OnthepaperspresentedIinclinetotheview，asalreadyindicated，thattheclaimsofthepatentinsuitshouldbebroadlyconstrued;andwhengivensuchconstruction，theelementsoftheWrightmachinearefoundindefendants’
machineperformingthesamefunctionalresult.
Therearedissimilaritiesinthedefendants’structure——
changesofformandstrengtheningofparts——whichmaybeimprovements，butsuchdissimilaritiesseemtometohavenobearinguponthemeansadoptedtopreservetheequilibrium，whichmeansaretheequivalentoftheclaimsinsuitandattainanidenticalresult.
VarianceFromPatentImmaterial.
\"DefendantsfurthercontendthatthecurvedorarchedsurfacesoftheWrightaeroplanesincommercialusearedeparturesfromthepatent，whichdescribes’substantiallyflatsurfaces，’andthatsuchaconstructionwouldbewhollyimpracticable.Thedrawing，Fig.3，however，attachedtothespecification，showsacurvedlineinwardoftheaeroplanewithstraightlateraledges，andconsideringsuchdrawingwiththeterminologyofthespecification，theslightarchingofthesurfaceisnotthoughtamaterialdeparture;atanyrate，thepatentinissuedoesnotbelongtotheclassofpatentswhichrequiresnarrowingtothedetailsofconstruction.\"
\"JuneBug\"FirstInfringement.
Referringtothematterofpriority，thejudgesaid：
\"Indeed，nooneinterferedwiththerightsofthepatenteesbyconstructingmachinessimilartotheirsuntilinJuly，1908，whenCurtissexhibitedaflyingmachinewhichhecalledthe’JuneBug.’Hewasimmediatelynotifiedbythepatenteesthatsuchmachinewithitsmovablesurfacesatthetipsofwingsinfringedthepatentinsuit，andherepliedthathedidnotintendtopubliclyexhibitthemachineforprofit，butmerelywasengagedinexhibitingitforscientificpurposesasamemberoftheAerialExperimentAssociation.Tothisthepatenteesdidnotobject.Subsequently，however，themachine，withsupplementaryplanesplacedmidwaybetweentheupperandloweraeroplanes，waspubliclyexhibitedbythedefendantcorporationandusedbyCurtissinaerialflightsforprizesandemoluments.Itfurtherappearsthatthedefendantsnowthreatentocontinuesuchuseforgainandprofit，andtoengageinthemanufactureandsaleofsuchinfringingmachines，therebybecominganactiverivalofcomplainantinthebusinessofconstructingflyingmachinesembodyingtheclaimsinsuit，butsuchuseoftheinfringingmachinesitisthedutyofthiscourt，onthepaperspresented，toenjoin.
\"Therequirementsinpatentcausesfortheissuanceofaninjunctionpendentelite——thevalidityofthepatent，generalacquiescencebythepublicandinfringementbythedefendants——aresoreasonablyclearthatIbelieveifnotprobablethecomplainantmaysucceedatfinalhearing，andtherefore，statusquoshouldbepreservedandapreliminaryinjunctiongranted.
\"Soordered.\"
PointsClaimedByCurtiss.
ThattheHerring—CurtissCo.willappealisacertainty.
Mr.EmersonR.Newell，counselforthecompany，statesitscaseasfollows：
\"TheCurtissmachinehastwomainsupportingsurfaces，bothofwhicharecurved***andareabsolutelyrigidatalltimesandcannotbemoved，warpedordistortedinanymanner.Thefronthorizontalrudderisusedforthesteeringupordown，andtherearverticalrudderisusedonlyforsteeringtotherightorleft，inthesamemannerasaboatissteeredbyitsrudder.Themachineisprovidedattherearwithafixedhorizontalsurface，whichisnotpresentinthemachineofthepatent，andwhichhasadistinctadvantageintheoperationofdefendants’machine，aswillbehereafterdiscussed.
DoesNotWarpMainSurface.
\"Defendants’machinedoesnotusethewarpingofthemainsupportingsurfacesinrestoringthelateralequilibrium，buthastwocomparativelysmallpivotedbalancingsurfacesorrudders.Whenoneendofthemachineistippedupordownfromthenormal，theseplanesmaybethrowninoppositedirectionsbytheoperator，andsosteereachendofthemachineupordowntoitsnormallevel，atwhichtimetensionuponthemisreleasedandtheyaremovedbackbythepressureofthewindtotheirnormalposition.
RudderUsedOnlyForSteering.
\"Whendefendants’balancingsurfacesaremovedtheypresentequalanglesofincidencetothenormalrushofairandequalresistances，ateachsideofthemachine，andthereisthereforenotendencytoturnaroundaverticalaxisasisthecaseofthemachineofthepatent，consequentlynoreasonornecessityforturningtheverticalrearrudderindefendants’machinetocounteractanysuchturningtendency.Atanyrate，whatevermaybethetheoriesinregardtothismatter，thefactisthattheoperatorofdefendants’machinedoesnotatanytimeturnhisverticalruddertocounteractanyturningtendencycluetothesidebalancingsurfaces，butonlyusesittosteerthemachinethesameasaboatissteered.\"
AeroClubRecognizesWrights.
TheAeroClubofAmericahasofficiallyrecognizedtheWrightpatents.ThiscoursewastakenfollowingaconferenceheldApril9th，1910，participatedinbyWilliamWrightandAndrewFreedman，representingtheWrightCo.，andtheAeroClub’scommittee，ofPhilipT.Dodge，W.W.Miller，L.L.Gillespie，Wm.H.PageandCortlandtF.Bishop.
AtthismeetingarrangementsweremadebywhichtheAeroClubrecognizestheWrightpatentsandwillnotgiveitssectiontoanyopenmeetwherethepromotersthereofhavenotsecuredalicensefromtheWrightCompany.
ThesubstanceoftheagreementwasthattheAeroClubofAmericarecognizestherightsoftheownersoftheWrightpatentsunderthedecisionsoftheFederalcourtsandrefusestocountenancetheinfringementofthosepatentsaslongasthesedecisionsremaininforce.
Inthemeantime，inordertoencourageaviation，bothathomeandabroad，andinordertopermitforeignaviatorstotakepartinaviationcontestsinthiscountryitwasagreedthattheAeroClubofAmerica，astheAmericanrepresentativeoftheInternationalAeronauticFederation，shouldapproveonlysuchpubliccontestsasmaybelicensedbytheWrightCompanyandthattheWrightCompany，ontheotherhand，shouldencouragetheholdingofopenmeetsorcontestswhereeverapprovedasaforesaidbytheAeroClubofAmericabygrantinglicensestopromoterswhomakesatisfactoryarrangementswiththecompanyforitscompensationfortheuseofitspatents.Atsuchlicensedmeetanymachineofanymakemayparticipatefreelywithoutsecuringanyfurtherlicenseorpermit.Thedetailsandtermsofallmeetswillbearrangedbythecommitteehavinginchargetheinterestsofbothorganizations.
CHAPTERXXIV.
HINTSONPROPELLERCONSTRUCTION.
Everyprofessionalaviatorhashisownideasastothedesignofthepropeller，oneofthemostimportantfeaturesofflying—machineconstruction.Whileinmanyinstancesthepropeller，atacasualglance，mayappeartobeidentical，closeinspectionwilldevelopthefactthatinnearlyeverycasesomeindividualideaofthedesignerhasbeenincorporated.Thus，twopropellersofthetwo—
bladedvariety，whileofthesamegeneralsizeastolengthandwidthofblade，willvarygreatlyastopitchand\"twist\"orcurvature.
WhattheDesignersSeek.
Everydesignerisseekingforthesameresult——thesecuringofthegreatestpossiblethrust，orairdisplacement，withtheleastpossibleenergy.
Theanglesofanyscrewpropellerbladehavingauniformortruepitchchangegraduallyforeveryincreaseddiameter.Inordertogiveareasonablyclearexplanation，itwillbewelltoreviewinaprimarywaysomeofthedefinitionsortermsusedinconnectionwithandappliedtoscrewpropellers.
TermsinGeneralUse.
