，whenweuseit.Althoughprivatepropertyconceivesalltheseimmediaterealizationsofpossessiononlyasmeansoflife;andthelifetheyserveisthelifeofprivateproperty，labor，andcapitalization.
Thereforeallthephysicalandintellectualsenseshavebeenreplacedbythesimpleestrangementofallthesesenses——thesenseofhaving.
Sothatitmightgivebirthtoitsinnerwealth，humannaturehadtobereducedtothisabsolutepoverty.（OnthecategoryofhavingseeHessinEinundzwanzigBogen.）
Thesupersessionofprivatepropertyisthereforethecompleteemancipationofallhumansensesandattributes;butitisthisemancipationpreciselybecausethesesensesandattributeshavebecomehuman，subjectivelyaswellasobjectively.Theeyehasbecomeahumaneye，justasitsobjecthasbecomeasocial，humanobject，madebymanforman.Thesenseshavethereforebecometheoreticiansintheirimmediatepraxis.Theyrelatetothethingforitsownsake，butthethingitselfisanobjectivehumanrelationtoitselfandtoman，andviceversa.[Marx’snote：InpracticeIcanonlyrelatemyselftoathinginahumanwayifthethingisrelatedinahumanwaytoman.]Needoremploymenthavethereforelosttheiregoisticnature，andnaturehaslostitsmereutilityinthesensethatitsusehasbecomehumanuse.
Similarly，sensesandenjoymentofothermenhavebecomemyownappropriation.Apartfromthesedirectorgans，socialorgansarethereforecreatedintheformofsociety;forexample，activityindirectassociationwithothers，etc.，hasbecomeanorganofmylifeexpressionsandamodeofappropriationofhumanlife.
Obviouslythehumaneyetakesinthingsinadifferentwayfromthecrudenon—humaneye，thehumearinadifferentwayfromthecrudeear，etc.
Tosumup：itisonlywhenman’sobjectbecomesahumanobjectorobjectivethatmandoesnotlosehimselfinthatobject.Thisisonlypossiblewhenitbecomesasocialobjectforhimandwhenhehimselfbecomesasocialbeingforhimself，justassocietybecomesabeingforhiminthisobject.
Ontheonehand，therefore，itisonlywhenobjectiverealityuniversallybecomesformaninsocietytherealityofman’sessentialpowers，becomeshumanreality，andthustherealityofhisownessentialpowers，thatallobjectsbecomeforhimtheobjectificationofhimself，objectsthatconfirmandrealizehisindividuality，hisobjects——i.e.，hehimselfbecomestheobject.Themannerinwhichtheybecomehisdependsonthenatureoftheobjectandthenatureoftheessentialpowerthatcorrespondstoit;foritisjustthedeterminatenessofthisrelationthatconstitutestheparticular，realmodeofaffirmation.Anobjectisdifferentfortheeyefromwhatitisfortheear，andtheeye’sobjectisdifferentforfromtheear’s.Thepeculiarityofeachessentialpowerispreciselyitspeculiaressence，andthusalsothepeculiarmodeofitsobjectification，ofitsobjectivelyreal，livingbeing.Manisthereforeaffirmedintheobjectiveworldnotonlyinthoughtbutwithallthesenses.
Ontheotherhand，letuslookatthequestioninitssubjectiveaspect：onlymusiccanawakenthemusicalsenseinmanandthemostbeautifulmusichasnosensefortheunmusicalear，becausemyobjectcanonlybetheconfirmationofoneofmyessentialpowers——i.e.，canonlybeformeinsofarasmyessentialpowerexistsformeasasubjectiveattribute（thisisbecausethesenseofanobjectformeextendsonlyasfarasmysenseextends，onlyhassenseforasensethatcorrespondstothatobject）.
Inthesameway，andforthesamereasons，thesensesofsocialmanaredifferentfromthoseofnon—socialman.Onlythroughtheobjectivelyunfoldedwealthofhumannaturecanthewealthofsubjectivehumansensitivity——
amusicalear，aneyeforthebeautyofform，inshort，sensescapableofhumangratification——beeithercultivatedorcreated.Fornotonlythefivesenses，butalsotheso—calledspiritualsenses，thepracticalsenses（will，love，etc.），inaword，thehumansense，thehumanityofthesenses——allthesecomeintobeingonlythroughtheexistenceoftheirobjects，throughhumanizednature.Thecultivationofthefivesensesistheworkofallprevioushistory.Sensewhichisaprisonerofcrudepracticalneedhasonlyarestrictedsense.Foramanwhoisstarving，thehumanformoffooddoesnotexist，onlyitsabstractformexists;itcouldjustaswellbepresentinitscrudestform，anditwouldbehardtosayhowthiswayofeatingdiffersfromthatofanimals.Themanwhoisburdenedwithworriesandneedshasnosenseforthefinestofplays;thedealerinmineralsseesonlythecommercialvalue，andnotthebeautyandpeculiarnatureoftheminerals;helacksamineralogicalsense;thustheobjectificationofthehumanessence，inatheoreticalaswellasapracticalrespect，isnecessarybothinordertomakeman’ssenseshumanandtocreateanappropriatehumansenseforthewholeofthewealthofhumanityandofnature.
Justasinitsinitialstagessocietyispresentedwithallthematerialforthisculturaldevelopmentthroughthemovementofprivateproperty，andofitswealthandpoverty——bothmaterialandintellectualwealthandpoverty——sothesocietythatisfullydevelopedproducesmaninalltherichnessofhisbeing，therichmanwhoisprofoundlyandabundantlyendowedwithallthesenses，asitsconstantreality.Itcanbeseenhowsubjectivenessandobjectivism，spiritualismandmaterialism，activityandpassivity[Leiden]，losetheirantitheticalcharacter，andhencetheirexistenceassuchantithesis，onlyinthesocialcondition;itcanbeseenhowtheresolutionofthetheoreticalantithesesthemselvesispossibleonlyinapracticalway，onlythroughthepracticalenergyofman，andhowtheirresolutionisforthatreasonbynomeansonlyaproblemofknowledge，butarealproblemoflife，aproblemwhichphilosophywasunabletosolvepreciselybecauseittreateditasapurelytheoreticalproblem.
Itcanbeseenhowthehistoryofindustryandtheobjectiveexistenceofindustryasithasdevelopedistheopenbookoftheessentialpowersofman，man’spsychologypresentintangibleform;uptonowthishistoryhasnotbeengraspedinitsconnectionwiththenatureofman，butonlyinanexternalutilitarianaspect，forman，movingintherealmofestrangement，wasonlycapableofconceivingthegeneralexistenceofman——religion，orhistoryinitsabstractanduniversalformofpolitics，art，literature，etc.——astherealityofman’sessentialpowersandasman’sspecies—activity.
Ineveryday，materialindustry（whichcanjustaseasilybeconsideredasapartofthatgeneraldevelopmentasthatgeneraldevelopmentitselfcanbeconsideredasaparticularpartofindustry，sinceallhumanactivityuptonowhasbeenlabor——i.e.，industry，self—estrangedactivity）
wefindourselvesconfrontedwiththeobjectifiedpowersofthehumanessence，intheformofsensuous，alien，usefulobjects，intheformofestrangement.
