第3章

Fromthispointofview，thefinalcausesofallsocialchangesandpoliticalrevolutionsaretobesought，notinmen’sbrains，notinmen’sbetterinsightsintoeternaltruthandjustice，butinchangesinthemodesofproductionandexchange。Theyaretobesought，notinthephilosophy，butintheeconomicsofeachparticularepoch。Thegrowingperceptionthatexistingsocialinstitutionsareunreasonableandunjust，thatreasonhasbecomeunreason，andrightwrong1），isonlyproofthatinthemodesofproductionandexchangechangeshavesilentlytakenplacewithwhichthesocialorder，adaptedtoearliereconomicconditions，isnolongerinkeeping。Fromthisitalsofollowsthatthemeansofgettingridoftheincongruitiesthathavebeenbroughttolightmustalsobepresent，inamoreorlessdevelopedcondition，withinthechangedmodesofproductionthemselves。Thesemeansarenottobeinventedbydeductionfromfundamentalprinciples，butaretobediscoveredinthestubbornfactsoftheexistingsystemofproduction。

Whatis，then，thepositionofmodernSocialisminthisconnection？

Thepresentsituationofsociety？thisisnowprettygenerallyconceded？isthecreationoftherulingclassoftoday，ofthebourgeoisie。Themodeofproductionpeculiartothebourgeoisie，known，sinceMarx，asthecapitalistmodeofproduction，wasincompatiblewiththefeudalsystem，withtheprivilegesitconferreduponindividuals，entiresocialranksandlocalcorporations，aswellaswiththehereditarytiesofsubordinationwhichconstitutedtheframeworkofitssocialorganization。Thebourgeoisiebrokeupthefeudalsystemandbuiltuponitsruinsthecapitalistorderofsociety，thekingdomoffreecompetition，ofpersonalliberty，oftheequality，beforethelaw，ofallcommodityowners，ofalltherestofthecapitalistblessings。Thenceforward，thecapitalistmodeofproductioncoulddevelopinfreedom。Sincesteam，machinery，andthemakingofmachinesbymachinerytransformedtheoldermanufactureintomodernindustry，theproductiveforces，evolvedundertheguidanceofthebourgeoisie，developedwitharapidityandinadegreeunheardofbefore。Butjustastheoldermanufacture，initstime，andhandicraft，becomingmoredevelopedunderitsinfluence，hadcomeintocollisionwiththefeudaltrammelsoftheguilds，sonowmodernindustry，initscompletedevelopment，comesintocollisionwiththeboundswithinwhichthecapitalistmodeofproductionholdsitconfined。Thenewproductiveforceshavealreadyoutgrownthecapitalisticmodeofusingthem。Andthisconflictbetweenproductiveforcesandmodesofproductionisnotaconflictengenderedinthemindofman，likethatbetweenoriginalsinanddivinejustice。Itexists，infact，objectively，outsideus，independentlyofthewillandactionsevenofthementhathavebroughtiton。ModernSocialismisnothingbutthereflex，inthought，ofthisconflictinfact；itsidealreflectionintheminds，first，oftheclassdirectlysufferingunderit，theworkingclass。

Now，inwhatdoesthisconflictconsist？

Beforecapitalistproduction？i。e。，intheMiddleAges？thesystemofpettyindustryobtainedgenerally，basedupontheprivatepropertyofthelaborersintheirmeansofproduction；inthecountry，theagricultureofthesmallpeasant，freeman，orserf；inthetowns，thehandicraftsorganizedinguilds。Theinstrumentsoflabor？land，agriculturalimplements，theworkshop，thetool？weretheinstrumentsoflaborofsingleindividuals，adaptedfortheuseofoneworker，and，therefore，ofnecessity，small，dwarfish，circumscribed。But，forthisveryreason，theybelongedasaruletotheproducerhimself。Toconcentratethesescattered，limitedmeansofproduction，toenlargethem，toturnthemintothepowerfulleversofproductionofthepresentday？thiswaspreciselythehistoricroleofcapitalistproductionandofitsupholder，thebourgeoisie。InthefourthsectionofCapital，Marxhasexplainedindetailhowsincethe15thcenturythishasbeenhistoricallyworkedoutthroughthethreephasesofsimpleco—operation，manufacture，andmodernindustry。Butthebourgeoisie，asisshownthere，couldnottransformthesepunymeansofproductionintomightyproductiveforceswithouttransformingthem，atthesametime，frommeansofproductionoftheindividualintosocialmeansofproductiononlyworkablebyacollectivityofmen。Thespinningwheel，thehandloom，theblacksmith’shammer，werereplacedbythespinning—machine，thepower—loom，thesteam—hammer；theindividualworkshop，bythefactoryimplyingtheco—operationofhundredsandthousandsofworkmen。Inlikemanner，productionitselfchangedfromaseriesofindividualintoaseriesofsocialacts，andtheproductionfromindividualtosocialproducts。Theyarn，thecloth，themetalarticlesthatnowcomeoutofthefactorywerethejointproductofmanyworkers，throughwhosehandstheyhadsuccessivelytopassbeforetheywereready。Noonepersoncouldsayofthem：\"Imadethat；thisismyproduct。\"