Pitch.——Theterm\"pitch，\"asappliedtoascrewpropeller，isthetheoreticaldistancethroughwhichitwouldtravelwithoutslipinonerevolution，andasappliedtoapropellerbladeitistheangleatwhichthebladesaresetsoastoenablethemtotravelinaspiralpaththroughafixeddistancetheoreticallywithoutslipinonerevolution.
Pitchspeed.——Theterm\"pitchspeed\"ofascrewpropelleristhespeedinfeetmultipliedbythenumberofrevolutionsitiscausedtomakeinoneminuteoftime.
Ifascrewpropellerisrevolved600timesperminute，andifitspitchis7ft.，thenthepitchspeedofsuchapropellerwouldbe7x600revolutions，or4200ft.perminute.
Uniformpitch.——Atruepitchscrewpropellerisonehavingitsbladesformedinsuchamannerastoenableallofitsusefulportions，fromtheportionnearestthehubtoitsouterportion，totravelatauniformpitchspeed.Or，inotherwords，thepitchisuniformwhentheprojectedareaofthebladeisparallelalongitsfulllengthandatthesametimerepresentingatruesectorofacircle.
Allscrewpropellershavingapitchequaltotheirdiametershavethesameanglefortheirbladesattheirlargestdiameter.
WhenPitchIsNotUniform.
Ascrewpropellernothavingauniformpitch，buthavingthesameangleforallportionsofitsblades，orsomearbitraryanglenotatruepitch，isdistinguishedfromonehavingatruepitchinthevariationofthepitchspeedsthatthevariousportionsofitsbladesareforcedtotravelthroughwhiletravelingatitsmaximumpitchspeed.
OnthissubjectMr.R.W.JamiesonsaysinAeronautics：
\"Takeforexamplean8—footscrewpropellerhavingan8—footpitchatitslargestdiameter.Iftheangleisthesamethroughoutitsentirebladelength，thenalltheporionsofitsbladesapproachingthehubfromitsouterportionwouldhaveagraduallydecreasingpitch.The2—footportionwouldhavea2—footpitch;the3—footportiona3—
footpitch，andsoontothe8—footportionwhichwouldhavean8—footpitch.Whenthisformofpropelleriscausedtorevolve，say500r.p.m.，the8—footportionwouldhaveacalculatedpitchspeedof8feetby500revolutions，or4，000feetpermin.;whilethe2—footportionwouldhaveacalculatedpitchspeedof500revolutionsby2feet，or1，000feetperminute.
EffectofNon—Uniformity.
\"Now，asalloftheportionsofthistypeofscrewpropellermusttravelatsomepitchspeed，whichmusthaveforitsmaximumapitchspeedinfeetbelowthecalculatedpitchspeedofthelargestdiameter，itfollowsthatsomeportionsofitsbladeswouldperformusefulworkwhiletheactionoftheotherportionswouldbenegative——resistingtheforwardmotionoftheportionshavingagreaterpitchspeed.Theportionshavingapitchspeedbelowthatatwhichthescrewistravelingceasetoperformusefulworkaftertheirpitchspeedhasbeenexceededbytheportionshavingalargerdiameterandagreaterpitchspeed.
\"Wemightcomparethelargerandsmallerdiameterportionsofthisformofscrewpropeller，totwopower—
drivenvesselsconnectedwithaline，onecapableoftraveling20milesperhour，theother10milesperhour.Itcanbereadilyunderstoodthattheboatcapableoftraveling10milesperhourwouldhavenousefuleffecttohelptheonetraveling20milesperhour，asitsactionwouldbesuchastoimposeadeadloaduponthelatter’sprogress.\"
Theterm\"slip，\"asappliedtoascrewpropeller，isthedistancebetweenitscalculatedpitchspeedandtheactualdistanceittravelsthroughunderload，dependingupontheefficiencyandproportionofitsbladesandtheamountofloadithastocarry.
Theactionofascrewpropellerwhileperformingusefulworkmightbecomparedtoanuttravelingonathreadedbolt;littleresistanceisofferedtoitsforwardmotionwhileitspinsfreelywithoutload，butgiveitaloadtocarry;thenitwilltakemorepowertokeepupitsspeed;iftoogreataloadisappliedthethreadwillstrip，andsoitiswithascrewpropellerglidingspirallyontheair.Apropellertravelingwithoutloadontonewairmightbecomparedtothenuttravelingfreelyonthebolt.
Itwouldconsumebutlittlepoweranditwouldtravelatnearlyitscalculatedpitchspeed，butgiveitworktodoandthenitwilltakepowertodriveit.
Thereisareactioncausedfromthepropellerprojectingairbackwardwhenitslips，which，togetherwiththesupportingeffectoftheblades，combinetoproduceusefulworkorpullontheobjecttobecarried.
Ascrewpropellerworkingunderloadapproachesmorecloselytoitsmaximumefficiencyasitcarriesitsloadwithaminimumamountofslip，ornearingitscalculatedpitchspeed.
WhyBladesAreCurved.
Ithasbeenpointedoutbyexperimentthatcertainformsofcurvedsurfacesasappliedtoaeroplaneswillliftmoreperhorsepower，perunitofsquarefoot，whileontheotherhandithasbeenshownthataflatsurfacewillliftmoreperhorsepower，butrequiresmoreareaofsurfacetodoit.
Asatruepitchscrewpropellerisvirtuallyarotatingaeroplane，acurvedsurfacemaybeadvantageouslyemployedwhenthelimitofsizepreventsusinglargeplanesurfacesfortheblades.
Careshouldbeexercisedinkeepingthechordofanycurvetobeusedforthebladesattheproperpitchangle，andinallcasespropellerbladesshouldbemaderigidsoastopreservethetrueangleandnotbedistortedbycentrifugalforceorfromanyothercause，asflexibilitywillseriouslyaffecttheirpitchspeedandotherwiseaffecttheirefficiency.
HowtoDetermineAngle.
Tofindtheanglefortheproperpitchatanypointinthediameterofapropeller，determinethecircumferencebymultiplyingthediameterby3.1416，whichrepresentbydrawingalinetoscaleinfeet.Attheendofthislinedrawanotherlinetorepresentthedesiredpitchinfeet.
Thendrawalinefromthepointrepresentingthedesiredpitchinfeettothebeginningofthecircumferenceline.
Forexample：
Ifthepropellertobelaidoutis7feetindiameter，andistohavea7—footpitch，thecircumferencewillbe21.99
feet.Drawadiagramrepresentingthecircumferencelineandpitchinfeet.Ifthisdiagramiswrappedaroundacylindertheanglelinewillrepresentatruethread7
feetindiameterand7feetlong，andtheangleofthethreadwillbe173/4degrees.
RelationofDiametertoCircumference.
Sincetheareasofcirclesdecreaseasthediameterlessens，itfollowsthatifapropelleristotravelatauniformpitchspeed，thevolumeofitsbladedisplacementshoulddecreaseasitsdiameterbecomesless，soastooccupyacorrespondingrelationtothecircumferencesoflargerdiameters，andatthesametimetheprojectedareaoftheblademustbeparallelalongitsfulllengthandshouldrepresentatruesectorofacircle.
Letussupposea7—footcircletobedividedinto20
sectors，oneofwhichrepresentsapropellerblade.Ifthepitchistobe7feet，thenthegreatestdepthoftheanglewouldbe1/20partofthepitch，or42/10inch.Ifthelinerepresentingthegreatestdepthoftheangleiskeptthesamewidthasitapproachesthehub，thepitchwillbeuniform.Ifthebladeissetatananglesoitsprojectedareais1/20partofthepitch，andifitismovedthrough20divisionsforonerevolution，itwouldhaveatravelof7feet.
CHAPTERXXV.
NEWMOTORSANDDEVICES.
Sincethefirsteditionofthisbookwasprinted，earlyin1910，therehasbeenaremarkableadvanceintheconstructionofaeroplanemotors，whichhasresultedinawonderfuldecreaseintheamountofsurfaceareafromthatformerlyrequired.