Apsychologyforwhichthisbook，themosttangibleandaccessiblepartofhistory，isclosed，canneverbecomearealsciencewithagenuinecontent.
Whatindeedshouldwethinkofasciencewhichprimlyabstractsfromthislargeareaofhumanlabor，andfailstosenseitsowninadequacy，eventhoughsuchanextendedwealthofhumanactivitysaysnothingmoretoitperhapsthanwhatcanbesaidinoneword——\"need\"，\"commonneed\"？
Thenaturalscienceshavebeenprolificallyactiveandhavegatheredtogetheranevergrowingmassofmaterial.Butphilosophyhasremainedjustasalientothemastheyhaveremainedalientophilosophy.Theirmomentaryunionwasonlyafantasticillusion.Thewillwasthere，butnotthemeans.Evenhistoriographyonlyincidentallytakesaccountofnaturalscience，whichitseesascontributingtoenlightenment，utilityandafewgreatdiscoveries.Butnaturalsciencehasintervenedinandtransformedhumanlifeallthemorepracticallythroughindustryandhaspreparedtheconditionsforhumanemancipation，howevermuchitsimmediateeffectwastocompletetheprocesswastocompletetheprocessofdehumanization.
Industryistherealhistoricalrelationshipofnature，andhenceofnaturalscience，toman.Ifitisthenconceivedastheexotericrevelationofman’sessentialpowers，thehumanessenceofnatureorthenaturalessenceofmancanalsobeunderstood.Hencenaturalsciencewillloseitsabstractlymaterial，orratheridealist，orientationandbecomethebasisofahumanscience，justasithasalreadybecome——thoughinanestrangedform——
thebasisofactualhumanlife.Theideaofonebasisforlifeandanotherforscienceisfromtheveryoutsetalie.Natureasitcomesintobeinginhumanhistory——intheactofcreationofhumansociety——isthetruenatureofman;hencenatureasitcomesintobeingthroughindustry，thoughinanestrangedform，istrueanthropologicalnature.
Senseperception（seeFeuerbach）mustbethebasisofallscience.
Onlywhensciencestartsoutfromsenseperceptioninthedualformofsensuousconsciousnessandsensuousneed——i.e.，onlywhensciencestartsoutfromnature——isitrealscience.Thewholeofhistoryisapreparation，adevelopment，for\"man\"tobecometheobjectofsensuousconsciousnessandfortheneedsof\"manasman\"tobecome[sensuous]needs.
Historyitselfisarealpartofnaturalhistoryandofnature’sbecomingman.Naturalsciencewill，intime，subsumethescienceofman，justasthescienceofmanwillsubsumenaturalscience：therewillbeonescience.
Manistheimmediateobjectofnaturalscience;forimmediatesensuousnatureformanis，immediately，humansenseperception（anidenticalexpression）intheformoftheothermanwhoispresentinhissensuousimmediacyforhim.Hisownsenseperceptiononlyexistsashumansenseperceptionforhimselfthroughtheotherman.Butnatureistheimmediateobjectofthescienceofman.Man’sfirstobject——man——isnature，senseperception;andtheparticularsensuoushumanpowers，sincetheycanfindobjectiverealizationonlyinnaturalobjects，canfindself—knowledgeonlyinthescienceofnatureingeneral.Theelementofthoughtitself，theelementofthevitalexpressionofthought——language——issensuousnature.Thesocialrealityofnatureandhumannaturalscienceorthenaturalscienceofmanareidenticalexpressions.
Itcanbeseenhowtherichmanandthewealthofhumanneedtaketheplaceofthewealthandpovertyofpoliticaleconomy.Therichmanissimultaneouslythemaninneedoftotalityofvitalhumanexpression;
heisthemaninwhomhisownrealizationexistsasinnernecessity，asneed.Givensocialism，notonlyman’swealthbutalsohispovertyacquireahumanandhenceasocialsignificance.Povertyisthepassivebondwhichmakesmanexperiencehisgreatestwealth——theotherman——asneed.Thedominationoftheobjectiveessenceswithinme，thesensuousoutburstofmyessentialactivity，ispassion，whichherebecomestheactivityofmybeing.
（5）Abeingseeshimselfasindependentonlywhenhestandsonhisownfeet，andheonlystandsonhisownfeetwhenheowesthisexistencetohimself.Amanwholivesbythegraceofanotherregardshimselfasadependentbeing.ButIlivecompletelybythegraceofanotherifIowehimnotonlythemaintenanceofmylife，butalsoitscreation，ifheisthesourceofmylife.Mylifeisnecessarilygroundedoutsideitselfifitisnotmyowncreation.Thecreationisthereforeanideawhichisveryhardtoexorcizefromthepopularconsciousness.Thisconsciousnessisincapableofcomprehendingtheself—mediatedbeing[Durchsichselbstsein]
ofnatureandofman，sincesuchabeingcontradictsallthepalpableevidenceofpracticallife.
ThecreationoftheEarthreceivesaheavyblowfromthescienceofgeogeny——i.e.，thesciencewhichdepictstheformationoftheEarth，itscomingtobe，asaprocessofself—generation.Generatioaequivoca[spontaneousgeneration]istheonlypracticalrefutationofthetheoryofcreation.
Now，itiseasytosaytoaparticularindividualwhatAristotlesaid：Youwerebegottenbyyourfatherandyourmother，whichmeansthatinyouthematingoftwohumanbeings，ahumanspecies—act，producedanotherhumanbeing.Clearly，then，manalsooweshisexistencetomaninaphysicalsense.Therefore，youshouldnotonlykeepsightoftheoneaspect，theinfiniteprogressionwhichleadsyouontothequestion：\"Whobegotmyfather，hisgrandfather，etc.？\"Youshouldalsokeepinmindthecircularmovementsensuouslyperceptibleinthatprogressionwherebymanreproduceshimselfintheactofbegettingandthusalwaysremainsthesubject.Butyouwillreply：Igrantyouthiscircularmovement，butyoumustalsograntmetherighttoprogressbacktothequestion：Yourquestionisitselfaproductofabstraction.Askyourselfhowyouarrivedatthatquestion.
AskyourselfwhetheryourquestiondoesnotarisefromastandpointtowhichIcannotreplybecauseitisaperverseone.Askyourselfwhetherthatprogressionexistsassuchforrationalthought.Ifyouaskaboutthecreationofnatureandofman，thenyouareabstractingfromnatureandfromman.Youassumethemasnon—existentandwantmetoprovetoyouthattheyexist.Myansweris：Giveupyourabstractionandyouwillthemgiveupyourquestion.Butifyouwanttoholdontoyourabstraction，thendosoconsistently，andifyouassumethenon—existenceofmanandnature，thenassumealsoyourownnon—existence，foryouarealsonatureandman.Donotthinkanddonotaskmequestions，forassoonasyouthinkandaskquestions，yourabstractionfromtheexistenceofnatureandmanhasnomeaning.Orareyousuchanegoistthatyouassumeeverythingasnon—existenceandstillwanttoexistyourself？
Youcanreply：Idonotwanttoassumethenothingnessofnature，etc.Iamonlyaskinghowitarose，justasImightasktheanatomistabouttheformationofbones，etc.