Butwhere，inagivensociety，thefundamentalformofproductionisthatspontaneousdivisionoflaborwhichcreepsingraduallyandnotuponanypreconceivedplan，theretheproductstakeontheformofcommodities，whosemutualexchange，buyingandselling，enabletheindividualproducerstosatisfytheirmanifoldwants。AndthiswasthecaseintheMiddleAges。

Thepeasant，e。g。，soldtotheartisanagriculturalproductsandboughtfromhimtheproductsofhandicraft。Intothissocietyofindividualproducers，ofcommodityproducers，thenewmodeofproductionthrustitself。Inthemidstoftheolddivisionoflabor，grownupspontaneouslyanduponnodefiniteplan，whichhadgovernedthewholeofsociety，nowarosedivisionoflaboruponadefiniteplan，asorganizedinthefactory；sidebysidewithindividualproductionappearedsocialproduction。

Theproductsofbothweresoldinthesamemarket，and，therefore，atpricesatleastapproximatelyequal。Butorganizationuponadefiniteplanwasstrongerthanspontaneousdivisionoflabor。Thefactoriesworkingwiththecombinedsocialforcesofacollectivityofindividualsproducedtheircommoditiesfarmorecheaplythantheindividualsmallproducers。Individualproducerssuccumbedinonedepartmentafteranother。Socializedproductionrevolutionizedalltheoldmethodsofproduction。Butitsrevolutionarycharacterwas，atthesametime，solittlerecognizedthatitwas，onthecontrary，introducedasameansofincreasinganddevelopingtheproductionofcommodities。Whenitarose，itfoundready—made，andmadeliberaluseof，certainmachineryfortheproductionandexchangeofcommodities：merchants’

capital，handicraft，wage—labor。Socializedproductionthusintroducingitselfasanewformoftheproductionofcommodities，itwasamatterofcoursethatunderittheoldformsofappropriationremainedinfullswing，andwereappliedtoitsproductsaswell。

Inthemedievalstageofevolutionoftheproductionofcommodities，thequestionastotheowneroftheproductoflaborcouldnotarise。Theindividualproducer，asarule，had，fromrawmaterialbelongingtohimself，andgenerallyhisownhandiwork，produceditwithhisowntools，bythelaborofhisownhandsorofhisfamily。Therewasnoneedforhimtoappropriatethenewproduct。Itbelongedwhollytohim，asamatterofcourse。Hispropertyintheproductwas，therefore，baseduponhisownlabor。

Evenwhereexternalhelpwasused，thiswas，asarule，oflittleimportance，andverygenerallywascompensatedbysomethingotherthanwages。Theapprenticesandjourneymenoftheguildsworkedlessforboardandwagesthanforeducation，inorderthattheymightbecomemastercraftsmenthemselves。

Thencametheconcentrationofthemeansofproductionandoftheproducersinlargeworkshopsandmanufactories，theirtransformationintoactualsocializedmeansofproductionandsocializedproducers。Butthesocializedproducersandmeansofproductionandtheirproductswerestilltreated，afterthischange，justastheyhadbeenbefore？i。e。，asthemeansofproductionandtheproductsofindividuals。Hitherto，theowneroftheinstrumentsoflaborhadhimselfappropriatedtheproduct，because，asarule，itwashisownproductandtheassistanceofotherswastheexception。