Markedgaininlightnessandspeedofthemotorhasenabledaviatorstogetalong，insomeinstances，withone—quarteroftheplanesupportingareapreviouslyused.ThefirstWrightbiplane，propelledbyamotorof25h.p.，productiveofafairaveragespeedof30milesanhour，hadaplanesurfaceof538
squarefeet.Now，byusingaspeciallydesignedmotorof65
h.p.，capableofdevelopingaspeedoffrom70to80milesanhour，theWrightsareenabledtosuccessfullynavigateamachinetheplaneareaofwhichisabout130squarefeet.Thisapparatusisintendedtocarryonlyoneperson（theoperator）.
AtBelmontPark，N.Y.，theWrightsdemonstratedthatthesmall—surfacedbiplaneismuchfaster，easiertomanageinthehandsofaskilledmanipulator，andabetteraltitudeclimberthanthelargeandcumbersomemachineswith538squarefeetofsurfaceheretoforeusedbythem.
Inthismaybefoundapracticalillustrationoftheprinciplethatincreasedspeedpermitsofareductioninplaneareainmathematicalratiotothegaininspeed.Thefasteranyobjectcanbemadetomovethroughtheair，thelesswillbethesupportingsurfacerequiredtosustainagivenweight.But，thereisalimitbeyondwhichtheplanesurfacecannotbereducedwithsafety.Regardmustalwaysbehadtothesecuringofanamplesustainingsurfacesothatincaseofmotorstoppagetherewillbesufficientbuoyancytoenabletheoperatortodescendsafely.
ThebabyWrightusedattheBelmontPark（N.Y.）aviationmeetinthefallof1910，hadaplanelengthof19feet6inches，andanextremebreadthof21feet6inches，withatotalsurfaceareaof146squarefeet.ItwasequippedwithanewWright8—cylindermotorof60h.p.，andtwoWrightpropellersof8
feet6inchesdiameterand500r.p.m.Itwaseasilythefastestmachineatthemeet.Afterthetests，WilburWrightsaid：
\"Itisourintentiontoputtogetheramachinewithspeciallydesignedpropellers，speciallydesignedgearsandamotorwhichwillgiveus65horsepoweratleast.Wewillthenbeable，aftersomeexperimentalworkwearedoingnow，tosendforthamachinethatwillmakeanewspeedrecord.\"
InthenewWrightmachinesthefrontelevatingplanesforup—and—downcontrolhavebeeneliminated，andthemovementsoftheapparatusarenowregulatedsolelybytherear，or\"tail\"
control.
APowerfulLightMotor.
AnothersuccessfulAmericanaviationmotoristheaeromotor，manufacturedbytheDetroitAeronauticConstruction.
Aeromotorsaremadeinfourmodelsasfollows：
Model1.——4—cylinder，30—40h.p.，weight200pounds.
Model2.——4—cylinder，（largerstrokeandbore）40—50h.p.，weight225pounds.
Model3.——6—cylinder.50—60h.p.，weight210pounds.
Model4.——6—cylinder，60—75h.p.，weight275pounds.
Thismotorisofthe4—cycle，vertical，water—cooledtype.
RobertsAviationMotor.
OneofthesuccessfulaviationmotorsofAmericanmake，isthatproducedbytheRobertsMotorCo.，ofSandusky，Ohio.
ItisdesignedbyE.W.Roberts，M.E.，whowasformerlychiefassistantanddesignerforSirHiramMaxim，whenthelatterwasmakinghiscelebratedaeronauticalexperimentsinEnglandin1894—95.Thismotorismadeinboththe4—and6—cylinderforms.The4—cylindermotorweighscompletewithBoschmagnetoandcarbureter165pounds，andwilldevelop40actualbrakeh.p.at1，000r.p.m.，46h.p.at1，200and52
h.p.at1，400.The6—cylinderweighs220poundsandwilldevelop60actualbrakeh.p.at1，000r.p.m.，69h.p.at1，200and78h.p.at1，500.
Extremelightnesshasbeensecuredbydoingawaywithallsuperfluousparts，ratherthanbyashavingdownofmaterialstoadangerousthinness.Forexample，thereisneitheranintakeorexhaustmanifoldonthemotor.Thedistributingvalveformsapartofthecrankcaseasdoesthewaterintake，andthegearpump.Magnaliumtakestheplaceofaluminuminthecrankcase，becauseitisnotonlylighterbutstrongerandcanbecastverythin.Thecrankshaftis21/2—inchdiameterwitha21/4—inchhole，andwhileitwouldbestrongenoughinordinary40percentcarbonsteelitismadeofsteeltwicethestrengthofthatcustomarilyemployed.Similarcarehasbeenexercisedonotherpartsandtheresultisamotorweighing4
poundsperh.p.
TheRinekMotor.
TheRinekaviationmotor，constructedbytheRinekAeroMfg.Co.，ofEaston，Pa.，isanotherthatismeetingwithfavoramongaviators.TypeB—8isan8—cylindermotor，thecylindersbeingsetatrightangles，onaV—shapedcrankcase.Itiswatercooled，develops50—60h.p.，theminimumat1，220r.p.m.，andweighs280poundswithallaccessories.TypeB—4，a4—cylindermotor，develops30h.p.at1，800r.p.m.，andweighs130poundscomplete.Thecylindersinbothmotorsaremadeofcastironwithcopperwaterjackets.
TheOverheadCamshaftBoulevard.
TheoverheadcamshaftBoulevardisstillanotherformofaviationmotorwhichhasbeenfavorablyreceived.ThisistheproductoftheBoulevardEngineCo.，ofSt.Louis.Itismadewith4and8cylinders.Theformerdevelops30—35h.p.
at1，200r.p.m.，andweighs130pounds.The8—cylindermotorgives60—70h.p.at1，200r.p.m.，andweighs200pounds.
Simplicityofconstructionisthemainfeatureofthismotor，especiallyinthemanipulationofthevalves.
CHAPTERXXVI.
MONOPLANES，TRIPLANES，MULTIPLANES.
Untilrecently，Americanaviatorshadnotgivenseriousattentiontoanyformofflyingmachinesasidefrombiplanes.
Ofthetwenty—onemonoplanescompetingattheInternationalmeetatBelmontPark，N.Y.，inNovember，1910，onlythreemakeswerehandledbyAmericans.MoissantandDrexelnavigatedBleriotmachines，HarknessanAntoinette，andGlennCurtissasingledeckerofhisownconstruction.Ontheotherhandthevariousforeignaviatorswhotookpartinthemeetunhesitatinglygavepreferencetomonoplanes.
WhatevermayhavebeenthecauseofthisseemingprejudiceagainstthemonoplaneonthepartofAmericanairsailors，itisslowlybeingovercome.WhenamanlikeCurtiss，whohasattainedgreatsuccesswithbiplanes，givesseriousattentiontothemonoplaneformofconstructionandgoessofarastobuildandsuccessfullyoperateasinglesurfacemachine，itmaybetakenforgrantedthatthemonoplaneisafixtureinthiscountry.
DimensionsofMonoplanes.
Themakes，dimensionsandequipmentofthevariousmonoplanesusedatBelmontParkareasfollows：
Bleriot——（Moissant，operator）——planelength23feet，extremebreadth28feet，surfacearea160squarefeet，7—cylinder，50h.
p.
Gnomeengine，Chauvierepropeller，7feet6inchesdiameter，1，200r.p.m.
Bleriot——（Drexel，operator）——exactlythesameasMoissant’smachine.
Antoinette——（Harkness，operator）——planelength42feet，extremebreadth46feet，surfacearea377squarefeet，Emerson6—cylinder，50h.p.motor，Antoinettepropeller，7feet6inchesdiameter，1，200r.p.m.
Curtiss——（GlennH.Curtiss，operator）——planelength25feet，extremebreadth26feet，surfacearea130squarefeet，Curtiss8—cylinder，60h.p.motor，Paragonpropeller，7feetindiameter，1，200r.p.m.
WithoneexceptionCurtisshadthesmallestmachineofanyofthoseenteringintocompetition.ThesmallestwasLaDemoiselle，madebySantos—Dumont，theproportionsofwhichwere：planelength20feet，extremebreadth18feet，surfacearea100squarefeet，Clement—Bayard2—cylinder，30h.p.motor，Chauvierepropeller，6feet6inchesindiameter，1，100r.p.m.