Butsinceforsocialistmanthewholeofwhatiscalledworldhistoryisnothingmorethanthecreationofmanthroughhumanlabor，andthedevelopmentofnatureforman，hethereforehaspalpableandincontrovertibleproofofhisself—mediatedbirth，ofhisprocessofemergence.Sincetheessentiality[Wesenhaftigkeit]ofmanandnature，amanastheexistenceofnatureformanandnatureastheexistenceofmanforman，hasbecomepracticallyandsensuouslyperceptible，thequestionofanalienbeing，beingabovenatureandman——aquestionwhichimpliesanadmissionoftheunrealityofnatureandofman——hasbecomeimpossibleinpractice.
Atheism，whichisadenialofthisunreality，nolongerhasanymeaning，foratheismisanegationofGod，throughwhichnegationitassertstheexistenceofman.Butsocialismassuchnolongerneedssuchmediation.
Itsstartingpointisthetheoreticallyandpracticallysensuousconsciousnessofmanandofnatureasessentialbeings.Itisthepositiveself—consciousnessofman，nolongermediatedthroughtheabolitionofreligion，justasreallifeispositiverealitynolongermediatedthroughtheabolitionofprivateproperty，throughcommunism.Communismistheactofpositingasthenegationofthenegation，andisthereforearealphase，necessaryforthenextperiodofhistoricaldevelopment，intheemancipationandrecoveryofmankind.
Communismisthenecessaryformandthedynamicprincipleoftheimmediatefuture，butcommunismisnotassuchthegoalofhumandevelopment——theformofhumansociety.
NEED，PRODUCTIONANDDIVISIONOFLABOR
Wehaveseenwhatsignificancethewealthofhumanneedshas，onthepresuppositionofsocialism，andconsequentlywhatsignificanceanewmodeofproductionandanewobjectofproductionhave.Afreshconfirmationofhumanpowersandafreshenrichmentofhumannature.Underthesystemofprivatepropertytheirsignificanceisreversed.Eachpersonspeculatesoncreatinganewneedintheother，withtheaimofforcinghimtomakeanewsacrifice，placinghiminanewdependenceandseducinghimintoanewkindofofenjoymentandhenceintoeconomicruin.Eachattemptstoestablishovertheotheranalienpower，inthehopeoftherebyachievingsatisfactionofhisownselfishneeds.Withthemassofobjectsgrowstherealmofalienpowerstowhichmnissubjected，andeachnewproductisanewpotentialityofmutualfraudandmutualpillage.Manbecomeseverpoorerasaman，andneedsevermoremoneyifheistoachievemasteryoverthehostilebeing.Thepowerofhismoneyfallsininverseproportiontothevolumeofproductions——i.e.，hisneedgrowsasthepowerofmoneyincreases.Theneedformoneyisforthatreasontherealneedcreatedbythemoderneconomicsystem，andtheonlyneeditcreates.Thequantityofmoneybecomesmoreandmoreitssoleimportantproperty.Justasitreduceseverythingtoitsownformofabstraction，soitreducesitselfinthecourseofitsownmovementtosomethingquantitative.Lackofmoderationandintemperancebecomeitstruestandard.Subjectivelythisismanifestedpartlyinthefactthattheexpansionofproductionandneedsbecomestheinventiveandevercalculatingslaveofinhuman，refined，unnaturalandimaginaryappetites——forprivatepropertydoesnotknowhowtotransformcrudeneedintohumanneed.Itsidealismisfantasy，caprice，andinfatuation.
Noeunuchflattershisdespotmorebasely，orusesmoreinfamousmeanstorevivehisflaggingcapacityforpleasure，inordertowinasurreptitiousfavorforhimself，thandoestheeunuchofindustry，themanufacturer，inordertosneakhimselfasilverpennyortwo，orcoaxthegoldfromthepocketofhisdearlybelovedneighbor.（Everyproductisabaitwithwhichtoenticetheessenceoftheother，hismoney.Everyrealorpotentialneedisaweaknesswhichwilltempttheflyontothelime—twig.Universalexploitationofcommunalhumannature.Justaseachoneofman’sinadequaciesisabondwithheaven，awayintohisheartforthepriest，soeveryneedisanopportunityforsteppinguptoone’sneighborinshamfriendshipandsayingtohim：\"Dearfriend，Icangiveyouwantyouneed，butyouknowtheterms.Youknowwhichinkyoumustuseinsigningyourselfovertome.IshallcheatyouwhileIprovideyourpleasure.\"Heplaceshimselfatthedisposalofhisneighbor’smostdepravedfancies，panderstohisneeds，excitesunhealthyappetitesinhim，andpouncesoneveryweakness，sothathecanthendemandthemoneyforhislaboroflove.
Thisestrangementpartlymanifestsitselfinthefactthattherentofneedsandofthemeansoffulfillingthemgivesrisetoabestialdegenerationandacomplete，crudeandabstractsimplicityofneed;orrather，thatitmerelyreproducesitselfinitsoppositesense.Eventheneedforfreshairceasestobeaneedfortheworker.Manrevertsoncemoretolivinginacave，butthecaveisnowpollutedbythemephiticandpestilentialbreathofcivilization.Moreover，theworkerhasnomorethanaprecariousrighttoliveinit，foritisforhimanalienpowerthatcanbedailywithdrawnandfromwhich，shouldhefailtopay，hecanbeevictedatanytime.Heactuallyhastopayforthismortuary.Adwellinginthelight，whichPrometheusdescribesinAeschylusasoneofthegreatgiftsthroughwhichhetransformedsavagesintomen，ceasestoexistfortheworker.Light，ire，etc.——thesimplestanimalcleanliness——casesbeaneedforman.Dirt——thispollutionandputrefactionofman，thesewage（thiswordistobeunderstoodinitsliteralsense）ofcivilization——becomesanelementoflifeforhim.Universalunnaturalneglect，putrefiednature，becomesanelementoflifeforhim.Noneofthissenseexistanylonger，eitherintheirhumanformorintheirinhumanform——i.e.，notevenintheiranimalform.Thecrudestmodes（andinstruments）ofhumanlaborreappear;forexample，thetread—millusedbyRomanslavehasbecomethemodeofproductionandmodeofexistenceofmanyEnglishworkers.Itisnotonlyhumanneedswhichmanlacks——evenhisanimalneedsceasetoexist.TheIrishmanhasonlyoneneedleft——theneedtoeat，toeatpotatoes，and，moreprecisely，toeatrottenpotatoes，theworstkindofpotatoes.ButEnglandandFrancealreadyhavealittleIrelandineachoftheirindustrialcitiesThesavageandtheanimalatleasthavetheneedtohunt，tomoveabout，etc.，theneedofcompanionship.Thesimplificationofmachineryandoflaborisusedtomakeworkersoutofhumanbeingswhoarestillgrowing，whoarecompletelyimmature，outofchildren，whiletheworkerhimselfbecomesaneglectedchild.Themachineaccommodatesitselftoman’sweakness，inordertoturnweakmanintoamachine.
