Contents
TheRiseofHistoricalCriticismTheEnglishRenaissanceofArtHouseDecorationArtandtheHandicraftmanLecturetoArtStudentsLondonModelsPoemsinProse
THERISEOFHISTORICALCRITICISM
CHAPTERI
HISTORICALcriticismnowhereoccursasanisolatedfactinthecivilisationorliteratureofanypeople.Itispartofthatcomplexworkingtowardsfreedomwhichmaybedescribedastherevoltagainstauthority.Itismerelyonefacetofthatspeculativespiritofaninnovation，whichinthesphereofactionproducesdemocracyandrevolution，andinthatofthoughtistheparentofphilosophyandphysicalscience;anditsimportanceasafactorofprogressisbasednotsomuchontheresultsitattains，asonthetoneofthoughtwhichitrepresents，andthemethodbywhichitworks.
Beingthustheresultantofforcesessentiallyrevolutionary，itisnottobefoundintheancientworldamongthematerialdespotismsofAsiaorthestationarycivilisationofEgypt.TheclaycylindersofAssyriaandBabylon，thehieroglyphicsofthepyramids，formnothistorybutthematerialforhistory.
TheChineseannals，ascendingastheydotothebarbarousforestlifeofthenation，aremarkedwithasobernessofjudgment，afreedomfrominvention，whichisalmostunparalleledinthewritingsofanypeople;buttheprotectivespiritwhichisthecharacteristicofthatpeopleprovedasfataltotheirliteratureastotheircommerce.Freecriticismisasunknownasfreetrade.
WhileasregardstheHindus，theiracute，analyticalandlogicalmindisdirectedrathertogrammar，criticismandphilosophythantohistoryorchronology.Indeed，inhistorytheirimaginationseemstohaverunwild，legendandfactaresoindissolublymingledtogetherthatanyattempttoseparatethemseemsvain.IfweexcepttheidentificationoftheGreekSandracottuswiththeIndianChandragupta，wehavereallynocluebywhichwecantestthetruthoftheirwritingsorexaminetheirmethodofinvestigation.
ItisamongtheHellenicbranchoftheIndo—Germanicracethathistoryproperistobefound，aswellasthespiritofhistoricalcriticism;amongthatwonderfuloffshootoftheprimitiveAryans，whomwecallbythenameofGreeksandtowhom，ashasbeenwellsaid，weoweallthatmovesintheworldexcepttheblindforcesofnature.
For，fromthedaywhentheyleftthechilltable—landsofTibetandjourneyed，anomadpeople，toAEgeanshores，thecharacteristicoftheirnaturehasbeenthesearchforlight，andthespiritofhistoricalcriticismispartofthatwonderfulAufklarungorilluminationoftheintellectwhichseemstohaveburstontheGreekracelikeagreatfloodoflightaboutthesixthcenturyB.C.
L’ESPRITD’UNSIECLENENAITPASETNEMEURTPASEJOURFIXE，andthefirstcriticisperhapsasdifficulttodiscoverasthefirstman.Itisfromdemocracythatthespiritofcriticismborrowsitsintoleranceofdogmaticauthority，fromphysicalsciencethealluringanalogiesoflawandorder，fromphilosophytheconceptionofanessentialunityunderlyingthecomplexmanifestationsofphenomena.Itappearsfirstratherasachangedattitudeofmindthanasaprincipleofresearch，anditsearliestinfluencesaretobefoundinthesacredwritings.
Formenbegintodoubtinquestionsofreligionfirst，andtheninmattersofmoresecularinterest;andasregardsthenatureofthespiritofhistoricalcriticismitselfinitsultimatedevelopment，itisnotconfinedmerelytotheempiricalmethodofascertainingwhetheraneventhappenedornot，butisconcernedalsowiththeinvestigationintothecausesofevents，thegeneralrelationswhichphenomenaoflifeholdtooneanother，andinitsultimatedevelopmentpassesintothewiderquestionofthephilosophyofhistory.
Now，whiletheworkingsofhistoricalcriticisminthesetwospheresofsacredanduninspiredhistoryareessentiallymanifestationsofthesamespirit，yettheirmethodsaresodifferent，thecanonsofevidencesoentirelyseparate，andthemotivesineachcasesounconnected，thatitwillbenecessaryforaclearestimationoftheprogressofGreekthought，thatweshouldconsiderthesetwoquestionsentirelyapartfromoneanother.I
shalltheninbothcasestakethesuccessionofwritersintheirchronologicalorderasrepresentingtherationalorder—notthatthesuccessionoftimeisalwaysthesuccessionofideas，orthatdialecticsmoveseverinthestraightlineinwhichHegelconceivesitsadvance.InGreekthought，aselsewhere，thereareperiodsofstagnationandapparentretrogression，yettheirintellectualdevelopment，notmerelyinthequestionofhistoricalcriticism，butintheirart，theirpoetryandtheirphilosophy，seemssoessentiallynormal，sofreefromalldisturbingexternalinfluences，sopeculiarlyrational，thatinfollowinginthefootstepsoftimeweshallreallybeprogressingintheordersanctionedbyreason.
CHAPTERII
ATanearlyperiodintheirintellectualdevelopmenttheGreeksreachedthatcriticalpointinthehistoryofeverycivilisednation，whenspeculativeinvadesthedomainofrevealedtruth，whenthespiritualideasofthepeoplecannolongerbesatisfiedbythelower，materialconceptionsoftheirinspiredwriters，andwhenmenfinditimpossibletopourthenewwineoffreethoughtintotheoldbottlesofanarrowandatrammellingcreed.
FromtheirAryanancestorstheyhadreceivedthefatallegacyofamythologystainedwithimmoralandmonstrousstorieswhichstrovetohidetherationalorderofnatureinachaosofmiracles，andtomarbyimputedwickednesstheperfectionofGod’snature—averyshirtofNessosinwhichtheHeraclesofrationalismbarelyescapedannihilation.NowwhileundoubtedlythespeculationsofThales，andthealluringanalogiesoflawandorderaffordedbyphysicalscience，weremostimportantforcesinencouragingtheriseofthespiritofscepticism，yetitwasonitsethicalsidethattheGreekmythologywaschieflyopentoattack.
Itisdifficulttoshakethepopularbeliefinmiracles，butnomanwilladmitsinandimmoralityasattributesoftheIdealheworships;sothefirstsymptomsofaneworderofthoughtareshowninthepassionateoutcriesofXenophanesandHeraclitosagainsttheevilthingssaidbyHomerofthesonsofGod;andinthestorytoldofPythagoras，howthathesawtorturedinHellthe’twofoundersofGreektheology，’wecanrecognisetheriseoftheAufklarungasclearlyasweseetheReformationforeshadowedintheINFERNOofDante.
Anyhonestbelief，then，intheplaintruthofthesestoriessoonsuccumbedbeforethedestructiveeffectsoftheAPRIORIethicalcriticismofthisschool;buttheorthodoxparty，asisitscustom，foundimmediatelyaconvenientshelterundertheaegisofthedoctrineofmetaphorsandconcealedmeanings.