WinningsMadewithMonoplanes.
Operatorsofmonoplaneswonafairshareofthecashprizes.
Theywon$30，283outofatotalof$63，250，tosaynothingaboutGrahame—White’swinnings.Thelatterwon$13，600，butpartofhiswinningflightsweremadeinaBleriotmonoplane，andpartinaFarmanmachine.AsidefromGrahame—Whitethewinningsweredividedasfollows：Moissant（Bleriot）$13，350;
Latham（Antoinette）$8，183;Aubrun（Bleriot）$2，400;
DeLesseps（Bleriot）$2，300;Drexel（Bleriot）$1，700;Radley（Bleriot）$1，300;Simon（Bleriot）$750;Andemars（Clement—
Bayard）$100;Barrier（Bleriot）$100.
Outofatotalof$30，283，operatorsofBleriotmachineswon$21，900，againomittingGrahame—White’sshare.IfthewinningswithmonoplaneandbiplanecouldbedividedsoastoshowtheamountwonwitheachtypeofmachinethecreditsideoftheBleriotaccountwouldbemateriallyenlarged.
TheMostPopularMonoplanes.
Whilethenumberofsuccessfulmonoplanesisincreasingrapidly，andthereissomefeatureofadvantageinnearlyallthenewmakes，interestcenterschieflyintheSantos—Dumont，AntoinetteandBleriotmachines.Thisisbecausemorehasbeenaccomplishedwiththemthanwithanyoftheothers，possiblybecausetheyhavehadgreateropportunities.
FortheguidanceofthosewhomaywishtobuildamachineofthemonoplanetypeaftertheSantos—DumontorBleriotmodels，thefollowingdetailswillbefounduseful.
Santos—Dumont——Thelatestproductionofthismakeriscalledthe\"No.20Baby.\"Itisof18feetspread，and20feetoverallindepth.Itstands4feet2inchesinheight，notcountingthepropeller.Whenthislatterisinaverticalpositiontheextremeheightofthemachineis7feet5inches.Itisstrictlyaone—manapparatus.Thetotalsurfaceareais115
squarefeet.Thetotalweightofthemonoplanewithengineandpropelleris352pounds.Santos—Dumontweighs110
pounds，sotheentireweightcarriedwhileinflightis462
pounds，orabout3.6poundspersquarefootofsurface.
Bambooisusedintheconstructionofthebodyframe，andalsofortheframeofthetail.Thebodyframeconsistsofthreebamboopolesabout2inchesindiameterattheforwardendandtaperingtoabout1inchattherear.Thesepolesarejointedwithbrasssocketsneartherearofthemainplanesotheymaybetakenaparteasilyforconvenienceinhousingortransportation.Themainplaneisbuiltuponfourtransversesparsofash，setataslightdihedralangle，twobeingplacedoneachsideofthecentralbamboo.Thesesparsareabout2incheswideby11/8—inchdeepforafewfeeteachsideofthecenterofthemachine，andfromtheretaperdowntoaninchindepthatthecenterbamboo，andattheirouterends，butthewidthremainsthesamethroughouttheirentirelength.Theplanesaredoublesurfacedwithsilkandlacedaboveandbelowthebambooribswhichrunforeandaftunderthemainsparsandterminateinaforkedclipthroughwhichawireisstrungforlacingonthesilk.Thetailconsistsofahorizontalandverticalsurfaceplacedonauniversaljointabout10feetbackoftherearedgeofthemainplane.Bothofthesesurfacesareflatandconsistofasilkcoveringstretcheduponbambooribs.
Thehorizontalsurfaceis6feet5inchesacross，and4feet9
inchesfromfronttoback.Theverticalsurfaceisofthesamewidth（6feet5inches）butisonly3feet7inchesfromfronttoback.Allthedetailsofconstructionareshownintheaccompanyingillustration.
Powerisfurnishedbyaverylight（110pounds）Darracqmotor，ofthedouble—opposed—cylindertype.Ithasaboreof4.118inches，andstrokeof4.724inches，runsat1，800r.p.m.，andwitha61/2—footpropellerdevelopsathrustof2421/2
poundswhenthemonoplaneisheldsteady.
Bleriot——No.XI，thelatestoftheBleriotproductions，andthegreatestrecordmakerofthelot，is28feetinspreadofmainplane，anddepthof6feetinlargestpart.Thiswouldgiveamainsurfaceof168squarefeet，butastheendsoftheplanearesharplytaperedfromtherear，theactualsurfaceisreducedto150squarefeet.Projectingfromthemainframeisanelongatedtail（shownintheillustration）whichcarriesthehorizontalandverticalrudders.Theformerismadeinthreesections.Thecenterpieceis6feet1inchinspread，and2feet10inchesindepth，containing17squarefeetofsurface.Theendsections，whicharemademovableforwarpingpurposes，areeach2feet10inchessquare，thecombinedsurfaceareaintheentirehorizontalrudderbeing33squarefeet.Theverticalruddercontains41/2squarefeetofsurface，makingtheentiresupportingarea1871/2squarefeet.
Fromtheouterendofthepropellershaftinfronttotheextremerearedgeoftheverticalrudder，themachineis25feetdeep.Deductingthe6—footdepthofthemainplaneleaves19
feetasthelengthoftherudderbeamandrudders.Themotorequipmentconsistsofa3—cylinder，air—cooledengineofabout30h.p.placedatthefrontendofthebodyframe，andcarryingonitscrankshaftatwo—bladedpropeller6feet8inchesindiameter.Theenginespeedisabout1，250r.p.m.atwhichthepropellerdevelopsathrustofover200pounds.
TheBleriotXIcompleteweighs484pounds，andwithoperatorandfuelsupplyreadyfora25—or30—mileflight，715
pounds.OnepeculiarityoftheBleriotconstructionisthat，whiletheribsofthemainplanearecurved，thereisnopreliminarybendingofthepiecesasinotherformsofconstruction.
Bleriothashisribpiecescutalittlelongerthanrequiredand，byspringingthemintoplace，securesthenecessarycurvature.AgoodviewoftheBleriotplaneframeworkisgivenonpage63.
CombinedTriplaneandBiplane.
AtNorwich，Conn.，theStebbins—GeynetCo.，afterseveralyearsofexperiment，hasbegunthemanufactureofacombinationtriplaneandbiplanemachine.Thecenterplane，whichislocatedaboutmidwaybetweentheupperandlowersurfaces，ismaderemovable.Thechangefromtriplanetobiplane，orviceversa，maybereadilymadeinafewminutes.Theconstructorsclaimforthistypeofaircraftalargesupportingsurfaceareawiththeminimumofdimensionsinplanes.Althoughthismachinehasonly24—footspreadandisonly26
feetoverall，itstotalamountofsupportingareais400squarefeet;weight，600poundsinflyingorder，andliftingcapacityapproximately700poundsmore.
TheframeismadeentirelyofaselectedgradeofOregonspruce，finisheddowntoasmoothsurfaceandvarnished.Allstrutsarefish—shapedandsetinaluminumsockets，whichareboltedtotopandlowerbeamswithspecialstrongboltsofsmalldiameter.Themiddleplaneissetinsidethesixuprightsandheldinplacebyaluminumcastings.Aflexibletwistedseven—strandwirecableandStebbins—Geynetturnbucklesareusedfortrussing.
Thetopplaneisinthreesections，lacedtogether.Ithasa24—footspreadandis7feetindepth.Themiddleplaneisintwosectionseachof71/2feetspreadand6feetindepth.Thecenterendsofthemiddleplanesectionsdonotcomewithin5feetofjoining，thisopenspacebeingleftfortheengine.
Thebottomplaneisof16feetspreadand5feetindepth.Itwillthusbeseenthattheplanesoverhangoneanotherindepth，thebottomonebeingthesmallestinthisrespect.Theplanesaresetatanangleof9degrees，andthereisaclearspaceof3
1/2feetbetweeneach，makingthetotaldistancefromthebottomtothetopplaneatrifleover7feet.Thetotalsupportingsurfaceinthemainplanesis350squarefeet.Byarrangingthethreeplanesurfacesatanangleasdescribedandvaryingtheirsize，thegreatestamountofliftingareaissecuredabovethecenterofgravity，andthegreatestweightcarriedbelow.