Now，theowneroftheinstrumentsoflaboralwaysappropriatedtohimselftheproduct，althoughitwasnolongerhisproductbutexclusivelytheproductofthelaborofothers。Thus，theproductsnowproducedsociallywerenotappropriatedbythosewhohadactuallysetinmotionthemeansofproductionandactuallyproducedthecommodities，butbythecapitalists。Themeansofproduction，andproductionitself，hadbecomeinessencesocialized。Buttheyweresubjectedtoaformofappropriationwhichpresupposestheprivateproductionofindividuals，underwhich，therefore，everyoneownshisownproductandbringsittomarket。Themodeofproductionissubjectedtothisformofappropriation，althoughitabolishestheconditionsuponwhichthelatterrests。[2]

Thiscontradiction，whichgivestothenewmodeofproductionitscapitalisticcharacter，containsthegermofthewholeofthesocialantagonismsoftoday。Thegreaterthemasteryobtainedbythenewmodeofproductionoverallimportantfieldsofproductionandinallmanufacturingcountries，themoreitreducedindividualproductiontoaninsignificantresiduum，themoreclearlywasbroughtouttheincompatibilityofsocializedproductionwithcapitalisticappropriation。

Thefirstcapitalistsfound，aswehavesaid，alongsideofotherformsoflabor，wage—laborready—madeforthemonthemarket。Butitwasexceptional，complementary，accessory，transitorywage—labor。Theagriculturallaborer，though，uponoccassion，hehiredhimselfoutbytheday，hadafewacresofhisownlandonwhichhecouldatalleventsliveatapinch。Theguildsweresoorganizedthatthejourneymantotodaybecamethemasteroftomorrow。

Butallthischanged，assoonasthemeansofproductionbecamesocializedandconcentratedinthehandsofcapitalists。Themeansofproduction，aswellastheproduct，oftheindividualproducerbecamemoreandmoreworthless；therewasnothingleftforhimbuttoturnwage—workerunderthecapitalist。Wage—labor，aforetimetheexceptionandaccessory，nowbecametheruleandbasisofallproduction；aforetimecomplementary，itnowbecamethesoleremainingfunctionoftheworker。Thewage—workerforatimebecameawage—workerforlife。Thenumberofthesepermanentwasfurtherenormouslyincreasedbythebreaking—upofthefeudalsystemthatoccurredatthesametime，bythedisbandingoftheretainersofthefeudallords，theevictionofthepeasantsfromtheirhomesteads，etc。Theseparationwasmadecompletebetweenthemeansofproductionconcentratedinthehandsofthecapitalists，ontheoneside，andtheproducers，possessingnothingbuttheirlabor—power，ontheother。Thecontradictionbetweensocializedproductionandcapitalisticappropriationmanifesteditselfastheantagonismofproletariatandbourgeoisie。

Wehaveseenthatthecapitalisticmodeofproductionthrustitswayintoasocietyofcommodity—producers，ofindividualproducers，whosesocialbondwastheexchangeoftheirproducts。Buteverysocietybasedupontheproductionofcommoditieshasthispeculiarity：thattheproducershavelostcontrolovertheirownsocialinter—relations。Eachmanproducesforhimselfwithsuchmeansofproductionashemayhappentohave，andforsuchexchangeashemayrequiretosatisfyhisremainingwants。Nooneknowshowmuchofhisparticulararticleiscomingonthemarket，norhowmuchofitwillbewanted。Nooneknowswhetherhisindividualproductwillmeetanactualdemand，whetherhewillbeabletomakegoodhiscostsofproductionoreventosellhiscommodityatall。Anarchyreignsinsocializedproduction。

Buttheproductionofcommodities，likeeveryotherformofproduction，hasitpeculiar，inherentlawsinseparablefromit；andtheselawswork，despiteanarchy，inandthroughanarchy。Theyrevealthemselvesintheonlypersistentformofsocialinter—relations？i。e。，inexchange？andheretheyaffecttheindividualproducersascompulsorylawsofcompetition。

Theyare，atfirst，unknowntotheseproducersthemselves，andhavetobediscoveredbythemgraduallyandastheresultofexperience。Theyworkthemselvesout，therefore，independentlyoftheproducers，andinantagonismtothem，asinexorablenaturallawsoftheirparticularformofproduction。