Thefactthatthemultiplicationofneedsandofthemeansoffulfillingthemgivesrisetoalackofneedsandofmeansisprovedbythepoliticaleconomist（andbythecapitalist——weinvariablymeanempiricalbusinessmenwhenwerefertopoliticaleconomists，whoarethescientificexpositionandexistenceoftheformer）inthefollowingways：
（1）Byreducingtheworker’sneedstothepaltriestminimumnecessarytomaintainhisphysicalexistenceandbyreducinghisactivitytothemostabstractmechanicalmovement.Insodoing，thepoliticaleconomistdeclaresthatmanhasnootherneeds，eitherinthesphereofactivityorinthatofconsumption.Foreventhislifehecallshumanlifeandhumanexistence.
（2）Bytakingashisstandard——hisuniversalstandard，inthesensethatitappliestothemassofmen——theworstpossiblestateofprivationwhichlife（existence）canknow.Heturnstheworkerintoabeingwithneitherneedsnorsensesandturntheworker’sactivityintoapureabstractionfromallactivity.Henceanyluxurythattheworkermightenjoyisreprehensible，andanythingthatgoesbeyondthemostabstractneed——eitherintheformofpassiveenjoymentoractiveexpression——
appearstohimasaluxury.Politicaleconomy，thisscienceofwealth，isthereforeatthesametimethescienceofdenial，ofstarvation，ofsaving，anditactuallygoessofarastosavemantheneedforfreshairorphysicalexercise.Thisscienceofthemarvelsofindustryisatthesametimethescienceofasceticism，anditstrueidealistheasceticbutrapaciousskinflintandtheasceticbutproductiveslave.Itsmoralidealistheworkerwhoputsapartofhiswagesintosavings，andithasevendiscoveredaservileartwhichcandignifythischarminglittlenotionandpresentasentimentalversionofitonthestage.Itistherefore——
forallitsworldlyanddebauchedappearance——atrulymoralmoralscience，themostmoralscienceofall.Self—denial，thedenialoflifeandofallhumanneeds，isitsprincipaldoctrine.Thelessyoueat，drink，buybooks，gotothetheatre，godancing，godrinking，think，love，theorize，sing，paint，fence，etc.，themoreyousaveandthegreaterwillbecomethattreasurewhichneithermothsnormaggotscanconsume——yourcapital.Thelessyouare，thelessyougiveexpressiontoyourlife，themoreyouhave，thegreaterisyouralienatedlifeandthemoreyoustoreupofyourestrangedlife.Everythingwhichthepoliticaleconomisttakesfromyouintermsoflifeandhumanity，herestorestoyouintheformofmoneyandwealth，andeverythingwhichyouareunabletodo，yourmoneycandoforyou：itcaneat，drink，godancing，gotothetheatre，itcanappropriateart，learning，historicalcuriosities，politicalpower，itcantravel，itiscapableofdoingallthosethingforyou;itcanbuyeverythingitisgenuinewealth，genuineability.Butforallthat，itonlylikestocreateitself，tobuyitself，forafteralleverythingelseisitsservant.AndwhenI
havethemasterIhavetheservant，andIhavenoneedofhisservant.
Soallpassionsandallactivityarelostingreed.Theworkerisonlypermittedtohaveenoughforhimtolive，andheisonlypermittedtoliveinordertohave.
Itistruethatacontroversyhasariseninthefieldofpoliticaleconomy.Oneschool（Lauderdale，Malthus，etc.）advocatesluxuryandexecratesthrift.Theother（Say，Ricardo，etc.）advocatesthriftandexecratesluxury.
Buttheformeradmitsthatitwantsluxuryinordertoproducelabor——i.e.，absolutethrift;andthelatteradmitsthatitadvocatesthriftinordertoproducewealth——i.e.，luxury.Theformerhastheromanticnotionthatgreedaloneshouldnotregulatetheconsumptionoftherich，anditcontradictsitsownlawswhenitforwardstheideaofprodigalityasadirectmeansofenrichment.TheothersidethenadvancesearnestanddetailedargumentstoshowthatthroughprodigalityIdiminishratherthanincreasemypossessions;butitssupportershypocriticallyrefusetoadmitthatproductionisregulatedbycapriceandluxury;theyforgetthe\"refinedneeds\"andforgetthatwithoutconsumptiontherecanbenoproduction;
theyforgetthat，throughcompetition，productionbecomesmoreextensiveandluxurious;theyforgetthatitisusewhichdeterminesthevalueofathing，andthatitisfashionwhichdeterminesuse;theywantonly\"usefulthings\"tobeproduced，buttheyforgetthattheproductionoftoomanyusefulthingsproducestoomanyuselesspeople.Bothsidesforgetthatprodigalityandthrift，luxuryandprivation，wealthandpovertyareequal.
Andyoumustnotonlybeparsimoniousingratifyingyourimmediatesenses，suchaseating，etc.Youmustalsobecharyofparticipatinginaffairsofgeneralinterest，showingsympathyandtrust，etc.，ifyouwanttobeeconomicalandifyouwanttoavoidbeingruinedbyillusions.
Youmustmakeeverythingwhichisyoursvenal——i.e.，useful.Imightaskthepoliticaleconomist：amIobeyingeconomiclawsifImakemoneybyprostitutingmybodytothelustofanother（inFrance，thefactoryworkerscalltheprostitutionoftheirwivesanddaughtersthenthworkinghour，whichisliterallytrue），orifIsellmyfriendtotheMoroccans[wheretheystillhadChristianslaves]（andthedirectsaleofmenintheformoftradeinconscripts，etc.，occursinallcivilizedcountries）？Hisanswerwillbe：youractsdonotcontravenemylaws，butyoufindoutwhatCousinMoralityandCousinReligionhavetosayaboutit;themoralityandreligionofmypoliticaleconomyhavenoobjectiontomake，butButwhoshouldIbelieve，then？Politicaleconomyormorality？
Themoralityofpoliticaleconomyisgain，laborandthrift，sobriety——
andyetpoliticaleconomypromisestosatisfymyneeds.Thepoliticaleconomyofmoralityisthewealthofagoodconscience，ofvirtue，etc.ButhowcanIbevirtuousifIdonotexist？AndhowcanIhaveagoodconscienceifIamnotconsciousofanything？Itisinherentintheverynatureofestrangementthateachsphereimposesuponmeadifferentandcontrarystandard;onestandardformorality，oneforpoliticaleconomy，andsoon.Thisisbecauseeachofthemisaparticularestrangementofmanandeachiscentredupononeparticularareaofestrangedessentialactivity：
eachisrelatedinanestrangedwaytotheotherThusM.MichaelChevalieraccusesRicardoofabstractingfrommorality.ButRicardoallowspoliticaleconomytospeakitsownlanguage.Ifthislanguageisnotthatofmorality，itisnotthefaultofRicardo.M.Chevalierabstractsfrompoliticaleconomyinsofarashemoralizes，buthereallyandnecessarilyabstractsfrommoralityinsofarashedealswithpoliticaleconomy.Therelationshipofpoliticaleconomytomoralityiseitheranarbitraryandcontingentonewhichisneitherfoundednorscientific，asimulacrum，oritisessentialandcanonlybetherelationshipofeconomiclawstomorality.Ifsucharelationshipdoesnotexist，oriftheoppositeisratherthecase，canRicardodoanythingaboutit？Moreover，theoppositionbetweenpoliticaleconomyandmoralityisonlyanapparentone.Itisbothanoppositionandnotanopposition.
Politicaleconomymerelygivesexpressiontomorallawsinitsownway.