Theribsaremadeoflaminatedspruce，finisheddownto1/2x3/4—inchcrosssectiondimensions，withacurvatureofabout1in20，andfastenedtothebeamswithspecialaluminumcastings.
Number2Naiadaeroplaneclothisusedincoveringtheplanes，withpocketssewninfortheribs.
Twocombinationelevatingruddersaresetupwellinfront，eachhaving18squarefeetofsupportingarea.Theseruddersarearrangedtoworkinunison，independently，orinoppositedirections.IntheModelBmachine，therearealsotwosmallrearelevatingrudders，whichworkinunisonwiththefrontrudders.Oneverticalrudderof10squarefeetissuspendedintherearofasmallstationaryhorizontalplaneinModelA，whiletheverticalrudderonModelBisonly6squarefeetinsize.Theelevatingruddersarearrangedsoastoactasstabilizingplaneswhenthemachineisinflight.Thewingtipsareheldinplacewithaspecialtwo—piececastingwhichformsahinge，andmakesaquickdetachablejoint.Wingtipsarealsousedinbalancing.
ModelAisequippedwithaCameron25—30h.p.，4—cylinder，air—cooledmotor.OnModelBaHolmesrotary7—cylindermotorof4x4—inchboreandstrokeisused.
PositivecontrolissecuredbyuseoftheStebbins—Geynet\"auto—control\"system.Apullorpushmovementoperatestheelevatingrudders，whilethebalancingisdonebymeansofsidemovementsorslightturns.Therearverticalrudderismanipulatedbymeansofafootlever.
NewCodyBiplane.
AmongthecomparativelynewbiplanesisoneconstructedbyWillardF.Cody，ofLondon，Eng.，theprincipaldistinctivefeatureofwhichisanautomaticcontrolwhichworksindependentlyofthehandlevers.Fortheothercontrolalonglevercarryingasteeringwheelfurnishesallthenecessarycontrolmovements，therebeingnofootworkatall.Theleverisuniversallyjointedandwhenmovedforeandaftoperatesthetwoaileronsasiftheywereone;whentheshaftisrotateditmovesthetailasawhole.Thehorizontaltailcomponentisimmovable.Whentheleverismovedfromsidetosideitworksnotonlytheaileronsandtheindependentelevators，butalsothroughapeculiararrangement，theverticalrearrudderaswell.
Thespreadoftheplanesis46feet6inchesandthewidth6
feet6inches.Theaileronsjutout1foot6inchesoneachsideofthemachineandare13feet6incheslong.Thecross—
shapedtailissupportedbyanoutriggercomposedoftwolongbamboosandofthistheverticalplaneis9feetby4feet，whilethehorizontalplaneis8feetby4feet.Theover—alllengthofthemachineis36feet.Theliftingsurfaceis857squarefeet.Itwillweigh，withapilot，1，450pounds.Thedistancebetweenthemainplanesis8feet6inches，whichisarathernotablefeatureinthisflyer.
Thepropellerhasadiameterof11feetand2incheswitha13—foot6—inchpitch;itisdrivenat560revolutionsbyachain，andthegearreductionbetweenthechainandpropellershaftistwotoone.
Themachinefromelevatortotailplanebristlesinoriginalpoints.Thehumpintheribshasbeencutawayentirely，sothatalthoughtheplaneisdoublesurfaced，thesurfacesareclosesttogetheratapointwhichapproximatesthecenterofpressure.Theplaneispracticallyoftwostream—lineforms，ofwhichoneisthecontinuationoftheother.Thisconstruction，claimstheinventor，willgiveincreasedlift，anddecreasedheadresistance.Thetrialssubstantiatethis，astheangleofincidenceinflyingisonlyaboutoneintwenty—six.
Theribsinthemainplanesaremadeofstripsofsilverspruceone—halfbyone—halfinch，whilethoseintheaileronsaresolidandone—fourthinchthick.Inthemainplanesthefabricishelddownwiththinwoodenfillets.Cody’splanesarenotedfortheirneatness，rigidityandsmoothness.Pegamoidfabricisusedthroughout.
PresseyAutomaticControl.
AnotheringenioussystemofautomaticcontrolhasbeenperfectedbyDr.J.B.Pressey，ofNewportNews，Va.Theaeroplaneisequippedwithamanuallyoperated，verticalrudder，（3），atthestern，andahorizontal，manuallyoperated，frontcontrol，（4），infront.Attheendsofthemainplane，andaboutmidwaybetweentheupperandlowersectionsthereof，therearesupplementalplanes，（5）.
Inconnectionwiththesesupplementalplanes（5），thereisemployedagravityinfluencedweight，theaviatorinhisseat，forholdingtheminahorizontal，orsubstantiallyhorizontal，positionwhenthemainplaneistravelingonanevenkeel;andforcausingthemtotipwhenthemainplanedipslaterally，toportorstarboard，theplanes（5）havingaliftingeffectuponthedepressedendofthemainplane，andadepressingeffectupontheliftedendofthemainplane，soastocorrectsuchlateraldipofthemainplane，andrestoreittoanevenkeel.Totheforward，upperedgeofplanes（5）connectionismadebymeansofrod（13）toonearmofabellcranklever，（14）thelatterbeingpivotallymounteduponaforeandaftpin（15），supportedfromthemainplane;andtheotherarmsoftheportandstarboardbellcranklevers（16），areconnectedbyrod（17），whichhasaneye（18），forreceivingthesegmentalrod（19），securedtoandprojectingfromcrossbaronseatsupportingyoke（7）.When，therefore，themainplanetipsdownwardlyonthestarboardside，therod（17）willbemovedbodilytostarboard，andthestarboardbalancingplane（5）willbeinclinedsoastoraiseitsforwardedgeanddepressitsrearedge，while，atthesametime，theportbalancingplane（5），willbeinclinedsoastodepressitsforwardedge，andraiseitsrearedge，therebycausingthestarboardbalancingplanetoexertaliftingeffect，andtheportbalancingplanetoexertadepressingeffectuponthemainplane，withtheresultofrestoringthemainplanetoanevenkeel，atwhichtimethebalancingplanes（5），willhaveresumedtheirnormal，horizontalposition.
Whenthemainplanedipsdownwardlyontheportside，areverseactiontakesplace，withthelikeresultofrestoringthemainplanetoanevenkeel.Inordertocorrectforwardandaftdipofthemainplane，foreandaftbalancingplanes（20）
and（23）areprovided.Theseplanesarecarriedbytransverserockshafts，whichmaybepivotallymountedinanysuitableway，uponstructurescarriedbymainplane.Inthepresentinstance，theforwardbalancingplaneispivotallymountedinextensions（21）oftheframe（22）whichcarriestheforward，manuallyoperated，horizontalascendinganddescendingplaneItisabsolutelynecessary，inmakingaturnwithanaeroplane，ifthatturnistobemadeinsafety，thatthemainplaneshallbeinclined，or\"banked，\"toadegreeproportionaltotheradiusofthecurveandtothespeedoftheaeroplane.Eachdifferentcurve，atthesamespeed，demandsadifferentinclination，asisalsodemandedbyeachvariationinspeedinroundinglikecurves.Thisinventiongivesthedesiredresultwithabsolutecertainty.
TheSellers’Multiplane.
Anotherinnovationisamultiplane，orfour—surfacedmachine，builtandoperatedbyM.B.Sellers，formerlyofGrahn，Ky.，butnowlocatedatNorwood，Ga.Asidefromtheuseoffoursustainingsurfaces，thenoveltyintheSellersmachineliesinthefactthatitisoperatedsuccessfullywithan8h.p.motor，whichisthesmallestyetusedinactualflight.Indescribinghiswork，Mr.Sellerssayshispurposehasbeentodeveloptheefficiencyofthesurfacestoapointwhereflightmaybeobtainedwiththeminimumofpowerand，judgingbytheresultsaccomplished，hehassucceeded.Inaletterwrittentotheauthorsofthisbook，Mr.Sellerssays：
\"Idislikehavingmymachinecalledaquadruplane，becausethenumberofplanesisimmaterial;thedistinctivefeaturebeingthearrangementoftheplanesinsteps;abetternamewouldbestepaeroplane，orstepplane.