Theproductgovernstheproducers。

Inmediaevalsociety，especiallyintheearliercenturies，productionwasessentiallydirectedtowardsatisfyingthewantsoftheindividual。

Itsatisfied，inthemain，onlythewantsoftheproducerandhisfamily。

Whererelationsofpersonaldependenceexisted，asinthecountry，italsohelpedtosatisfythewantsofthefeudallord。Inallthistherewas，therefore，noexchange；theproducts，consequently，didnotassumethecharacterofcommodities。Thefamilyofthepeasantproducedalmosteverythingtheywanted：clothesandfurniture，aswellasthemeansofsubsistence。

Onlywhenitbegantoproducemorethanwassufficienttosupplyitsownwantsandthepaymentsinkindtothefeudallords，onlythendiditalsoproducecommodities。Thissurplus，thrownintosocializedexchangeandofferedforsale，becamecommodities。

Theartisaninthetowns，itistrue，hadfromthefirsttoproduceforexchange。Butthey，also，themselvessuppliedthegreatestpartoftheirindividualwants。Theyhadgardensandplotsofland。Theyturnedtheircattleoutintothecommunalforest，which，also，yieldedthemtimberandfiring。Thewomenspunflax，wool，andsoforth。Productionforthepurposeofexchange，productionofcommodities，wasonlyinitsinfancy。

Hence，exchangewasrestricted，themarketnarrow，themethodsofproductionstable；therewaslocalexclusivenesswithout，localunitywithin；themarkinthecountry；inthetown，theguild。

Butwiththeextensionoftheproductionofcommodities，andespeciallywiththeintroductionofthecapitalistmodeofproduction，thelawsofcommodity—production，hithertolatent，cameintoactionmoreopenlyandwithgreaterforce。Theoldbondswereloosened，theoldexclusivelimitsbrokenthrough，theproducersweremoreandmoreturnedintoindependent，isolatedproducersofcommodities。Itbecameapparentthattheproductionofsocietyatlargewasruledbyabsenceofplan，byaccident，byanarchy；

andthisanarchygrewtogreaterandgreaterheight。Butthechiefmeansbyaidofwhichthecapitalistmodeofproductionintensifiedthisanarchyofsocializedproductionwastheexactoppositeofanarchy。Itwastheincreasingorganizationofproduction，uponasocialbasis，ineveryindividualproductiveestablishment。Bythis，theold，peaceful，stableconditionofthingswasended。Whereverthisorganizationofproductionwasintroducedintoabranchofindustry，itbrookednoothermethodofproductionbyitsside。Thefieldoflaborbecameabattle—ground。Thegreatgeographicaldiscoveries，andthecolonizationfollowingthem，multipliedmarketsandquickenedthetransformationofhandicraftintomanufacture。Thewardidnotsimplybreakoutbetweentheindividualproducersofparticularlocalities。

Thelocalstrugglesbegat，intheirturn，nationalconflicts，thecommercialwarsofthe17thand18thcenturies。

Finally，modernindustryandtheopeningoftheworld—marketmadethestruggleuniversal，andatthesametimegaveitanunheard—ofvirulence。

Advantagesinnaturalorartificialconditionsofproductionnowdecidetheexistenceornon—existenceofindividualcapitalists，aswellasofwholeindustriesandcountries。Hethatfallsisremorselesslycastaside。

ItistheDarwinianstruggleoftheindividualforexistencetransferredfromNaturetosocietywithintensifiedviolence。Theconditionsofexistencenaturaltotheanimalappearasthefinaltermofhumandevelopment。Thecontradictionbetweensocializedproductionandcapitalisticappropriationnowpresentsitselfasanantagonismbetweentheorganizationofproductionintheindividualworkshopandtheanarchyofproductioninsocietygenerally。

Thecapitalisticmodeofproductionmovesinthesetwoformsoftheantagonismimmanenttoitfromitsveryorigin。Itisneverabletogetoutofthat\"viciouscircle\"whichFourierhadalreadydiscovered。WhatFouriercouldnot，indeed，seeinhistimeisthatthiscircleisgraduallynarrowing；thatthemovementbecomesmoreandmoreaspiral，andmustcometoanend，likethemovementofplanets，bycollisionwiththecentre。