TothisallegoricalschoolthetaleofthefightaroundthewallsofTroywasamystery，behindwhich，asbehindaveil，werehiddencertainmoralandphysicaltruths.ThecontestbetweenAthenaandAreswasthateternalcontestbetweenrationalthoughtandthebruteforceofignorance;thearrowswhichrattledinthequiverofthe’FarDarter’werenolongertheinstrumentsofvengeanceshotfromthegoldenbowofthechildofGod，butthecommonraysofthesun，whichwasitselfnothingbutamereinertmassofburningmetal.
Moderninvestigation，withtheruthlessnessofPhilistineanalysis，hasultimatelybroughtHelenofTroydowntoasymbolofthedawn.
TherewerePhilistinesamongtheGreeksalsowhosawinthe[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]ameremetaphorforatmosphericpower.
Nowwhilethistendencytolookformetaphorsandhiddenmeaningsmustberankedasoneofthegermsofhistoricalcriticism，yetitwasessentiallyunscientific.ItsinherentweaknessisclearlypointedoutbyPlato，whoshowedthatwhilethistheorywillnodoubtexplainmanyofthecurrentlegends，yet，ifitistobeappealedtoatall，itmustbeasauniversalprinciple;apositionheisbynomeanspreparedtoadmit.
Likemanyothergreatprinciplesitsufferedfromitsdisciples，andfurnisheditsownrefutationwhenthewebofPenelopewasanalysedintoametaphoroftherulesofformallogic，thewarprepresentingthepremises，andthewooftheconclusion.
Rejecting，then，theallegoricalinterpretationofthesacredwritingsasanessentiallydangerousmethod，provingeithertoomuchortoolittle，Platohimselfreturnstotheearliermodeofattack，andre—writeshistorywithadidacticpurpose，layingdowncertainethicalcanonsofhistoricalcriticism.Godisgood;Godisjust;Godistrue;Godiswithoutthecommonpassionsofmen.
ThesearetheteststowhichwearetobringthestoriesoftheGreekreligion.
’Godpredestinesnomentoruin，norsendsdestructiononinnocentcities;Heneverwalkstheearthinstrangedisguise，norhastomournforthedeathofanywell—belovedson.AwaywiththetearsforSarpedon，thelyingdreamsenttoAgamemnon，andthestoryofthebrokencovenant！’（Plato，REPUBLIC，Bookii.380;iii.388，391.）
Similarethicalcanonsareappliedtotheaccountsoftheheroesofthedaysofold，andbythesameAPRIORIprinciplesAchillesisrescuedfromthechargesofavariceandinsolenceinapassagewhichmayberecitedastheearliestinstanceofthat’whitewashingofgreatmen，’asithasbeencalled，whichissopopularinourownday，whenCatilineandClodiusarerepresentedashonestandfar—seeingpoliticians，whenEINEEDLEUNDGUTENATURisclaimedforTiberius，andNeroisrescuedfromhisheritageofinfamyasanaccomplishedDILETTANTEwhosemoralaberrationsaremorethanexcusedbyhisexquisiteartisticsenseandcharmingtenorvoice.
Butbesidestheallegorisingprincipleofinterpretation，andtheethicalreconstructionofhistory，therewasathirdtheory，whichmaybecalledthesemi—historical，andwhichgoesbythenameofEuhemeros，thoughhewasbynomeansthefirsttopropoundit.
AppealingtoafictitiousmonumentwhichhedeclaredthathehaddiscoveredintheislandofPanchaia，andwhichpurportedtobeacolumnerectedbyZeus，anddetailingtheincidentsofhisreignonearth，thisshallowthinkerattemptedtoshowthatthegodsandheroesofancientGreecewere’mereordinarymortals，whoseachievementshadbeenagooddealexaggeratedandmisrepresented，’
andthatthepropercanonofhistoricalcriticismasregardsthetreatmentofmythswastorationalisetheincredible，andtopresenttheplausibleresiduumasactualtruth.
Tohimandhisschool，thecentaurs，forinstance，thosemythicalsonsofthestorm，strangelinksbetweenthelivesofmenandanimals，weremerelysomeyouthsfromthevillageofNepheleinThessaly，distinguishedfortheirsportingtastes;the’livingharvestofpanopliedknights，’whichsprangsomysticallyfromthedragon’steeth，abodyofmercenarytroopssupportedbytheprofitsonasuccessfulspeculationinivory;andActaeon，anordinarymasterofhounds，who，livingbeforethedaysofsubscription，waseatenoutofhouseandhomebytheexpensesofhiskennel.
Now，thatundertheglamourofmythandlegendsomesubstratumofhistoricalfactmaylie，isapropositionrenderedextremelyprobablebythemoderninvestigationsintotheworkingsofthemythopoeicspiritinpost—Christiantimes.CharlemagneandRoland，St.FrancisandWilliamTell，arenonethelessrealpersonagesbecausetheirhistoriesarefilledwithmuchthatisfictitiousandincredible，butinallcaseswhatisessentiallynecessaryissomeexternalcorroboration，suchasisaffordedbythementionofRolandandRoncesvallesinthechroniclesofEngland，or（inthesphereofGreeklegend）bytheexcavationsofHissarlik.Buttorobamythicalnarrativeofitskernelofsupernaturalelements，andtopresentthedryhuskthusobtainedashistoricalfact，is，ashasbeenwellsaid，tomistakeentirelythetruemethodofinvestigationandtoidentifyplausibilitywithtruth.
AndasregardsthecriticalpointurgedbyPalaiphatos，Strabo，andPolybius，thatpureinventiononHomer’spartisinconceivable，wemaywithoutscrupleallowit，formyths，likeconstitutions，growgradually，andarenotformedinaday.Butbetweenapoet’sdeliberatecreationandhistoricalaccuracythereisawidefieldofthemythopoeicfaculty.
ThisEuhemeristictheorywaswelcomedasanessentiallyphilosophicalandcriticalmethodbytheunscientificRomans，towhomitwasintroducedbythepoetEnnius，thatpioneerofcosmopolitanHellenicism，anditcontinuedtocharacterisethetoneofancientthoughtonthequestionofthetreatmentofmythologytilltheriseofChristianity，whenitwasturnedbysuchwritersasAugustineandMinuciusFelixintoaformidableweaponofattackonPaganism.ItwasthenabandonedbyallthosewhostillbentthekneetoAthenaortoZeus，andageneralreturn，aidedbythephilosophicmysticsofAlexandria，totheallegorisingprincipleofinterpretationtookplace，astheonlymeansofsavingthedeitiesofOlympusfromtheTitanassaultsofthenewGalileanGod.Inwhatvaindefence，thestatueofMarysetintheheartofthePantheoncanbesttellus.
Religions，however，maybeabsorbed，buttheyneveraredisproved，andthestoriesoftheGreekmythology，spiritualisedbythepurifyinginfluenceofChristianity，reappearinmanyofthesouthernpartsofEuropeinourownday.TheoldfablethattheGreekgodstookservicewiththenewreligionunderassumednameshasmoretruthinitthanthemanycaretodiscover.