\"Themachineaspatented，comprisestwoormoreplanesarrangedinstepform，thehighestbeinginfront.ThemachineIamnowusinghasfourplanes3ft.x18ft.;totalabout200
squarefeet;camber（arch）1in16.
\"Theverticalkeelisforlateralstability;therudderfordirection.Thisisthefirstmachine（sofarasIknow）tohaveacombinationofwheelsandrunnersorskids（Oct.1908）.Thewheelsriseupautomaticallywhenthemachineleavestheground，sothatitmayalightontherunners.
\"ADuthirt&Chalmers2—cylinderopposed，31/8—inchenginewasusedfirst，andseveralhundredshortflightsweremade.
Theenginegavefourbrakeh.p.，whichwasbarelysufficientforcontinuedflight.Theaeroplanecompletewiththisengineweighed78pounds.TheenginenowusedisaBates35/8—inch，2—cylinderopposed，showing8h.p.，andapparentlygivingplentyofpower.Theweightofaeroplanewiththisengineisnow110pounds.Owingtopoorgroundsonlyshortflightshavebeenmade，thelongesttodate（Dec.31，1910）beingabout1，000feet.
\"Inbuildingthepresentmachine，myobjectwastoproduceasafe，slow，light，andsmallh.p.aeroplane，apurposewhichI
haveaccomplished.\"
CHAPTERXXVII.
1911AEROPLANERECORDS.
THEWORLDATLARGE.
GreatestSpeedPerHour，WhateverLengthofFlight，AviatorAlone——E.Nieuport，Mourmelon，France，June21，NieuportMachine，82.72miles;withonepassenger，E.Nieuport，Moumlelon，France，June12，NieuportMachine，67.11miles;withtwopassengers，E.
Nieuport，Mourmelon，France，March9，NieuportMachine，63.91
miles;withthreepassengers，G.Busson，Rheims，France，March10，DeperdussinMachine，59.84miles;withfourpassengers，G.
Busson，Rheims，France，March10，DeperdussinMachine，54.21
miles.
GreatestDistanceAviatorAlone——G.Fourny，nostops，Buc，France，September2，M.FarmanMachine，447.01miles;E.Helen，threestops，Etampes，France，September8，NieuportMachine，778.45miles;withonepassenger，Lieut.Bier，Austria，October2，EtrichMachine，155.34miles;withtwopassengers，Lieut.
Bier，Austria，October4，EtrichMachine，69.59miles;withthreepassengers，G.Busson，Rheims，France，March10，DeperdussinMachine，31.06miles;withfourpassengers，G.Busson，Rheims，France，March10，DeperdussinMachine，15.99miles.
GreatestDurationAviatorAlone——G.Fourny，nostops，Buc，France，September2，M.FarmanMachine，11hours，1minute，29
seconds，E.Helen，threestops，Etampes，France，September8，NieuportMachine，14hours，7minutes，50seconds，13hours，17
minutesnettime;withonepassenger，Suvelack，Johannisthal，Germany，December8，4hours，23minutes;withtwopassengers，T.
deW.Milling，NassauBoulevard，NewYork，September26，Burgess—WrightMachine，1hour，54minutes，423—5seconds;withthreepassengers，Warchalowski，Wiener—Neustadt，Aust.，October30，45minutes，46seconds;withfourpassengers，G.Busson，Rheims，France，March10，DeperdussinMachine，17minutes，281—5
seconds.
GreatestAltitudeAviatorAlone——Garros，St.Malo，France，September4，BleriotMachine，13，362feet;withonepassenger，Prevost，Courcy，France，December2，9，840feet;withtwopassengers，Lieut.Bier，Austria，EtrichMachine，4，010feet.
AMERICANRECORDS.
GreatestSpeedPerHour，WhateverLengthofFlight，AviatorAlone——A.Leblanc，BelmontPark，N.Y.，October29，BleriotMachine，67.87miles;withonepassenger，C.Grahame—White，Squantum，Mass.，September4，NieuportMachine，63.23miles;withtwopassengers，T.O.M.Sopwith，Chicago，Ill.，August15，WrightMachine，34.96miles.
GreatestDistanceAviatorAlone——St.CroixJohnstone，Mineola，N.Y.，July27，Moisant（BleriotType）Machine，176.23miles.
GreatestDurationAviatorAlone——HowardW.Gill，Kinloch，Mo.，October19，WrightMachine，4hours，16minutes，35seconds;withonepassenger，G.W.Beatty，Chicago，Ill.，August19，WrightMachine，3hours，42minutes，221—5seconds;withtwopassengers，T.deW.Milling，NassauBoulevard，N.Y.，September26，Burgess—WrightMachine，1hour，54minutes，423—5seconds.
GreatestAltitudeAviatorAlone——L.Beachy，Chicago，Ill.，August20，CurtissMachine，11，642feet;withonepassenger，C.Grahame—
White，NassauBoulevard，N.Y.，September30，NieuportMachine，3，347feet.
WeightCarrying——P.O.Parmelee，Chicago，III.，August19，WrightMachine，458lbs.
AVIATIONDEVELOPMENT.
Thewonderfulprogressmadeinthescienceofaviationduringtheyear1911farsurpassesanytwelvemonths’advancementrecorded.Theadvancementhasnotbeenconfinedtoanycountryorcontinent，sinceeverypartoftheworldistakingitspartinaviationhistorymaking.
Therapidlyincreasinginterestinaviationhasbroughtforthschoolsfortheinstructionofflyinginboththeoldandnewworld，andlicensedairpilotsbeforetheyreceivetheirsanctionsfromthegoverningaeroclubsoftheircountryarerequiredtopassanextremelytryingexaminationinactualflights.Exhibitionflightsandraceswerecommoninallpartsoftheworldduring1911，andtouringaviatorsvisitedIndia，China，Japan，SouthAfrica，AustraliaandSouthAmerica，givingexhibitionsandinstruction.
Europewasthesceneofanumberofcross—countryracesinwhichentriesrangingfromtentotwentyaviatorsflewfromcitytocityaroundagivencircuit，whichinsomeinstancesexceeded1，000milesindistance.Cross—countryflightswithandwithoutpassengersbecamesocommonthatthoseoflessthantwohours’durationattractedlittleattention.Therewerefewerattemptsathighaltitudesoaring，althoughtheworld’srecordinthisdepartmentofaviationwasbetteredseveraltimes.Inplaceofthesehighflights，theaviatorsdevotedmoreattentiontospeed，durationandspectacularmanoeuvres，whichappearedtosatisfythespectators.
Theprizemoneywonduring1911exceeded$1，000，000，butowingtotheincreasednumberofaviatorstheindividualwinningswerenotaslargeasin1910.
Itisestimatedthatwithinthepasttwelvemonthsmorethan300，000mileshavebeencoveredinaeroplaneflightsandmorethanseventhousandpersons，classedeitherasaviatorsorpassengers，takenupintotheair.Theaeroplaneoftodayrangesthroughmonoplane，biplane，triplaneandevenquadraplane，andmorethantwohundredtypesofthesemachinesareinuse.
Aeroplanesarebecomingafactorofinternationalcommerce.
TherecordsoftheBureauofStatisticsshowthatmorethan$50，000worthofaeroplaneswereimportedinto，andexportedfrom，theUnitedStatesinthemonthsofJuly，AugustandSeptember，1911.TheBureauofStatisticsonlybeganthemaintenanceofaseparaterecordofthiscomparativelynewarticleofcommercewiththeopeningofthefiscalyear1911—12.