Itisthecompellingforceofanarchyintheproductionofsocietyatlargethatmoreandmorecompletelyturnsthegreatmajorityofmenintoproletarians；

anditisthemassesoftheproletariatagainwhowillfinallyputanendtoanarchyinproduction。Itisthecompellingforceofanarchyinsocialproductionthatturnsthelimitlessperfectibilityofmachineryundermodernindustryintoacompulsorylawbywhicheveryindividualindustrialcapitalistmustperfecthismachinerymoreandmore，underpenaltyofruin。

Buttheperfectingofmachineryismakinghumanlaborsuperfluous。Iftheintroductionandincreaseofmachinerymeansthedisplacementofmillionsofmanualbyafewmachine—workers，improvementinmachinerymeansthedisplacementofmoreandmoreofthemachine—workersthemselves。Itmeans，inthelastinstance，theproductionofanumberofavailablewageworkersinexcessoftheaverageneedsofcapital，theformationofacompleteindustrialreservearmy，asIcalleditin1845[3]，availableatthetimeswhenindustryisworkingathighpressure，tobecastoutuponthestreetwhentheinevitablecrashcomes，aconstantdeadweightuponthelimbsoftheworking—classinitsstruggleforexistencewithcapital，aregulatorforkeepingofwagesdowntothelowlevelthatsuitstheinterestsofcapital。

Thusitcomesabout，toquoteMarx，thatmachinerybecomesthemostpowerfulweaponinthewarofcapitalagainsttheworking—class；

thattheinstrumentsoflaborconstantlytearthemeansofsubsistenceoutofthehandsofthelaborer；thattheyveryproductoftheworkeristurnedintoaninstrumentforhissubjugation。

Thusitcomesaboutthattheeconomizingoftheinstrumentsoflaborbecomesatthesametime，fromtheoutset，themostrecklesswasteoflabor—power，androbberybaseduponthenormalconditionsunderwhichlaborfunctions；thatmachinery，\"themostpowerfulinstrumentforshorteninglabortime，becomesthemostunfailingmeansforplacingeverymomentofthelaborer’stimeandthatofhisfamilyatthedisposalofthecapitalistforthepurposeofexpandingthevalueofhiscapital。\"（Capital，Englishedition，p。406）

Thusitcomesaboutthattheoverworkofsomebecomesthepreliminaryconditionfortheidlenessofothers，andthatmodernindustry，whichhuntsafternewconsumersoverthewholeworld，forcestheconsumptionofthemassesathomedowntoastarvationminimum，andindoingthusdestroysitsownhomemarket。

\"Thelawthatalwaysequilibratestherelativesurplus—

population，orindustrialreservearmy，totheextentandenergyofaccumulation，thislawrivetsthelaborertocapitalmorefirmlythanthewedgesofVulcandidPrometheustotherock。Itestablishesanaccumulationofmisery，correspondingwiththeaccumulationofcapital。Accumulationofwealthatonepoleis，therefore，atthesametimeaccumulationofmisery，agonyoftoil，slavery，ignorance，brutality，mentaldegradation，attheoppositepole，i。e。，onthesideoftheclassthatproducesitsownproductintheformofcapital（Marx’sCapital，p。661）

Andtoexpectanyotherdivisionoftheproductsfromthecapitalistmodeofproductionisthesameasexpectingtheelectrodesofabatterynottodecomposeacidulatedwater，nottoliberateoxygenatthepositive，hydrogenatthenegativepole，solongastheyareconnectedwiththeybattery。

Wehaveseenthattheever—increasingperfectibilityofmodernmachineryis，bytheanarchyofsocialproduction，turnedintoacompulsorylawthatforcestheindividualindustrialcapitalistalwaystoimprovehismachinery，alwaystoincreaseitsproductiveforce。Thebarepossibilityofextendingthefieldofproductionistransformedforhimintoasimilarlycompulsorylaw。Theenormousexpansiveforceofmodernindustry，comparedwithwhichthatofgasesismerechild’splay，appearstousnowasanecessityforexpansion，bothqualitativeandquantative，thatlaughsatallresistance。