Havingnowtracedtheprogressofhistoricalcriticisminthespecialtreatmentofmythandlegend，Ishallproceedtoinvestigatetheforminwhichthesamespiritmanifesteditselfasregardswhatonemaytermsecularhistoryandsecularhistorians.
Thefieldtraversedwillbefoundtobeinsomerespectsthesame，butthementalattitude，thespirit，themotiveofinvestigationareallchanged.
TherewereheroesbeforethesonofAtreusandhistoriansbeforeHerodotus，yetthelatterisrightlyhailedasthefatherofhistory，forinhimwediscovernotmerelytheempiricalconnectionofcauseandeffect，butthatconstantreferencetoLaws，whichisthecharacteristicofthehistorianproper.
Forallhistorymustbeessentiallyuniversal;notinthesenseofcomprisingallthesynchronouseventsofthepasttime，butthroughtheuniversalityoftheprinciplesemployed.AndthegreatconceptionswhichunifytheworkofHerodotusaresuchasevenmodernthoughthasnotyetrejected.TheimmediategovernmentoftheworldbyGod，thenemesisandpunishmentwhichsinandprideinvariablybringwiththem，therevealingofGod’spurposetoHispeoplebysignsandomens，bymiraclesandbyprophecy;thesearetoHerodotusthelawswhichgovernthephenomenaofhistory.Heisessentiallythetypeofsupernaturalhistorian;hiseyesareeverstrainedtodiscerntheSpiritofGodmovingoverthefaceofthewatersoflife;heismoreconcernedwithfinalthanwithefficientcauses.
YetwecandiscerninhimtheriseofthatHISTORICSENSEwhichistherationalantecedentofthescienceofhistoricalcriticism，the[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]，tousethewordsofaGreekwriter，asopposedtothatwhichcomeseither[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced].
HehaspassedthroughthevalleyoffaithandhascaughtaglimpseofthesunlitheightsofReason;butlikeallthosewho，whileacceptingthesupernatural，yetattempttoapplythecanonsofrationalism，heisessentiallyinconsistent.ForthebetterapprehensionofthecharacterofthishistoricsenseinHerodotusitwillbenecessarytoexamineatsomelengththevariousformsofcriticisminwhichitmanifestsitself.
SuchfabulousstoriesasthatofthePhoenix，ofthegoat—footedmen，oftheheadlessbeingswitheyesintheirbreasts，ofthemenwhosleptsixmonthsintheyear（[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]），ofthewer—wolfoftheNeuri，andthelike，areentirelyrejectedbyhimasbeingopposedtotheordinaryexperienceoflife，andtothosenaturallawswhoseuniversalinfluencetheearlyGreekphysicalphilosophershadalreadymadeknowntotheworldofthought.Otherlegends，suchasthesucklingofCyrusbyabitch，orthefeather—rainofnorthernEurope，arerationalisedandexplainedintoawoman’snameandafallofsnow.
ThesupernaturaloriginoftheScythiannation，fromtheunionofHerculesandthemonstrousEchidna，issetasidebyhimforthemoreprobableaccountthattheywereanomadtribedrivenbytheMassagetaefromAsia;andheappealstothelocalnamesoftheircountryasproofofthefactthattheKimmeriansweretheoriginalpossessors.
ButinthecaseofHerodotusitwillbemoreinstructivetopassonfrompointslikethesetothosequestionsofgeneralprobability，thetrueapprehensionofwhichdependsratheronacertainqualityofmindthanonanypossibilityofformulatedrules，questionswhichformnounimportantpartofscientifichistory;foritmustberememberedalwaysthatthecanonsofhistoricalcriticismareessentiallydifferentfromthoseofjudicialevidence，fortheycannot，likethelatter，bemadeplaintoeveryordinarymind，butappealtoacertainhistoricalfacultyfoundedontheexperienceoflife.Besides，therulesforthereceptionofevidenceincourtsoflawarepurelystationary，whilethescienceofhistoricalprobabilityisessentiallyprogressive，andchangeswiththeadvancingspiritofeachage.
Now，ofallthespeculativecanonsofhistoricalcriticism，noneismoreimportantthanthatwhichrestsonpsychologicalprobability.
Arguingfromhisknowledgeofhumannature，HerodotusrejectsthepresenceofHelenwithinthewallsofTroy.Hadshebeenthere，hesays，Priamandhiskinsmenwouldneverhavebeensomad（[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]）asnottogiveherup，whentheyandtheirchildrenandtheircitywereinsuchperil（ii.118）;andasregardstheauthorityofHomer，someincidentalpassagesinhispoemshowthatheknewofHelen’ssojourninEgyptduringthesiege，butselectedtheotherstoryasbeingamoresuitablemotiveforanepic.SimilarlyhedoesnotbelievethattheAlcmaeonidaefamily，afamilywhohadalwaysbeenthehatersoftyranny（[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]），andtowhom，evenmorethantoHarmodiosandAristogeiton，Athensoweditsliberty，wouldeverhavebeensotreacherousastoholdupashieldafterthebattleofMarathonasasignalforthePersianhosttofallonthecity.A
shield，heacknowledges，washeldup，butitcouldnotpossiblyhavebeendonebysuchfriendsoflibertyasthehouseofAlcmaeon;
norwillhebelievethatagreatkinglikeRhampsinituswouldhavesenthisdaughter[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced].
Elsewherehearguesfrommoregeneralconsiderationsofprobability;aGreekcourtesanlikeRhodopiswouldhardlyhavebeenrichenoughtobuildapyramid，and，besides，onchronologicalgroundsthestoryisimpossible（ii.134）.
Inanotherpassage（ii.63），aftergivinganaccountoftheforcibleentryofthepriestsofAresintothechapelofthegod’smother，whichseemstohavebeenasortofreligiousfactionfightwherestickswerefreelyused（[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]），’Ifeelsure，’hesays，’thatmanyofthemdiedfromgettingtheirheadsbroken，notwithstandingtheassertionsoftheEgyptianprieststothecontrary.’ThereisalsosomethingcharminglynaiveintheaccounthegivesofthecelebratedGreekswimmerwhodivedadistanceofeightystadiatogivehiscountrymenwarningofthePersianadvance.’If，however，’hesays，’Imayofferanopiniononthesubject，Iwouldsaythathecameinaboat.’
Thereis，ofcourse，somethingalittletrivialinsomeoftheinstancesIhavequoted;butinawriterlikeHerodotus，whostandsontheborderlandbetweenfaithandrationalism，onelikestonoteeventhemostminuteinstancesoftheriseofthecriticalandscepticalspiritofinquiry.