Twooftheprominentdevelopmentsof1911weretheintroductionofthehydro—aeroplaneandthemotorlessgliderexperimentsoftheWrightbrothersatKilldevilHills，N.C.，whereduringthetwoweeks’experimentsnumerousflightswithandagainstthewindweremade，culminatingintheestablishingofarecordbyOrvilleWrightonOctober25，1911，whenina52—mileperhourblowhereachedanelevationof225feetandremainedintheair10minutesand34
seconds.Thesearchforthesecretofautomaticstabilitystillcontinues，andthoughsomeremarkableprogresshasbeenmadethesolutionhasnotyetbeenreached.
NOTABLECROSS—COUNTRYFLIGHTSOF1911.
Oneoftheimportantfeaturesof1911inaviationwastherapidincreaseinthenumberanddistanceofcross—countryflightsmadeeitherforthepurposeofexhibition，testing，instructionorpleasure.Flightsbetweencitiesinalmosteverycountryoftheworldbecamecommonoccurrences.Sogreatwasthenumberthatonlythoseofmorethanordinaryimportancebecauseofspeed，distanceordurationarerecorded.
TheflightsofHarryN.AtwoodfromBostontoWashingtonandfromSt.LouistoNewYork，andC.P.RodgersfromNewYorktoLosAngeleswerethemostimportanteventsofthekindinthiscountry.TheStLouistoNewYorkflightwasadistancebyairroute，1，266miles.Durationofflight，12days.Netflyingtime，28hours53minutes.Averagedailyflight，105.5miles.Averagespeed，43.9milesperhour.
TranscontinentalFlightofCalbraithP.Rodgers.——Allworldrecordsforcross—countryflyingwerebrokenduringtheNewYorktoLosAngelesflightofCalbraithP.Rodgers，wholeftSheepsheadBay，N.Y.，onSunday，September17，1911，andcompletedhisflighttothePacificCoastonSunday，November5，atPasadena，Cal.RodgersflewaWrightbiplane，andduringhislongtripthemachinewasrepeatedlyrepaired，sogreatwasthestrainofthelongjourneyintheair.Rodgersisestimatedtohavecovered4，231miles，althoughtheactualrouteasmappedoutwasbut4，017miles.
ElapsedtimetoPasadena，Cal.，49days;actualtimeintheair，4，924minutes，equivalentto3days10hours4minutes;
averagespeedapproximating51milesperhour.Rodgers’
longestflightinonedaywasfromSandersontoSierraBlanca，Texas，onOctober28，whenhecovered231miles.OnNovember12，RodgersfellatCompton，Cal.，andwasbadlyinjured，causingadelayof28days.
EuropeanCircuitRace.——StartedfromParisonJune18，1911.Distance，1，073miles，viaParistoLiege;LiegetoSpatoLiege;LiegetoUtrecht，Holland;UtrechttoBrussels，Belgium;BrusselstoRoubaix;RoubaixtoCalais;CalaistoLondon;LondontoCalaisandCalaistoParis.Threeaeronautswerekilledeitheratthestartorshortlyaftertheracewasinprogress.TheywereCapt.Princetau，M.LeMartinandM.Lendron.Threeotherswereinjuredbyfalls.SevenhundredthousandspectatorswitnessedthestartfromtheaviationfieldatVincennes，nearParis.Thereweremorethanfortystarters，ofwhicheightfinished.Thewinner，Lieut.
JeanConneau，whofliesunderthenameof\"AndreBeaumont，\"
completedthecircuitonJuly7;hisactualnetflyingtimeforthedistancebeing58h.38m.4—5s.
CircuitofEnglandRace——1，010MilesinFiveSections.——
Start，July22.Finish，July26.Prize，$50，000.Twenty—
eightentriesandeighteenstarters.SeventeenfinishedthefirstsectionfromBrooklandstoHendon，adistanceoftwentymiles.FivereachedEdinburgh，thesecondsection，adistanceof343miles，andfourcompletedtheentirecircuit.
ParistoMadridRace.——ThisracewasstartedattheParisaviationheldatIssy—les—MoulineauxonSunday，May21.Thereweretwenty—oneentrants，andfully300，000spectatorsgatheredtowitnesstheinitialflightoftheaerialraces.Theracewasdividedintothreestagesasfollows：ParistoAngouleme，248miles;AngoulemetoSt.Sebastian，208miles，andfromSt.SebastiantoMadrid，386miles，atotaldistanceof842
miles.Afterthreeoftheentrantshadsafelyleftthefield，AviatorTrainlostcontrolofhisplane，andinfallingstruckandkilledM.Berteaux，theFrenchMinisterofWar，andseriouslyinjuredPremierMonis.Theaccidentcausedthewithdrawalofallbutsixoftheoriginalentrants，andofthesebutonefinished.TheracecalledforaflightoverthePyreneesMountains，andVedrines，thewinner，hadtorisetoaheightofmorethan7，000feettopassthemountainbarriernearSomosierraPass.BothVedrinesandGibert，anothercompetitor，wereattackedbyeaglesduringthelatterstagesoftheflight.Vedrines，whostartedfromParisonMonday，May22，finishedthelongandperilousraceat8：06
a.m.Friday，May26.Vedrinesnetflyingtime，allcontrolsandenforcedstopssubtracted，was14h.55m.18s.Thevariousprizestothewinneraggregated$30，000.
TheParis—Rome—TurinRace.——TheconditionsofthisracecalledforaflightbetweenthecitiesofParis，RomeandTurin，coveringadistanceof1，300miles.TheaviatorswerepermittedbytherulestoalightwheneverandwherevertheydesiredandthetimelimitwassetfromMay28toJune15.
Aprizeof$100，000wasofferedthewinner，butthecontestwasneverfinished，asoneafteranothertheaviatorsdroppedoutuntilFreyfellnearRoncigilione，France，breakingbotharmsandlegsandunofficiallyendingthecontest.Thereweretwenty—oneentriesandtwelveactualstarters.
InternationalSpeedCupRace.——ThethirdannualinternationalJamesGordonBennettspeedcupracewasheldatEastchurch，England，onJuly1，1911，andforthesecondtimewaswonbyanAmericanaviator，C.T.Weymann，inaFrenchracingaeroplane.Thedistancewas150kilometresequivalentto94miles，andthewinner’stimeof1h.11m.36s.
showedanaveragespeedof78.77milesperhour.Thefirstracewasheldin1909andwaswonbyGlennCurtiss，whoflewthetwentykilometres（12.4miles）in15minutes502—5
secondsatanaveragespeedof47milesperhour.In1910
thewinnerwasGrahame—White，whocovered100kilometres（62miles）atBelmontPark，L.I.，in60minutes473—5seconds，anaveragespeedof61.3milesperhour.Inthe1911
racethereweresixstarters：threefromFrance，twofromGreatBritainandonefromtheUnitedStates.
MilantoTurintoMilanRace.——ThisracewhichwasstartedfromMilan，Italy，onOctober29，wasrestrictedtoItalianaviatorsandhadsixstarters.Thedistancewasapproximately177milesandwonbyManisseroinaBleriotmachinein3h.16m.24—5s.
NewYorktoPhiladelphiaRace.——ThefirstintercityaeroplaneraceeverheldintheUnitedStateswasstartedfromNewYorkCityonAugust5，andfinishedinPhiladelphiathesameday.Theprizeof$5，000wasofferedbyacommercialconcernwithstoresinthetwocities：ThreeentrantscompetedfromtheCurtissExhibitionCompany.Thedistancewasapproximately83milesandwonbyL.BeacheyinaCurtissmachinein1h.50m.atanaveragespeedof45milesperhour.
Tri—StateRace.——Thetri—stateracewasthefeatureeventoftheHarvardAviationSocietymeetheldatSquantum，Mass.，August26toSeptember6.ItwasheldLaborDay，September4，overacourseof174miles，fromBostontoNashuatoWorcestertoProvidencetoBoston.Fourcompetitorsstarted，ofwhichtwofinished，thewinner，E.Ovington，inaBleriotmachine.Ovington’snetflyingtime，3h.6m.
221—5s.Winner’sprize，$10，000.
AEROPLANESANDDIRIGIBLEBALLOONSINWARFARE.
WonderfulprogresshasbeenmadeinthedevelopmentoftheaeroplaneinthiscountryandinEuropesince1903，andwithinthelasttwoorthreeyearstheleadingpowersoftheworldhaveentereduponextensivetestsandexperimentstodetermineitsavailabilityandusefulnessinlandandnavalwarfare.