Absenceofneedsastheprincipleofpoliticaleconomyismostinitstheoryofpopulation.Thereretoomanypeople.Eventheexistenceofmanisapureluxury，andiftheworkeris\"moral\"hewillbeeconomicalinprocreation.（MillsuggestspubliccommendationofthosewhoshowthemselvestemperateinsexualmattersandpublicrebukesofthosewhosinagainstthisbarrennessofmarriageIsthisnotthemorality，thedoctrine，ofasceticism？）Theproductionofpeopleappearsasapublicdisaster.
Themeaningwhichproductionhasforthewealthyisrevealedinthemeaningwhichithasforthepoor.Atthetop，italwaysmanifestsitselfinrefined，concealed，andambiguousway——asanappearance.Atthebottom，itmanifestsitselfinacrude，straightforward，andovertway——asareality.Thecrudeneedoftheworkerisamuchgreatersourceofprofitthantherefinedneedoftherich.ThebasementdwellingsinLondonbringinmoreforthelandlordsthanthepalaces——i.e.，theyconstituteagreaterwealthforhimand，fromaneconomicpointofview，agreatersocialwealth.
Justasindustryspeculatesontherefinementofneeds，sotooitspeculatedontheircrudity.Butthecrudityonwhichitspeculatesisartificiallyproduced，anditstruemannerofenjoymentisthereforeself—stupefaction，thisapparentsatisfactionofneed，thiscivilizationwithinthecrudebarbarismofneed.TheEnglishginshopsare，therefore，thesymbolicrepresentationofprivateproperty.Theirluxurydemonstratedtomanthetruerelationofindustrialluxuryandwealth.Forthatreason，theyarerightlytheonlySundayenjoymentoftheEnglishpeople，andareatleasttreatedmildlybytheEnglishpolice.
Wehavealreadyseenhowthepoliticaleconomistestablishestheunityoflaborandcapitalinanumberofdifferentways：
（1）capitalisaccumulatedlabor;
（2）thepurposeofcapitalwithinproduction——partlythereproductionofcapitalwithprofit，partlycapitalasrawmaterial（materialoflabor）andpartlyasitselfaworkinginstrument（themachineiscapitaldirectlyidentifiedwithlabor）——isproductivelabor;
（3）theworkerisapieceofcapital;
（4）wagesbelongtothecostsofcapital;
（5）fortheworker，laboristhereproductionofhislifecapital;
（6）forthecapitalist，itisafactorintheactivityofhiscapital.Finally，（7）thepoliticaleconomistpostulatestheoriginalunityofcapitalandlaborastheunityofcapitalistandworker，whichheseesastheoriginalstateofbliss.Thefactthatthesetwoelementsleapateachother’sthroatsintheformoftwopersonsisacontingenteventforthepoliticaleconomist，andhenceonlytobeexplainedbyexternalfactors（seeMill）.
Thosenationswhicharestilldazzledbythesensuousglitterofpreciousmetalsand，therefore，makeafetishofmetalmoneyarenotyetfullydevelopedmoneynations.CompareEnglandandFrance.Theextenttowhichthesolutionoftheoreticalproblemsisafunctionofpracticeandismediatedthroughpractice，andtheextenttowhichtruepracticeistheconditionofarealandpositivetheoryisshown，forexample，inthecaseoffetish—worship.Thesenseperceptionofafetish—worshipperisdifferentfromthatofaGreekbecausehissensuousexistenceisdifferent.
Theabstracthostilitybetweensenseandintellectisinevitablesolongasthehumansense[Sinn]fornature，thehumansignificance[Sinn]ofnature，and，hence，thenaturalsenseofman，hasnotyetbeenproducedbyman’sownlabor.
EqualityisnothingbutatranslationintoFrench——i.e.，intopoliticalform——oftheGerman\"Ich—Ich\".Equalityasthebasisofcommunismisitspoliticalfoundation.ItisthesameaswhentheGermanfoundsitonthefactthatheseesmanasuniversalself—consciousness.
Itgoeswithoutsayingthatthesupersessionofestrangementalwaysemanatesfromtheformofestrangementwhichisthedominantpower——inGermany，self—consciousness;inFrance，equality，becausepolitics;inEngland，real，material，practicalneed，whichonlymeasuresitselfagainstitself.
ItisfromthispointofviewthatProudhonshouldbecriticizedandacknowledged.
Ifwecharacterizecommunismitself——whichbecauseofitscharacterasnegationofthenegation，asappropriationofthehumanessencewhichismediatedwithitselfthroughthenegationofprivateproperty，isnotyetthetrue，self—generatingposition[Position]，butonegeneratedbyprivateproperty[Here，thecornerofthepagehasbeentornaway，andonlyfragmentsonthesixsentencesremain，renderingitimpossibletounderstand.]
therealestrangementofhumanliferemainsandisallthegreaterthemoreoneisconsciousofitassuch，itcanonlybeattainedoncecommunismisestablished.Inordertosupersedetheideaofprivateproperty，theideaofcommunismisenough.Inordertosupersedeprivatepropertyasitactuallyexists，realcommunistactivityisnecessary.Historywillgiverisetosuchactivity，andthemovementwhichwealreadyknowinthoughttobeaself—supersedingmovementwillinrealityundergoaverydifficultandprotractedprocess.Butwemustlookuponitasarealadvancethatwehavegained，attheoutset，anawarenessofthelimitsaswellasthegoalofthishistoricalmovementandareinapositiontoseebeyondit.
Whencommunistworkmengathertogether，theirimmediateaimisinstruction，propaganda，etc.Butatthesametime，theyacquireanewneed——theneedforsociety——andwhatappearsasameanshadbecomeanend.ThispracticaldevelopmentcanbemoststrikinglyobservedinthegatheringsofFrenchsocialistworkers.Smoking，eating，anddrinking，etc.，arenolongermeansofcreatinglinksbetweenpeople.Company，association，conversation，whichinturnhassocietyasitsgoal，isenoughforthem.
Thebrotherhoodofmanisnotahollowphrase，itisareality，andthenobilityofmanshinesforthuponusfromtheirwork—wornfigures.
Whenpoliticaleconomymaintainsthatsupplyanddemandalwaysbalanceeachother，itimmediatelyforgetsitsownassertionthatthesupplyofpeople（thetheoryofpopulation）alwaysexceedsthedemandandthatthereforethedisproportionbetweensupplyanddemandfindsitsmoststrikingexpressioninwhatistheessentialgoalofproduction——theexistenceofman.
Theextenttowhichmoney，whichappearstobeameans，isthetruepowerandthesoleend——theextenttowhichingeneralthemeanswhichgivesmebeingandwhichappropriatesformealienandobjectivebeing，isanendinitselfisapparentfromthefactthatlandedproperty，wherethesoilisthesourceoflife，andthehorseandthesword，wheretheyarethetruemeansoflife，arealsorecognizedastheactualpoliticalpowers.IntheMiddleAges，anEstatebecomesemancipatedassoonasitisallowedtobearasword.Amongnomadicpeoples，itisthehorsewhichmakesoneintoafreemanandaparticipantinthelifeofthecommunity.
Wesaidabovethatmanisregressingtothecavedwelling，etc.