Howreallystrange，atbase，itwaswithhimmay，Ithink，beshownbyareferencetothosepassageswhereheappliesrationalisticteststomattersconnectedwithreligion.Henowhere，indeed，grappleswiththemoralandscientificdifficultiesoftheGreekBible;andwhereherejectsasincrediblethemarvellousachievementsofHerculesinEgypt，hedoessoontheexpressgroundsthathehadnotyetbeenreceivedamongthegods，andsowasstillsubjecttotheordinaryconditionsofmortallife（[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]）.
Evenwithintheselimits，however，hisreligiousconscienceseemstohavebeentroubledatsuchdaringrationalism，andthepassage（ii.45）concludeswithapioushopethatGodwillpardonhimforhavinggonesofar，thegreatrationalisticpassagebeing，ofcourse，thatinwhichherejectsthemythicalaccountofthefoundationofDodona.’Howcanadovespeakwithahumanvoice？’
heasks，andrationalisesthebirdintoaforeignprincess.
SimilarlyheseemsmoreinclinedtobelievethatthegreatstormatthebeginningofthePersianWarceasedfromordinaryatmosphericcauses，andnotinconsequenceoftheincantationsoftheMAGIANS.
HecallsMelampos，whomthemajorityoftheGreekslookedonasaninspiredprophet，’aclevermanwhohadacquiredforhimselftheartofprophecy’;andasregardsthemiracletoldoftheAEginetanstatuesoftheprimevaldeitiesofDamiaandAuxesia，thattheyfellontheirkneeswhenthesacrilegiousAtheniansstrovetocarrythemoff，’anyonemaybelieveit，’hesays，’wholikes，butasformyself，Iplacenocredenceinthetale.’
Somuchthenfortherationalisticspiritofhistoricalcriticism，asfarasitappearsexplicitlyintheworksofthisgreatandphilosophicwriter;butforanadequateappreciationofhispositionwemustalsonotehowconscioushewasofthevalueofdocumentaryevidence，oftheuseofinscriptions，oftheimportanceofthepoetsasthrowinglightonmannersandcustomsaswellasonhistoricalincidents.Nowriterofanyagehasmorevividlyrecognisedthefactthathistoryisamatterofevidence，andthatitisasnecessaryforthehistoriantostatehisauthorityasitistoproduceone’switnessesinacourtoflaw.
While，however，wecandiscerninHerodotustheriseofanhistoricsense，wemustnotblindourselvestothelargeamountofinstanceswherehereceivessupernaturalinfluencesaspartoftheordinaryforcesoflife.ComparedtoThucydides，whosucceededhiminthedevelopmentofhistory，heappearsalmostlikeamediaevalwritermatchedwithamodernrationalist.For，contemporarythoughtheywere，betweenthesetwoauthorsthereisaninfinitechasmofthought.
Theessentialdifferenceoftheirmethodsmaybebestillustratedfromthosepassageswheretheytreatofthesamesubject.TheexecutionoftheSpartanheralds，NicolaosandAneristos，duringthePeloponnesianWarisregardedbyHerodotusasoneofthemostsupernaturalinstancesoftheworkingsofnemesisandthewrathofanoutragedhero;whilethelengthenedsiegeandultimatefallofTroywasbroughtaboutbytheavenginghandofGoddesiringtomanifestuntomenthemightypenaltieswhichalwaysfollowuponmightysins.ButThucydideseitherseesnot，ordesiresnottosee，ineitheroftheseeventsthefingerofProvidence，orthepunishmentofwickeddoers.ThedeathoftheheraldsismerelyanAthenianretaliationforsimilaroutragescommittedbytheoppositeside;thelongagonyofthetenyears’siegeisduemerelytothewantofagoodcommissariatintheGreekarmy;whilethefallofthecityistheresultofaunitedmilitaryattackconsequentonagoodsupplyofprovisions.
Now，itistobeobservedthatinthislatterpassage，aswellaselsewhere，Thucydidesisinnosenseofthewordascepticasregardshisattitudetowardsthetruthoftheseancientlegends.
AgamemnonandAtreus，TheseusandEurystheus，evenMinos，aboutwhomHerodotushassomedoubts，aretohimasrealpersonagesasAlcibiadesorGylippus.Thepointsinhishistoricalcriticismofthepastare，first，hisrejectionofallextra—naturalinterference，and，secondly，theattributingtotheseancientheroesthemotivesandmodesofthoughtofhisownday.Thepresentwastohimthekeytotheexplanationofthepast，asitwastothepredictionofthefuture.
Now，asregardshisattitudetowardsthesupernaturalheisatonewithmodernscience.Wetooknowthat，justastheprimevalcoal—
bedsrevealtousthetracesofrain—dropsandotheratmosphericphenomenasimilartothoseofourownday，so，inestimatingthehistoryofthepast，theintroductionofnoforcemustbeallowedwhoseworkingswecannotobserveamongthephenomenaaroundus.Tolaydowncanonsofultra—historicalcredibilityfortheexplanationofeventswhichhappentohaveprecededusbyafewthousandyears，isasthoroughlyunscientificasitistointerminglepreternaturalingeologicaltheories.
Whateverthecanonsofartmaybe，nodifficultyinhistoryissogreatastowarranttheintroductionofaspiritofspirit[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]，inthesenseofaviolationofthelawsofnature.
Upontheotherpoint，however，Thucydidesfallsintoananachronism.Torefusetoallowtheworkingsofchivalrousandself—denyingmotivesamongtheknightsoftheTrojancrusade，becausehesawnoneinthefaction—lovingAthenianofhisownday，istoshowanentireignoranceofthevariouscharacteristicsofhumannaturedevelopingunderdifferentcircumstances，andtodenytoaprimitivechieftainlikeAgamemnonthatauthorityfoundedonopinion，towhichwegivethenameofdivineright，istofallintoanhistoricalerrorquiteasgrossasattributingtoAtreusthecourtingofthepopulace（[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]）
withaviewtotheMyceneanthrone.
ThegeneralmethodofhistoricalcriticismpursuedbyThucydideshavingbeenthusindicated，itremainstoproceedmoreintodetailasregardsthoseparticularpointswhereheclaimsforhimselfamorerationalmethodofestimatingevidencethaneitherthepublicorhispredecessorspossessed.
’Solittlepains，’heremarks，’dothevulgartakeintheinvestigationoftruth，satisfiedwiththeirpreconceivedopinions，’thatthemajorityoftheGreeksbelieveinaPitanatecohortoftheSpartanarmyandinadoublevotebeingtheprerogativeoftheSpartankings，neitherofwhichopinionshasanyfoundationinfact.Butthechiefpointonwhichhelaysstressasevincingthe’uncriticalwaywithwhichmenreceivelegends，eventhelegendsoftheirowncountry，’istheentirebaselessnessofthecommonAtheniantraditioninwhichHarmodiosandAristogeitonwererepresentedasthepatrioticliberatorsofAthensfromthePeisistratidtyranny.Sofar，hepointsout，fromtheloveoffreedombeingtheirmotive，bothofthemwereinfluencedbymerelypersonalconsiderations，AristogeitonbeingjealousofHipparchos’
attentiontoHarmodios，thenabeautifulboyintheflowerofGreekloveliness，whilethelatter’sindignationwasarousedbyaninsultofferedtohissisterbytheprince.