Atthepresenttimeallthegreatpowersarebuildingorpurchasingaeroplanesonanextensivescale.Theyhaveestablishedgovernmentschoolsfortheinstructionoftheirarmyandnavyofficersandforexperimentalwork.So—called\"AirshipFleets\"havebeenconstructedandplacedincommissionasauxiliariestothearmiesandnavies.ThefleetsofFranceandGermanyareaboutequalandarelargerbyfarthanthoseofanyoftheotherpowers.Thelengthofthedirigiblescomposingthesefleetsrunsfrom150to500feet;
theyareequippedwithenginesoffrom50to500horse—power，witharateofspeedrangingfrom20to30milesperhour.
Theirapproximaterangeisfrom200to900miles;thelongestactualrun（madebytheZeppelinII，Germany）is800miles.
ABritishnavalairship，oneofthelargestyetbuilt，wascompletedlastsummer.Ithascostover$200，000，anditwasincourseofdesigningandconstructiontwoyears.Itis510
feetlong;cancarry22persons，andhasaliftof21tons.
Therelativevalueofthedirigibleballoonandtheaeroplaneinactualwarisyettobedetermined.Thedirigibleisconsideredtobethesafer，yetseverallargeballoonsofthisclassinGermanyandFrancehavemetwithdisaster，involvinglossoflives.Thecapacityofthedirigibleforlongerflightsanditssuperiorfacilitiesforcarryingapparatusandoperatorsforwirelesstelegraphyaredistinctadvantages.
Therehasnotyetbeenmuchopportunitytotesttheairshipinactualwarfare.TheaeroplanehasbeenusedbytheItaliansinTripoliforscoutingandreconnoiteringandissaidtohavejustifiedexpectations.OnseveraloccasionstheItalianmilitaryaviatorsfollowedthemovementsoftheenemy，inoneinstanceasfarasfortymilesinland.AtthetimeoftheattackbytheTurksaskillfulaeroplanereconnaissancerevealedtheapproachofalargeTurkishforce，believedtobeatthetimesixtymilesawayinthemountains.
Aeroplanesandairships，astheyexisttoday，woulddoubtlessrenderveryvaluableserviceinatimeofwar，bothoverlandandwater，inscouting，reconnoitering，carryingdispatches，andassomeexpertsbelieve，inlocatingsubmarinesandminesplacedbytheenemyinchannelsofexitsfromports.
A\"coastaeroplane\"couldflyout30or40milesfromland.
andrisingtoagreatheight，descryanyhostileshipsonthedistanthorizon，observetheirnumber，strength，formationanddirection，andreturnwithintwohourswithareporttoobtainwhichwouldrequireseveralswifttorpedo—boatdestroyersandamuchgreatertime.Thequestionastowhetheritwouldbepracticabletobombardanenemyonlandorseawithexplosivebombsdroppedordischargedfromflyingmachinesorairships，isonewhichismuchdiscussedbuthardlyyetdetermined.
Aeroplaneshavebeenconstructedwithfloatsintheplaceofrunnersandseveralattemptshavebeenmade，insomecasessuccessfully，tolightwiththemonandtorisefromthewater.Mr.CurtissdidthisatSanFrancisco，inJanuary，1911.Attemptshavealsobeenmadewiththeaeroplanetoalightonandtotakeflightfromthedeckofawarship.Towardtheendof1910AviatorElyflewtolandfromthecruiserBirmingham，andinJanuary，1911，heflewfromlandandalightedonthecruiserPennsylvania.Butinthesecasesspecialarrangementsweremadewhichwouldbehardlypracticableinatimeofactualwar.
InNovember，1911，atestwasmadeatNewport，R.I.，byLieut.Rodgers，ofthenavy，ofa\"hydro—areoplane\"asanauxiliarytoabattleship.Theideaofthetestwastoalightalongsideoftheship，hoistthemachineaboard，putouttoseaandlaunchthemachineagainwiththeuseofacrane.Lieut.
RodgerscamedownsmoothlyalongsidetheOhio，hismachinewaseasilydrawnaboardwithacrane，andtheOhiosteameddowntotheopensea，whereitwasblowinghalfagale.But，owingtothemisjudgmentoftheship’sheadway，oneofthewingsofthemachinewhenitstruckthewaterafterbeingreleasedfromthecrane，wentunderthewaterandwassnappedoff.Lieut.Rodgerswasconvincedthatthismethodwastooriskyandthatsomeothermustbedevised.
CHAPTERXXVIII.
GLOSSARYOFAERONAUTICALTERMS.
Aerodrome.——Literallyamachinethatrunsintheair.
Aerofoil.——Theadvancingtransversesectionofanaeroplane.
Aeroplane.——Aflyingmachineofthegliderpattern，usedincontra—distinctiontoadirigibleballoon.
Aeronaut.——Apersonwhotravelsintheair.
Aerostat.——Amachinesustainingweightintheair.A
balloonisanaerostat.
Aerostatic.——Pertainingtosuspensionintheair;theartofaerialnavigation.
Ailerons.——Smallstabilizingplanesattachedtothemainplanestoassistinpreservingequilibrium.
AngleofIncidence.——Angleformedbymakingcomparisonwithaperpendicularlineorbody.
AngleofInclination.——Angleatwhichaflyingmachinerises.Thisangle，likethatofincidence，isobtainedbycomparisonwithanupright，orperpendicularline.
AuxiliaryPlanes.——Minorplanesurfaces，usedinconjunctionwiththemainplanesforstabilizingpurposes.
Biplane.——Aflying—machineoftheglidertypewithtwosurfaceplanes.
BladeTwist.——Theangleoftwistorcurvatureonapropellerblade.
Cambered.——Curveorarchinplane，orwingfromporttostarboard.
Chassis.——Theunderframeworkofaflyingmachine;theframeworkofthelowerplane.
Control.——Systembywhichtheruddersandstabilizingplanesaremanipulated.
Dihedral.——Havingtwosidesandsetatanangle，likedihedralplanes，ordihedralpropellerblades.
Dirigible.——Obedienttoarudder;somethingthatmaybesteeredordirected.
Helicopter.——Flyingmachinetheliftingpowerofwhichisfurnishedbyverticalpropellers.
LateralCurvature.——Parabolicforminatransversedirection.
LateralEquilibriumorStability.——Maintenanceofthemachineonanevenkeeltransversely.Ifthelateralequilibriumisperfecttheextremeendsofthemachinewillbeonadeadlevel.
LongitudinalEquilibriumorStability.——Maintenanceofthemachineonanevenkeelfromfronttorear.
Monoplane.——Flyingmachinewithonesupporting，orsurfaceplane.
Multiplane.——Flyingmachinewithmorethanthreesurfaceplanes.
Ornithopter.——Flyingmachinewithmovablebird—likewings.
ParabolicCurves.——Havingtheformofaparabola——aconicsection.
PitchofPropellerBlade.——See\"Twist.\"
Ribs.——Thepiecesoverwhichtheclothcoveringisstretched.
Spread.——Thedistancefromendtoendofthemainsurface;
thetransversedimension.
Stanchions.——Uprightpiecesconnectingtheupperandlowerframes.
Struts.——Thepieceswhichholdtogetherlongitudinallythemainframebeams.
Superposed.——Placedoneoveranother.
SurfaceArea.——Theamountofcloth—coveredsupportingsurfacewhichfurnishesthesustainingquality.
Sustentation.——Suspensionintheair.Powerofsustentation;
thequalityofsustainingaweightintheair.
Triplane.——Flyingmachinewiththreesurfaceplanes.
ThrustofPropeller.——Powerwithwhichthebladesdisplacetheair.
Width.——Thedistancefromthefronttotherearedgeofaflyingmachine.
WindPressure.——Theforceexertedbythewindwhenabodyismovingagainstit.Thereisalwaysmoreorlesswindpressure，eveninacalm.
WingTips.——Theextremeendsofthemainsurfaceplanes.Sometimesthesearemovablepartsofthemainplanes，andsometimesseparateauxiliaryplanes.