——butinanestranged，repugnantform.Thesavageinhiscave——anelementofnaturewhichisfreelyavailableforhisuseandshelter——doesnotexperiencehisenvironmentasalien;hefeelsjustasmuchathomeasafishinwater.Butthepoorman’sbasementdwellingisanuncongenialelement，an\"alien，restrictivepowerwhichonlysurrendersitselftohimattheexpenseofhissweatandblood\".Hecannotlookuponitashishome，assomewherehecancallhisown.Instead，hefindshimselfinsomeoneelse’shouse，inanalienhouse，whoseownerliesinwaitforhimeveryday，andevictshimifhefailstopaytherent.Atthesametime，heisawareofthedifferenceinqualitybetweenhisowndwellingandthoseother—worldlyhumandwellingswhichexistintheheavenofwealth.
Estrangementappearsnotonlyinthefactthatthemeansofmylifebelongtoanotherandthatmydesireistheinaccessiblepossessionofanother，butalsointhefactthatallthingsareotherthanthemselves，thatmyactivityisotherthanitself，andthatfinally——andthisgoesforthecapitaliststoo——aninhumanpowerrulesovereverything.
Thereisoneformofinactiveandextravagantwealth，givenoverexclusivelytopleasure，theownerofwhichisactiveasamerelyephemeralindividual，rushingabouterratically.Helooksupontheslavelaborofothers，theirhumansweatandblood，astheypreyofhisdesires，andregardsmaningeneral——includinghimself——asafutileandsacrificialbeing.
Hearrogantlylooksdownuponmankind，dissipatingwhatwouldsufficetokeepaliveahundredhumanbeings，andpropagatestheinfamousillusionthathisunbridledextravaganceandceaseless，unproductiveconsumptionisaconditionofthelabor，and，hence，subsistenceoftheothers.Forhim，therealizationofman’sessentialpowersissimplytherealizationofhisowndisorderlyexistence，hiswhims，andhiscapriciousandbizarrenotions.Butthiswealth，whichregardswealthasameremeans，worthyonlyofdestruction，andwhichisthereforebothslaveandmaster，bothgenerousandmean，capricious，conceited，presumptuous，refined，cultured，andingenious——thiswealthhasnotyetexperiencedwealthasanentirelyalienpoweroveritself;itseesinwealthnothingmorethanitsownpower，thefinalaimofwhichisnotwealthbutconsumption[Here，thebottomofthepageisgone，losingperhapsthreeorfourlines]
andtheglitteringillusionaboutthenatureofwealth——
anillusionwhichderivesfromitssensuousappearance——isconfrontedbytheworking，sober，prosaic，economicalindustrialistwhoisenlightenedaboutthenatureofwealthandwhonotonlyprovidesawiderrangeofopportunitiesfortheother’sself—indulgenceandflattershimthroughhisproducts——
forhisproductsaresomanybasecomplimentstotheappetitesofthespendthrift——butalsomanagestoappropriateforhimselfintheonlyusefulwaytheother’sdwindlingpower.Soifindustrialwealthatfirstappearstobetheproductofextravagant，fantasticwealth，initsinherentcourseofdevelopmentitactivelysupplantsthelatter.Forthefallintheinterestonmoneyisanecessaryconsequenceandresultofindustrialdevelopment.
Therefore，themeansoftheextravagantrentierdiminishdailyininverseproportiontothegrowingpossibilitiesandtemptationsofpleasure.Hemust，therefore，eitherconsumehiscapitalhimself，andinsodoingbringabouthisownruin，orbecomeanindustrialcapitalistOntheotherhand，itistruethatthereisadirectandconstantriseintherentoflandasaresultofindustrialdevelopment，butaswehavealreadyseenthereinevitablycomesatimewhenlandedproperty，likeeveryotherkindofproperty，fallsintothecategoryofcapitalwhichreproducesitselfwithprofit——andthisisaresultofthesameindustrialdevelopment.
Therefore，eventheextravagantlandlordisforcedeithertoconsumehiscapital——i.e.，ruinhimself——orbecomethetenantfarmerofhisownproperty——anagriculturalindustrialist.
Thedeclineintherateofinterest——whichProudhonregardsastheabolitionofcapitalandasatendencytowardsthesocializationofcapital——isthereforeratheradirectsymptomofthecompletevictoryofworkingcapitaloverprodigalwealth——i.e.，thetransformationofallprivatepropertyintoindustrialcapital.Itisthecompletevictoryofprivatepropertyoverallthoseofitsqualitieswhicharestillapparentlyhumanandthetotalsubjugationofthepropertyownertotheessenceofprivateproperty——labor.Tobesure，theindustrialcapitalistalsoseeksenjoyment.Hedoesnotbyanymeansregresstoanunnaturalsimplicityofneed，buthisenjoymentisonlyincidental，ameansofrelaxation;itissubordinatedtoproduction，itisacalculatedandevenaneconomicalformofpleasure，foritischargedasanexpenseofcapital;thesumdissipatedmaythereforenotbeinexcessofwhatcanbereplacedbythereproductionofcapitalwithprofit.Enjoymentis，therefore，subsumedundercapital，andthepleasure—seekingindividualunderthecapitalizingindividual，whereasearlierthecontrarywasthecase.Thedeclineintherateofinterestisthereforeasymptomoftheabolitionofcapitalonlyinsofarasitisasymptomofthegrowingdominationofcapital，ofthatgrowingestrangementwhichishasteningtowardsitsownabolition.Thisistheonlywayinwhichthatwhichexistsaffirmsitsopposite.
Thewrangleamongpoliticaleconomistsaboutluxuryandsavingisthereforemerelyawranglebetweenthatsectionofpoliticaleconomywhichhasbecomeawareofthenatureofwealthandthatsectionwhichisstillimprisonedwithinromanticandanti—industrialmemories.Butneitherofthemknowshowtoexpresstheobjectofthecontroversyinsimpleterms，andneitherofthemisthereforeinapositiontoclinchtheargument.
Furthermore，therentoflandquarentoflandhasbeenabolished，fortheargumentofthePhysiocrats，whosaythatthelandowneristheonlytrueproducer，hasbeendemolishedbythepoliticaleconomists，whoshowthatthelandownerassuchistheonlycompletelyunproductiverentier.
Agricultureisamatterforthecapitalist，whoinvestshiscapitalinthiswaywhenhecanexpecttomakeanormalprofit.TheargumentofthePhysiocratsthatlandedproperty，astheonlyproductiveproperty，shouldalonepaystatetaxesandshouldthereforealonegiveitsconsenttothemandtakepartinstateaffairs，isturnedintotheoppositeargumentthatthetaxonrentoflandistheonlytaxonunproductiveincomeandhencetheonlytaxwhichdoesnotharmnationalproduction.Naturally，itfollowsfromthisargumentthatthelandownercannolongerderivepoliticalprivilegesfromhispositionasprincipaltax—payer.
EverythingwhichProudhoninterpretsasthegrowingpoweroflaborasagainstcapitalissimplythegrowingpoweroflaborintheformofcapital，industrialcapital，asagainstcapitalwhichisnotconsumedascapital——i.e，industrially.Andthisdevelopmentisonitswaytovictory——i.e.，thevictoryofindustrialcapital.
Clearly，then，itisonlywhenlaborisgraspedastheessenceofprivatepropertythatthedevelopmentoftheeconomyassuchcanbeanalyzedinitsrealdeterminateness.