Theirmotives，then，werepersonalrevenge，whiletheresultoftheirconspiracyservedonlytorivetmoretightlythechainsofservitudewhichboundAthenstothePeisistratidhouse，forHipparchos，whomtheykilled，wasonlythetyrant’syoungerbrother，andnotthetyranthimself.
ToprovehistheorythatHippiaswastheelder，heappealstotheevidenceaffordedbyapublicinscriptioninwhichhisnameoccursimmediatelyafterthatofhisfather，apointwhichhethinksshowsthathewastheeldest，andsotheheir.Thisviewhefurthercorroboratesbyanotherinscription，onthealtarofApollo，whichmentionsthechildrenofHippiasandnotthoseofhisbrothers;
’foritwasnaturalfortheeldesttobemarriedfirst’;andbesidesthis，onthescoreofgeneralprobabilityhepointsoutthat，hadHippiasbeentheyounger，hewouldnothavesoeasilyobtainedthetyrannyonthedeathofHipparchos.
Now，whatisimportantinThucydides，asevincedinthetreatmentoflegendgenerally，isnottheresultshearrivedat，butthemethodbywhichheworks.Thefirstgreatrationalistichistorian，hemaybesaidtohavepavedthewayforallthosewhofollowedafterhim，thoughitmustalwaysberememberedthat，whilethetotalabsenceinhispagesofallthemysticalparaphernaliaofthesupernaturaltheoryoflifeisanadvanceintheprogressofrationalism，andanerainscientifichistory，whoseimportancecouldneverbeover—estimated，yetwefindalongwithitatotalabsenceofanymentionofthosevarioussocialandeconomicalforceswhichformsuchimportantfactorsintheevolutionoftheworld，andtowhichHerodotusrightlygavegreatprominenceinhisimmortalwork.ThehistoryofThucydidesisessentiallyone—sidedandincomplete.Theintricatedetailsofsiegesandbattles，subjectswithwhichthehistorianproperhasreallynothingtodoexceptsofarastheymaythrowlightonthespiritoftheage，wewouldreadilyexchangeforsomenoticeoftheconditionofprivatesocietyinAthens，ortheinfluenceandpositionofwomen.
Thereisanadvanceinthemethodofhistoricalcriticism;thereisanadvanceintheconceptionandmotiveofhistoryitself;forinThucydideswemaydiscernthatnaturalreactionagainsttheintrusionofdidacticandtheologicalconsiderationsintothesphereofthepureintellect，thespiritofwhichmaybefoundintheEuripideantreatmentoftragedyandthelaterschoolsofart，aswellasinthePlatonicconceptionofscience.
History，nodoubt，hassplendidlessonsforourinstruction，justasallgoodartcomestousastheheraldofthenoblesttruth.
But，tosetbeforeeitherthepainterorthehistoriantheinculcationofmorallessonsasanaimtobeconsciouslypursued，istomissentirelythetruemotiveandcharacteristicbothofartandhistory，whichisintheonecasethecreationofbeauty，intheotherthediscoveryofthelawsoftheevolutionofprogress：
ILNEFAUTDEMANDERDEL’ARTQUEL’ART，DUPASSEQUELEPASSE.
HerodotuswrotetoillustratethewonderfulwaysofProvidenceandthenemesisthatfallsonsin，andhisworkisagoodexampleofthetruththatnothingcandispensewithcriticismsomuchasamoralaim.Thucydideshasnocreedtopreach，nodoctrinetoprove.Heanalysestheresultswhichfollowinevitablyfromcertainantecedents，inorderthatonarecurrenceofthesamecrisismenmayknowhowtoact.
Hisobjectwastodiscoverthelawsofthepastsoastoserveasalighttoilluminethefuture.Wemustnotconfusetherecognitionoftheutilityofhistorywithanyideasofadidacticaim.TwopointsmoreinThucydidesremainforourconsideration：histreatmentoftheriseofGreekcivilisation，andoftheprimitiveconditionofHellas，aswellasthequestionhowfarcanhebesaidreallytohaverecognisedtheexistenceoflawsregulatingthecomplexphenomenaoflife.
CHAPTERIII
THEinvestigationintothetwogreatproblemsoftheoriginofsocietyandthephilosophyofhistoryoccupiessuchanimportantpositionintheevolutionofGreekthoughtthat，toobtainanyclearviewoftheworkingsofthecriticalspirit，itwillbenecessarytotraceatsomelengththeirriseandscientificdevelopmentasevincednotmerelyintheworksofhistoriansproper，butalsointhephilosophicaltreatisesofPlatoandAristotle.Theimportantpositionwhichthesetwogreatthinkersoccupyintheprogressofhistoricalcriticismcanhardlybeover—
estimated.IdonotmeanmerelyasregardstheirtreatmentoftheGreekBible，andPlato’sendeavourstopurgesacredhistoryofitsimmoralitybytheapplicationofethicalcanonsatthetimewhenAristotlewasbeginningtounderminethebasisofmiraclesbyhisscientificconceptionoflaw，butwithreferencetothesetwowiderquestionsoftheriseofcivilinstitutionsandthephilosophyofhistory.
Andfirst，asregardsthecurrenttheoriesoftheprimitiveconditionofsociety，therewasawidedivergenceofopinioninHellenicsociety，justasthereisnow.Forwhilethemajorityoftheorthodoxpublic，ofwhomHesiodmaybetakenastherepresentative，lookedback，asagreatmanyofourowndaystilldo，toafabulousageofinnocenthappiness，aBELL’ETEDELL’
AURO，wheresinanddeathwereunknownandmenandwomenwerelikeGods，theforemostmenofintellectsuchasAristotleandPlato，AEschylusandmanyoftheotherpoets（1）sawinprimitiveman’afewsmallsparksofhumanitypreservedonthetopsofmountainsaftersomedeluge，’’withoutanideaofcities，governmentsorlegislation，’’livingthelivesofwildbeastsinsunlesscaves，’
’theironlylawbeingthesurvivalofthefittest.’
Andthis，too，wastheopinionofThucydides，whoseARCHAEOLOGIAasitiscontainsamostvaluabledisquisitionontheearlyconditionofHellas，whichitwillbenecessarytoexamineatsomelength.
Now，asregardsthemeansemployedgenerallybyThucydidesfortheelucidationofancienthistory，Ihavealreadypointedouthowthat，whileacknowledgingthat’itisthetendencyofeverypoettoexaggerate，asitisofeverychroniclertoseektobeattractiveattheexpenseoftruth;heyetassumesinthethoroughlyeuhemeristicway，thatundertheveilofmythandlegendtheredoesyetexistarationalbasisoffactdiscoverablebythemethodofrejectingallsupernaturalinterferenceaswellasanyextraordinarymotivesinfluencingtheactors.Itisincompleteaccordancewiththisspiritthatheappeals，forinstance，totheHomericepithetof[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]，asappliedtoCorinth，asaproofoftheearlycommercialprosperityofthatcity;tothefactofthegenericnameHELLENESnotoccurringintheILIADasacorroborationofhistheoryoftheessentiallydisunitedcharacteroftheprimitiveGreektribes;andhearguesfromtheline’O’ermanyislandsandallArgosruled，’asappliedtoAgamemnon，thathisforcesmusthavebeenpartiallynaval，’forAgamemnon’swasacontinentalpower，andhecouldnothavebeenmasterofanybuttheadjacentislands，andthesewouldnotbemanybutthroughthepossessionofafleet.’