Suchresistanceisofferedbyconsumption，bysales，bythemarketsfortheproductsofmodernindustry。Butthecapacityforextension，extensiveandintensive，ofthemarketsisprimarilygovernedbyquitedifferentlawsthatworkmuchlessenergetically。Theextensionofthemarketscannotkeeppacewiththeextensionofproduction。Thecollisionbecomesinevitable，andasthiscannotproduceanyrealsolutionsolongasitdoesnotbreakinpiecesthecapitalistmodeofproduction，thecollisionsbecomeperiodic。

Capitalistproductionhasbegottenanother\"viciouscircle\"。

Asamatteroffact，since1825，whenthefirstgeneralcrisisbrokeout，thewholeindustrialandcommercialworld，productionandexchangeamongallcivilizedpeoplesandtheirmoreorlessbarbarichangers—on，arethrownoutofjointaboutonceevery10years。Commerceisatastand—still，themarketsareglutted，productsaccumulate，asmultitudinousastheyareunsaleable，hardcashdisappears，creditvanishes，factoriesareclosed，themassoftheworkersareinwantofthemeansofsubsistence，becausetheyhaveproducedtoomuchofthemeansofsubsistence；bankruptcyfollowsuponbankruptcy，executionuponexecution。Thestagnationlastforyears；

productiveforcesandproductsarewastedanddestroyedwholesale，untiltheaccumulatedmassofcommoditiesfinallyfilteroff，moreorlessdepreciatedinvalue，untilproductionandexchangegraduallybegintomoveagain。

Littlebylittle，thepacequickens。Itbecomesatrot。Theindustrialtrotbreaksintoacanter，thecanterinturngrowsintotheheadlonggallopofaperfectsteeplechaseofindustry，commercialcredit，andspeculation，whichfinally，afterbreakneckleaps，endswhereitbegan？intheditchofacrisis。Andsooverandoveragain。Wehavenow，sincetheyear1825，gonethroughthisfivetimes，andatthepresentmoment（1877），wearegoingthroughitforthesixthtime。AndthecharacterofthesecrisesissoclearlydefinedthatFourierhitallofthemoffwhenhedescribedthefirst\"criseplethorique\"，acrisisfromplethora。

Inthesecrises，thecontradictionbetweensocializedproductionandcapitalistappropriationendsinaviolentexplosion。Thecirculationofcommoditiesis，forthetimebeing，stopped。Money，themeansofcirculation，becomesahindrancetocirculation。Allthelawsofproductionandcirculationofcommoditiesareturnedupsidedown。Theeconomiccollisionhasreacheditsapogee。Themodeofproductionisinrebellionagainstthemodeofexchange。

Thefactthatthesocializedorganizationofproductionwithinthefactoryhasdevelopedsofarthatithasbecomeincompatiblewiththeanarchyofproductioninsociety，whichexistssidebysidewithanddominatesit，isbroughthometothecapitalistthemselvesbytheviolentconcentrationofcapitalthatoccursduringcrises，throughtheruinofmanylarge，andastillgreaternumberofsmall，capitalists。Thewholemechanismofthecapitalistmodeofproductionbreaksdownunderthepressureoftheproductiveforces，itsowncreations。Itisnolongerabletoturnallthismassofmeansofproductionintocapital。Theyliefallow，andforthatveryreasontheindustrialreservearmymustalsoliefallow。Meansofproduction，meansofsubsistence，availablelaborers，alltheelementsofproductionandofgeneralwealth，arepresentinabundance。But\"abundancebecomesthesourceofdistressandwant\"（Fourier），becauseitistheverythingthatpreventsthetransformationofthemeansofproductionandsubsistenceintocapital。Forincapitalisticsociety，themeansofproductioncanonlyfunctionwhentheyhaveundergoneapreliminarytransformationintocapital，intothemeansofexploitinghumanlabor—power。Thenecessityofthistransformationintocapitalofthemeansofproductionandsubsistencestandslikeaghostbetweentheseandtheworkers。Italonepreventsthecomingtogetherofthematerialandpersonalleversofproduction；italoneforbidsthemeansofproductiontofunction，theworkerstoworkandlive。

Ontheonehand，therefore，thecapitalisticmodeofproductionstandsconvictedofitsownincapacitytofurtherdirecttheseproductiveforces。