Society，asitappearstothepoliticaleconomist，iscivilsociety，inwhicheachindividualisatotalityofneedsandonlyexistsfortheotherastheotherexistsforhim——insofaraseachbecomesameansfortheother.Thepoliticaleconomist，likepoliticsinitsrightsofman，reduceseverythingtoman——i.e.，totheindividual，whomhedivestsofallhisdeterminatenessinordertoclassifyhimasacapitalistoraworker.
Thedivisionoflaboristheeconomicexpressionofthesocialnatureoflaborwithinestrangement.Or，rather，sincelaborisonlyanexpressionofhumanactivitywithinalienation，anexpressionoflifeasalienationoflife，thedivisionoflaborisnothingmorethantheestranged，alienatedpositingofhumanactivityasarealspecies—activityorasactivityofmanasaspecies—being.
Politicaleconomistsareveryunclearandself—contradictoryabouttheessenceofthedivisionoflabor，whichwasnaturallyseenasoneofthemaindrivingforcesintheproductionofwealthassoonaslaborwasseemtobetheessenceofprivateproperty.Thatistosay，theyareveryunclearabouthumanactivityasspeciesactivityinthisitsestrangedandalienatedform.
AdamSmith：
\"ThedivisionoflaborisnotoriginallytheeffectofanyhumanwisdomItisthenecessary，thoughveryslowandgradualconsequenceofthepropensitytotruck，barter，andexchangeonethingforanother.Whetherthispropensitybeoneofthoseoriginalprinciplesofhumannatureorwhether，asseemsmoreprobably，itbethenecessaryconsequenceofthefacultiesofreasonandofspeechitbelongsnottoourpresentsubjecttoinquire.Itiscommontoallmen，andtobefoundinnootherraceofanimalsInalmosteveryotherraceofanimalstheindividualwhenitisgrownuptomaturityisentirelyindependentButmanhasalmostconstantoccassionforthehelpofhisbrethren，anditisinvainforhimtoexpectitfromtheirbenevolenceonly.Hewillbemorelikelytoprevailifhecaninteresttheirself—loveinhisfavor，andshowthemthatitisfortheirownadvantagetodoforhimwhatherequiresofthemWeaddressourselvesnottotheirhumanitybuttotheirself—love，andnevertalktothemofourownnecessitiesbutoftheiradvantages.\"
\"Asitisbytreaty，bybarter，andbypurchasethatweobtainfromoneanotherthegreaterpartofthosemutualgoodofficesthatwestandinneedof，soitisthissametruckingdispositionwhichoriginallygivesoccassiontothedivisionoflabor.Inatribeofhuntersorshepherdsaparticularpersonmakesbowsandarrows，forexample，withmorereadinessanddexteritythananyother.Hefrequentlyexchangesthemforcattleorforvenisonwithhiscompanions;andhefindsatlastthathecaninthismannergetmorecattleandvenisonthanifhehimselfwenttothefieldtocatchthem.Fromaregardtohisowninterest，therefore，themakingofbowsandarrowsgrowstobehischiefbusiness\"
\"Thedifferenceofnaturaltalentsindifferentmenisnot
somuchthecauseastheeffectofthedivisionoflabor
Withoutthedispositiontotruck，barter，andexchange，everymanmusthaveprocuredtohimselfeverynecessaryandconveniencyoflifewhichhewanted.Allmusthavehadthesameworktodo，andtherecouldhavebeennosuchdifferenceofemploymentascouldalonegiveoccassiontoanygreatdifferenceoftalent.\"
\"Asitisthisdispositionwhichformsthatdifferenceoftalentsamongmen，soitisthissamedispositionwhichrendersthatdifferenceuseful.Manytribesofanimalsofthesamespeciesderivefromnatureamuchmoreremarkabledistinctionofgeniusthanwhat，antecedenttocustomandeducation，appearstotakeplaceamongmen.Bynatureaphilosopherisnotingeniusandindispositionhalfsodifferentfromastreet—porter，asamastiffisfromagreyhound，oragreyhoundfromaspaniel，orthislastfromashepherd’sdog.Thosedifferenttribesofanimals，however，thoughallofthesamespecies，areofscarceanyusetooneanother.Thestrengthofthemastiffisnot，intheleast，supportedforexamplebytheswiftnessofthegreyhoundTheeffectsofthosegeniusesandtalents，forwantofthepowerordispositiontobarterandexchange，cannotbebroughtintoacommonstock，anddonotintheleastcontributetothebetteraccommodationandconveniencyofthespecies.Eachanimalisstillobligedtosupportanddefenditself，separatelyandindependently，andderivesnosortofadvantagefromthatvarietyoftalentswithwhichnaturehasdistinguisheditsfellows.Amongmen，onthecontrary，themostdissimilargeniusesareofusetooneanother;
thedifferentproducesoftheirrespectivetalents，bythegeneraldispositiontotruck，barter，andexchange，bringbrought，asitwere，intoacommonstock，whereeverymanmaypurchasewhateverpartoftheproduceofothermen’stalentshehasoccassionfor.\"
\"Asitisthepowerofexchangingthatgivesoccassiontothedivisionoflabor，sotheextentofthisdivisionmustalwaysbelimitedbytheextentofthatpower，orinotherwords，bytheextentofthemarket.Whenthemarketisverysmall，nopersoncanhaveanyencouragementtodedicatehimselfentirelytooneemployment，forwantofthepowertoexchangeallthatsurpluspartoftheproduceofhisownlabor，whichisoverandabovehisownconsumption，forsuchpartsoftheproduceofothermen’slaborashehasoccassionfor.\"
[Smith，I，p.12，13，14，15]
Inanadvancedstateofsociety\"everymanthuslivesbyexchanging，orbecomesinsomemeasureamerchant，andthesocietyitselfgrowstobewhatisproperlyacommercialsociety.\"
[Smith，I，pp.20]（SeeDestuttdeTracy：\"Societyisaseriesofreciprocalexchanges;commercecontainsthewholeessenceofsociety.\"）Theaccumulationofcapitalsincreaseswiththedivisionoflabor，andvice—versa.
ThusfarAdamSmith.
\"Ifeveryfamilyproducedallthatitconsumed，societycouldkeepgoingevenifnoexchangeofanysorttookplaceAlthoughitisnotfundamental，exchangeisindispensableinouradvancedstateofsocietyThedivisionoflaborisaskilfulapplicationofthepowersofman;itincreasessociety’sproduction——itspoweranditspleasures——butitrobstheindividual，reducesthecapacityofeachpersontakenindividually.Productioncannottakeplacewithoutexchange.\"
[Smith，I，pp.76—7]ThusJ.—B.Say.
\"Thepowersinherentinmanarehisintelligenceandhisphysicalcapacityforwork.ThosewhichspringfromtheconditionofsocietyconsistofthecapacitytodividelaborandtodistributedifferenttasksamongthedifferentpeopleandthepowertoexchangemutualservicesandtheproductswhichconstitutethesemeansThemotivewhichinducesamantogivehisservicestoanotherisself—interest——hedemandsarecompensefortheservicesrendered.Therightofexclusiveprivatepropertyisindispensabletotheestablishmentofexchangeamongmen.\"
\"Exchangeanddivisionoflabormutuallyconditioneachother.\"
[Theoriedesrichessessociales，suivied’unebibliographiedel’economiepolitique，Paris，1829，Vol.I，p.25f]ThusSkarbek.