Anticipatinginsomemeasurethecomparativemethodofresearch，hearguesfromthefactofthemorebarbarousGreektribes，suchastheAEtoliansandAcarnanians，stillcarryingarmsinhisownday，thatthiscustomwasthecaseoriginallyoverthewholecountry.
’Thefact，’hesays，’thatthepeopleinthesepartsofHellasarestilllivingintheoldwaypointstoatimewhenthesamemodeoflifewasequallycommontoall.’Similarly，inanotherpassage，heshowshowacorroborationofhistheoryoftherespectablecharacterofpiracyinancientdaysisaffordedby’thehonourwithwhichsomeoftheinhabitantsofthecontinentstillregardasuccessfulmarauder，’aswellasbythefactthatthequestion，’Areyouapirate？’isacommonfeatureofprimitivesocietyasshowninthepoets;andfinally，afterobservinghowtheoldGreekcustomofwearingbeltsingymnasticcontestsstillsurvivedamongthemoreuncivilisedAsiatictribes，heobservesthattherearemanyotherpointsinwhichalikenessmaybeshownbetweenthelifeoftheprimitiveHellenesandthatofthebarbariansto—day.’
Asregardstheevidenceaffordedbyancientremains，whileadducingasaproofoftheinsecurecharacterofearlyGreeksocietythefactoftheircities（2）beingalwaysbuiltatsomedistancefromthesea，yetheiscarefultowarnus，andthecautionoughttobeborneinmindbyallarchaeologists，thatwehavenorighttoconcludefromthescantyremainsofanycitythatitslegendarygreatnessinprimitivetimeswasamereexaggeration.’Wearenotjustified，’hesays，’inrejectingthetraditionofthemagnitudeoftheTrojanarmament，becauseMycenaeandtheothertownsofthatageseemtoussmallandinsignificant.For，ifLacedaemonwastobecomedesolate，anyantiquarianjudgingmerelyfromitsruinswouldbeinclinedtoregardthetaleoftheSpartanhegemonyasanidlemyth;forthecityisamerecollectionofvillagesaftertheoldfashionofHellas，andhasnoneofthosesplendidpublicbuildingsandtempleswhichcharacteriseAthens，andwhoseremains，inthecaseofthelattercity，wouldbesomarvellousastoleadthesuperficialobserverintoanexaggeratedestimateoftheAthenianpower.’Nothingcanbemorescientificthanthearchaeologicalcanonslaiddown，whosetruthisstrikinglyillustratedtoanyonewhohascomparedthewastefieldsoftheEurotasplainwiththelordlymonumentsoftheAthenianacropolis.
（3）
Ontheotherhand，Thucydidesisquiteconsciousofthevalueofthepositiveevidenceaffordedbyarchaeologicalremains.Heappeals，forinstance，tothecharacterofthearmourfoundintheDeliantombsandthepeculiarmodeofsepulture，ascorroborationofhistheoryofthepredominanceoftheCarianelementamongtheprimitiveislanders，andtotheconcentrationofallthetempleseitherintheAcropolis，orinitsimmediatevicinity，tothenameof[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]bywhichitwasstillknown，andtotheextraordinarysanctityofthespringofwaterthere，asproofthattheprimitivecitywasoriginallyconfinedtothecitadel，andthedistrictimmediatelybeneathit（ii.16）.Andlastly，intheveryopeningofhishistory，anticipatingoneofthemostscientificofmodernmethods，hepointsouthowinearlystatesofcivilisationimmensefertilityofthesoiltendstofavourthepersonalaggrandisementofindividuals，andsotostopthenormalprogressofthecountrythrough’theriseoffactions，thatendlesssourceofruin’;andalsobytheallurementsitofferstoaforeigninvader，tonecessitateacontinualchangeofpopulation，oneimmigrationfollowingonanother.HeexemplifieshistheorybypointingtotheendlesspoliticalrevolutionsthatcharacterisedArcadia，ThessalyandBoeotia，thethreerichestspotsinGreece，aswellasbythenegativeinstanceoftheundisturbedstateinprimitivetimeofAttica，whichwasalwaysremarkableforthedrynessandpovertyofitssoil.
Now，whileundoubtedlyinthesepassageswemayrecognisethefirstanticipationofmanyofthemostmodernprinciplesofresearch，wemustrememberhowessentiallylimitedistherangeoftheARCHAEOLOGIA，andhownotheoryatallisofferedonthewiderquestionsofthegeneralconditionsoftheriseandprogressofhumanity，aproblemwhichisfirstscientificallydiscussedintheREPUBLICofPlato.
Andattheoutsetitmustbepremisedthat，whilethestudyofprimitivemanisanessentiallyinductivescience，restingratherontheaccumulationofevidencethanonspeculation，amongtheGreeksitwasprosecutedratherondeductiveprinciples.
Thucydidesdid，indeed，availhimselfoftheopportunitiesaffordedbytheunequaldevelopmentofcivilisationinhisowndayinGreece，andintheplacesIhavepointedoutseemstohaveanticipatedthecomparativemethod.ButwedonotfindlaterwritersavailingthemselvesofthewonderfullyaccurateandpicturesqueaccountsgivenbyHerodotusofthecustomsofsavagetribes.Totakeoneinstance，whichbearsagooddealonmodernquestions，wefindintheworksofthisgreattravellerthegradualandprogressivestepsinthedevelopmentofthefamilylifeclearlymanifestedinthemeregregariousherdingtogetheroftheAgathyrsi，theirprimitivekinsmanshipthroughwomenincommon，andtheriseofafeelingofpaternityfromastateofpolyandry.Thistribestoodatthattimeonthatborderlandbetweenumbilicalrelationshipandthefamilywhichhasbeensuchadifficultpointformodernanthropologiststofind.
Theancientauthors，however，areunanimousininsistingthatthefamilyistheultimateunitofsociety，though，asIhavesaid，aninductivestudyofprimitiveraces，oreventheaccountsgivenofthembyHerodotus，wouldhaveshownthemthatthe[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]ofapersonalhousehold，tousePlato’sexpression，isreallyamostcomplexnotionappearingalwaysinalatestageofcivilisation，alongwithrecognitionofprivatepropertyandtherightsofindividualism.
Philologyalso，whichinthehandsofmoderninvestigatorshasprovedsuchasplendidinstrumentofresearch，wasinancientdaysstudiedonprinciplestoounscientifictobeofmuchuse.
HerodotuspointsoutthatthewordERIDANOSisessentiallyGreekincharacter，thatconsequentlytheriversupposedtorunroundtheworldisprobablyamereGreekinvention.Hisremarks，however，onlanguagegenerally，asinthecaseofPIROMISandtheendingofthePersiannames，showonwhatunsoundbasishisknowledgeoflanguagerested.
IntheBACCHAEofEuripidesthereisanextremelyinterestingpassageinwhichtheimmoralstoriesoftheGreekmythologyareaccountedforontheprincipleofthatmisunderstandingofwordsandmetaphorstowhichmodernsciencehasgiventhenameofadiseaseoflanguage.InanswertotheimpiousrationalismofPentheus—asortofmodernPhilistine—Teiresias，whomaybetermedtheMaxMulleroftheThebancycle，pointsoutthatthestoryofDionysusbeinginclosedinZeus’thighreallyarosefromthelinguisticconfusionbetween[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]and[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced].
Onthewhole，however—forIhavequotedthesetwoinstancesonlytoshowtheunscientificcharacterofearlyphilology—wemaysaythatthisimportantinstrumentinrecreatingthehistoryofthepastwasnotreallyusedbytheancientsasameansofhistoricalcriticism.Nordidtheancientsemploythatothermethod，usedtosuchadvantageinourownday，bywhichinthesymbolismandformulasofanadvancedcivilisationwecandetecttheunconscioussurvivalofancientcustoms：for，whereasintheshamcaptureofthebrideatamarriagefeast，whichwascommoninWalestillarecenttime，wecandiscernthelingeringreminiscenceofthebarbaroushabitofexogamy，theancientwriterssawonlythedeliberatecommemorationofanhistoricalevent.
AristotledoesnottellusbywhatmethodhediscoveredthattheGreeksusedtobuytheirwivesinprimitivetimes，but，judgingbyhisgeneralprinciples，itwasprobablythroughsomelegendormythonthesubjectwhichlastedtohisownday，andnot，aswewoulddo，byarguingbackfromthemarriagepresentsgiventothebrideandherrelatives.（4）
Theoriginofthecommonproverb’worthsomanybeeves，’inwhichwediscerntheunconscioussurvivalofapurelypastoralstateofsocietybeforetheuseofmetalswasknown，isascribedbyPlutarchtothefactofTheseushavingcoinedmoneybearingabull’shead.
Similarly，theAmathusianfestival，inwhichayoungmanimitatedthelaboursofawomanintravail，isregardedbyhimasariteinstitutedinAriadne’shonour，andtheCarianadorationofasparagusasasimplecommemorationoftheadventureofthenymphPerigune.InthefirstoftheseWEdiscernthebeginningofagnationandkinsmanshipthroughthefather，whichstilllingersinthe’couvee’ofNewZealandtribes：whilethesecondisarelicofthetotemandfetishworshipofplants.
Now，inentireoppositiontothismoderninductiveprincipleofresearchstandsthephilosophicPlato，whoseaccountofprimitivemanisentirelyspeculativeanddeductive.
Theoriginofsocietyheascribestonecessity，themotherofallinventions，andimaginesthatindividualmanbegandeliberatelytoherdtogetheronaccountoftheadvantagesoftheprincipleofdivisionoflabourandtherenderingofmutualneed.
Itmust，however，beborneinmindthatPlato’sobjectinthiswholepassageintheREPUBLICwas，perhaps，notsomuchtoanalysetheconditionsofearlysocietyastoillustratetheimportanceofthedivisionoflabour，theshibbolethofhispoliticaleconomy，byshowingwhatapowerfulfactoritmusthavebeeninthemostprimitiveaswellasinthemostcomplexstatesofsociety;justasintheLAWShealmostrewritesentirelythehistoryofthePeloponnesusinordertoprovethenecessityofabalanceofpower.
Hesurely，Imean，musthaverecognisedhimselfhowessentiallyincompletehistheorywasintakingnoaccountoftheoriginoffamilylife，thepositionandinfluenceofwomen，andothersocialquestions，aswellasindisregardingthosedeepermotivesofreligion，whicharesuchimportantfactorsinearlycivilisation，andwhoseinfluenceAristotleseemstohaveclearlyapprehended，whenhesaysthattheaimofprimitivesocietywasnotmerelylifebutthehigherlife，andthatintheoriginofsocietyutilityisnotthesolemotive，butthatthereissomethingspiritualinitif，atleast，’spiritual’willbringoutthemeaningofthatcomplexexpression[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced].
Otherwise，thewholeaccountintheREPUBLICofprimitivemanwillalwaysremainasawarningagainsttheintrusionofAPRIORI
speculationsinthedomainappropriatetoinduction.
Now，Aristotle’stheoryoftheoriginofsociety，likehisphilosophyofethics，restsultimatelyontheprincipleoffinalcauses，notinthetheologicalmeaningofanaimortendencyimposedfromwithout，butinthescientificsenseoffunctioncorrespondingtoorgan.’Naturemakethnothinginvain’isthetextofAristotleinthisasinotherinquiries.Manbeingtheonlyanimalpossessedofthepowerofrationalspeechis，heasserts，bynatureintendedtobesocial，moresothanthebeeoranyothergregariousanimal.
Heis[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]，andthenationaltendencytowardshigherformsofperfectionbringsthe’armedsavagewhousedtosellhiswife’tothefreeindependenceofafreestate，andtothe[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]，whichwasthetestoftruecitizenship.Thestagespassedthroughbyhumanitystartwiththefamilyfirstastheultimateunit.
Theconglomerationoffamiliesformsavillageruledbythatpatriarchalswaywhichistheoldestformofgovernmentintheworld，asisshownbythefactthatallmencountittobetheconstitutionofheaven，andthevillagesaremergedintothestate，andheretheprogressionstops.
ForAristotle，likeallGreekthinkers，foundhisidealwithinthewallsofthe[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]，yetperhapsinhisremarkthataunitedGreecewouldruletheworldwemaydiscernsomeanticipationofthat’federalunionoffreestatesintooneconsolidatedempire’which，morethanthe[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]，istooureyestheultimatelyperfectpolity.
HowfarAristotlewasjustifiedinregardingthefamilyastheultimateunit，withthematerialsaffordedtohimbyGreekliterature，Ihavealreadynoticed.Besides，Aristotle，Imayremark，hadhereflectedonthemeaningofthatAthenianlawwhich，whileprohibitingmarriagewithauterinesister，permitteditwithasister—german，oronthecommontraditioninAthensthatbeforethetimeofCecropschildrenboretheirmothers’names，oronsomeoftheSpartanregulations，couldhardlyhavefailedtoseetheuniversalityofkinsmanshipthroughwomeninearlydays，andthelateappearanceofmonandry.Yet，whilehemissedthispoint，incommon，itmustbeacknowledged，withmanymodernwriters，suchasSirHenryMaine，itisessentiallyasanexplorerofinductiveinstancesthatwerecognisehisimprovementonPlato.Thetreatise[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]，diditremaintousinitsentirety，wouldhavebeenoneofthemostvaluablelandmarksintheprogressofhistoricalcriticism，andthefirstscientifictreatiseonthescienceofcomparativepolitics.