Millpresentsdevelopedexchange，trade，asaconsequenceofthedivisionoflabor.
\"theagencyofmancanbetracedtoverysimpleelements.Hecan，infact，donothingmorethanproducemotion.Hecanmovethingstowardsoneanother;andhecanseparatethemfromoneanother;thepropertiesofmatterperformalltherest
\"Intheemploymentoflaborandmachinery，itisoftenfoundthattheeffectscanbeincreasedbyskilfuldistribution，byseparatingallthoseoperationswhichhaveanytendencytoimpedeoneanother，bybringingtogetherallthoseoperationswhichcanbemadeinanywaytoaidoneanother.Asmeningeneralcannotperformmanydifferentoperationswiththesamequicknessanddexteritywithwhichtheycan，bypractice，learntoperformafew，itisalwaysanadvantagetolimitasmuchaspossiblethenumberofoperationsimposeduponeach.Fordividinglabor，anddistributingthepowerofmenandmachinery，tothegreatestadvantage，itisinmostcasesnecessarytooperateuponlargescale;inotherwords，toproducethecommoditiesingreatmasses.Itisthisadvantagewhichgivesexistencetothegreatmanufactories;afewofwhich，placedinthemostconvenientsituations，sometimessupplynotonecountry，butmanycountries，withasmuchastheydesireofthecommodityproduced.\"
[JamesMill，ElementsofPoliticalEconomy，London，1821，pp.5—9]ThusMill.
Butallthemodernpoliticaleconomistsagreethatdivisionoflaborandvolumeofproduction，divisionoflaborandaccumulationofcapital，aremutuallydetermining，andthatonlyliberatedprivateproperty，lefttoitself，iscapableofproducingthemosteffectiveandcomprehensivedivisionoflabor.
AdamSmith’sargumentcanbesummedupasfollows：thedivisionoflaborgiveslaboraninfinitecapacitytoproduce.Ithasitsbasisinthepropensitytoexchangeandbarter，aspecificallyhumanpropensitywhichisprobablynotfortuitousbutdeterminedbytheuseofreasonandoflanguage.Themotiveofthoseengagedinexchangeisnothumanitybutegoism.Thediversityofhumantalentsismoretheeffectthanthecauseofthedivisionoflabor——i.e.，ofexchange.Moreover，itisonlyonaccountofthelatterthatthisdiversityisuseful.Theparticularqualitiesofthedifferentraceswithinaspeciesofanimalarebynaturemoremarkedthanthedifferencebetweenhumanaptitudesandactivities.
Butsinceanimalsarenotabletoexchange，thediversityofqualitiesinanimalsofthesamespeciesbutofdifferentracesdoesnotbenefitanyindividualanimal.Animalsareunabletocombinethedifferentqualitiesoftheirspecies;theyareincapableofcontributinganythingtothecommongoodandthecommoncomfortoftheirspecies.Thisisnotthecasewithmen，whosemostdisparatetalentsandmodesofactivityareofbenefittoeachother，becausetheycangathertogethertheirdifferentproductsinacommonreservefromwhicheachcanmakehispurchases.Justasthedivisionoflaborstemsfromthepropensitytoexchange，soitgrowsandislimitedbytheextentofexchange，ofthemarket.Indevelopedconditionseachmanisamerchantandsocietyisatradingassociation.
Sayregardsexchangeasfortuitousandnotbasic.Societycouldexistwithoutit.Itbecomesindispensableinanadvancedstateofsociety.
Yetproductioncannottakeplacewithoutit.Thedivisionoflaborisaconvenient，usefulmeans，askilfulapplicationofhumanpowersforsocialwealth，butitisadiminutionofthecapacityofeachmantakenindividually.
ThislastremarkisanadvanceofSay’spart.
Skarbekdistinguishestheindividualpowersinherentinman——
intelligenceandphysicalcapacityforwork——fromthosepowerswhicharederivedfromsociety——exchangeanddivisionoflabor，whichmutuallyconditioneachother.Butthenecessarypreconditionofexchangeisprivateproperty.SkarbekisheregivingexpressioninobjectiveformtowhatSmith，Say，Ricardo，etc.，saywhentheydesignateegoismandprivateself—interestasthebasisofexchangeandhagglingastheessentialandadequateformofexchange.
Millpresentstradeasaconsequenceofthedivisionoflabor.
Forhim，humanactivityisreducedtomechanicalmovement.Thedivisionoflaborandtheuseofmachinerypromoteabundanceofproduction.Eachpersonmustbeallocatedthesmallestpossiblesphereofoperations.Thedivisionoflaborandtheuseofmachinery，fortheirpart，requiretheproductionofwealthenmasse，whichmeansaconcentrationofproduction.
Thisisthereasonforthebigfactories.
Theconsiderationofthedivisionoflaborandexchangeisofthehighestinterest，becausetheyaretheperceptiblyalienatedexpressionsofhumanactivityandessentialpowersasspecies—activityandspecies—power.
Tosaythatthedivisionoflaborandexchangearebasedonprivatepropertyissimplytosaythatlaboristheessenceofprivateproperty——anassertionthatthepoliticaleconomistisincapableofprovingandwhichweintendtoproveforhim.Itispreciselyinthefactthatthedivisionoflaborandexchangeareconfigurationsofprivatepropertythatwefindtheproof，boththathumanlifeneededprivatepropertyforitsrealizationandthatitnowneedstheabolitionofprivateproperty.
Thedivisionoflaborandexchangearethetwophenomenaonwhoseaccountthepoliticaleconomistbragsaboutthesocialnatureofhisscience，whileinthesamebreathheunconsciouslyexpressesthecontradictionwhichunderlieshisscience——theestablishmentofsocietythroughunsocial，particularinterests.
Thefactorswehavetoconsiderarethese：thepropensitytoexchange，whichisgroundedinegoism，isregardedasthecauseorthereciprocaleffectofthedivisionoflabor.Sayregardsexchangeasnotfundamentaltothenatureofsociety.Wealthandproductionareexplainedbythedivisionoflaborandexchange.Theimpoverishmentanddenaturing[Entwesung]ofindividualactivitybythedivisionoflaborareadmitted.Exchangeanddivisionoflaborareacknowledgedasproducersofthegreatdiversityofhumantalents，adiversitywhichbecomesusefulbecauseofexchange.
Skarbekdividesman’spowersofproductionoressentialpowersintotwoparts：
（1）thosewhichareindividualandinherentinhim，hisintelligenceandhisspecialdispositionorcapacityforwork;and（2）thosewhicharederivednotfromtherealindividualbutfromsociety，thedivisionoflaborandexchange.
Furthermore，thedivisionoflaborislimitedbythemarket.HUmanlaborissimplymechanicalmovement;mostoftheworkisdonebythematerialpropertiesoftheobjects.Eachindividualmustbeallocatedthesmallestnumberofoperationspossible.Fragmentationoflaborandconcentrationofcapital;thenothingnessofindividualproductionandtheproductionofwealthenmasse.Meaningoffreeprivatepropertyinthedivisionoflabor.