Afewfragmentsstillremaintous，inoneofwhichwefindAristotleappealingtotheauthorityofanancientinscriptiononthe’DiskofIphitus，’oneofthemostcelebratedGreekantiquities，tocorroboratehistheoryoftheLycurgeanrevivaloftheOlympianfestival;whilehisenormousresearchisevincedintheelaborateexplanationhegivesofthehistoricaloriginofproverbssuchas[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]，ofreligioussongslikethe[Greektextwhichcannotbereproduced]oftheBotticeanvirgins，orthepraisesofloveandwar.
And，finally，itistobeobservedhowmuchwiderthanPlato’shistheoryoftheoriginofsocietyis.Theybothrestonapsychologicalbasis，butAristotle’srecognitionofthecapacityforprogressandthetendencytowardsahigherlifeshowshowmuchdeeperhisknowledgeofhumannaturewas.
Inimitationofthesetwophilosophers，Polybiusgivesanaccountoftheoriginofsocietyintheopeningtohisphilosophyofhistory.SomewhatinthespiritofPlato，heimaginesthatafteroneofthecyclicdelugeswhichsweepoffmankindatstatedperiodsandannihilateallpre—existingcivilisation，thefewsurvivingmembersofhumanitycoalesceformutualprotection，and，asinthecasewithordinaryanimals，theonemostremarkableforphysicalstrengthiselectedking.Inashorttime，owingtotheworkingsofsympathyandthedesireofapprobation，themoralqualitiesbegintomaketheirappearance，andintellectualinsteadofbodilyexcellencebecomesthequalificationforsovereignty.
Otherpoints，astheriseoflawandthelike，aredweltoninasomewhatmodernspirit，andalthoughPolybiusseemsnottohaveemployedtheinductivemethodofresearchinthisquestion，orrather，Ishouldsay，ofthehierarchicalorderoftherationalprogressofideasinlife，heisnotfarremovedfromwhatthelaboriousinvestigationsofmoderntravellershavegivenus.
And，indeed，asregardstheworkingofthespeculativefacultyinthecreationofhistory，itisinallrespectsmarvelloushowthatthemosttruthfulaccountsofthepassagefrombarbarismtocivilisationinancientliteraturecomefromtheworksofpoets.
TheelaborateresearchesofMr.TylorandSirJohnLubbockhavedonelittlemorethanverifythetheoriesputforwardinthePROMETHEUSBOUNDandtheDENATURARERUM;yetneitherAEschylusnorLucretiasfollowedinthemodernpath，butratherattainedtotruthbyacertainalmostmysticpowerofcreativeimagination，suchaswenowseektobanishfromscienceasadangerouspower，thoughtoitscienceseemstoowemanyofitsmostsplendidgeneralities.（5）
Leavingthenthequestionoftheoriginofsocietyastreatedbytheancients，Ishallnowturntotheotherandthemoreimportantquestionofhowfartheymayhesaidtohaveattainedtowhatwecallthephilosophyofhistory.
Nowattheoutsetwemustnotethat，whiletheconceptionsoflawandorderhavebeenuniversallyreceivedasthegoverningprinciplesofthephenomenaofnatureinthesphereofphysicalscience，yettheirintrusionintothedomainofhistoryandthelifeofmanhasalwaysbeenmetwithastrongopposition，onthegroundoftheincalculablenatureoftwogreatforcesactingonhumanaction，acertaincauselessspontaneitywhichmencallfreewill，andtheextra—naturalinterferencewhichtheyattributeasaconstantattributetoGod.
Now，thatthereisascienceoftheapparentlyvariablephenomenaofhistoryisaconceptionwhichWEhaveperhapsonlyrecentlybeguntoappreciate;yet，likeallothergreatthoughts，itseemstohavecometotheGreekmindspontaneously，throughacertainsplendourofimagination，inthemorningtideoftheircivilisation，beforeinductiveresearchhadarmedthemwiththeinstrumentsofverification.ForIthinkitispossibletodiscerninsomeofthemysticspeculationsoftheearlyGreekthinkersthatdesiretodiscoverwhatisthat’invariableexistenceofwhichtherearevariablestates，’andtoincorporateitinsomeoneformulaoflawwhichmayservetoexplainthedifferentmanifestationsofallorganicbodies，MANINCLUDED，whichisthegermofthephilosophyofhistory;thegermindeedofanideaofwhichitisnottoomuchtosaythatonitanykindofhistoricalcriticism，worthyofthename，mustultimatelyrest.
Fortheveryfirstrequisiteforanyscientificconceptionofhistoryisthedoctrineofuniformsequence：inotherwords，thatcertaineventshavinghappened，certainothereventscorrespondingtothemwillhappenalso;thatthepastisthekeyofthefuture.
Nowatthebirthofthisgreatconceptionscience，itistrue，presided，yetreligionitwaswhichattheoutsetclotheditinitsowngarb，andfamiliarisedmenwithitbyappealingtotheirheartsfirstandthentotheirintellects;knowingthatatthebeginningofthingsitisthroughthemoralnature，andnotthroughtheintellectual，thatgreattruthsarespread.
SoinHerodotus，whomaybetakenasarepresentativeoftheorthodoxtoneofthought，theideaoftheuniformsequenceofcauseandeffectappearsunderthetheologicalaspectofNemesisandProvidence，whichisreallythescientificconceptionoflaw，onlyitisviewedfromanETHICALstandpoint.
NowinThucydidesthephilosophyofhistoryrestsontheprobability，whichtheuniformityofhumannatureaffordsus，thatthefuturewillinthecourseofhumanthingsresemblethepast，ifnotreproduceit.HeappearstocontemplatearecurrenceofthephenomenaofhistoryasequallycertainwithareturnoftheepidemicoftheGreatPlague.
NotwithstandingwhatGermancriticshavewrittenonthesubject，wemustbewareofregardingthisconceptionasamerereproductionofthatcyclictheoryofeventswhichseesintheworldnothingbuttheregularrotationofStropheandAntistrophe，intheeternalchoiroflifeanddeath.
For，inhisremarksontheexcessesoftheCorcyreanRevolution，Thucydidesdistinctlyrestshisideaoftherecurrenceofhistoryonthepsychologicalgroundsofthegeneralsamenessofmankind.
’Thesufferings，’hesays，’whichrevolutionentaileduponthecitiesweremanyandterrible，suchashaveoccurredandalwayswilloccursaslongashumannatureremainsthesame，thoughinasevererormilderform，andvaryingintheirsymptomsaccordingtothevarietyoftheparticularcases.
’Inpeaceandprosperitystatesandindividualshavebettersentiments，becausetheyarenotconfrontedwithimperiousnecessities;butwartakesawaytheeasysupplyofmen’swants，andsoprovesahardtaskmaster，whichbringsmostmen’scharacterstoalevelwiththeirfortunes.’