Ontheother，theseproductiveforcesthemselves，withincreasingenergy，pressforwardtotheremovaloftheexistingcontradiction，totheabolitionoftheirqualityascapital，tothepracticalrecognitionoftheircharacterassocialproductionforces。

Thisrebellionoftheproductiveforces，astheygrowmoreandmorepowerful，againsttheirqualityascapital，thisstrongerandstrongercommandthattheirsocialcharactershallberecognized，forcesthecapitalclassitselftotreatthemmoreandmoreassocialproductiveforces，sofarasthisispossibleundercapitalistconditions。Theperiodofindustrialhighpressure，withitsunboundedinflationofcredit，notlessthanthecrashitself，bythecollapseofgreatcapitalistestablishments，tendstobringaboutthatformofthesocializationofgreatmassesofthemeansofproductionwhichwemeetwithinthedifferentkindsofjoint—stockcompanies。Manyofthesemeansofproductionandofdistributionare，fromtheoutset，socolossalthat，liketherailways，theyexcludeallotherformsofcapitalisticexpansion。Atafurtherstageofevolution，thisformalsobecomesinsufficient。Theproducersonalargescaleinaparticularbranchofanindustryinaparticularcountryuniteina\"Trust\"，aunionforthepurposeofregulatingproduction。Theydeterminethetotalamounttobeproduced，parcelitoutamongthemselves，andthusenforcethesellingpricefixedbeforehand。Buttrustsofthiskind，assoonasbusinessbecomesbad，aregenerallyliabletobreakup，andonthisveryaccountcompelayetgreaterconcentrationofassociation。Thewholeofaparticularindustryisturnedintoonegiganticjoint—stockcompany；internalcompetitiongivesplacetotheinternalmonopolyofthisonecompany。Thishashappenedin1890withtheEnglishalkaliproduction，whichisnow，afterthefusionof48largeworks，inthehandsofonecompany，conducteduponasingleplan，andwithacapitalof6，000，000pounds。

Inthetrusts，freedomofcompetitionchangesintoitsveryopposite？intomonopoly；andtheproductionwithoutanydefiniteplanofcapitalisticsocietycapitulatestotheproductionuponadefiniteplanoftheinvadingsocialisticsociety。Certainly，thisissofarstilltothebenefitandadvantageofthecapitalists。But，inthiscase，theexploitationissopalpable，thatitmustbreakdown。Nonationwillputupwithproductionconductedbytrusts，withsobarefacedanexploitationofthecommunitybyasmallbandofdividend—mongers。

Inanycase，withtrustsorwithout，theofficialrepresentativeofcapitalistsociety？thestate？willultimatelyhavetoundertakethedirectionofproductiop；[4]ThisnecessityforconversionintoStatepropertyisfeltfirstinthegreatinstitutionsforintercourseandcommunication？thepostoffice，thetelegraphs，therailways。

Ifthecrisesdemonstratetheincapacityofthebourgeoisieformanaginganylongermodernproductiveforces，thetransformationofthegreatestablishmentsforproductionanddistributionintojoint—stockcompanies，trusts，andStateproperty，showhowunnecessarythebourgeoisieareforthatpurpose。

Allthesocialfunctionsofthecapitalisthasnofurthersocialfunctionthanthatofpocketingdividends，tearingoffcoupons，andgamblingontheStockExchange，wherethedifferentcapitalistsdespoiloneanotheroftheircapital。Atfirst，thecapitalisticmodeofproductionforcesouttheworkers。Now，itforcesoutthecapitalists，andreducesthem，justasitreducedtheworkers，totheranksofthesurplus—population，althoughnotimmediatelyintothoseoftheindustrialreservearmy。

But，thetransformation？eitherintojoint—stockcompaniesandtrusts，orintoState—ownership？doesnotdoawaywiththecapitalisticnatureoftheproductiveforces。Inthejoint—stockcompaniesandtrusts，thisisobvious。AndthemodernState，again，isonlytheorganizationthatbourgeoissocietytakesoninordertosupporttheexternalconditionsofthecapitalistmodeofproductionagainsttheencroachmentsaswelloftheworkersasofindividualcapitalists。Themodernstate，nomatterwhatitsform，isessentiallyacapitalistmachine？thestateofthecapitalists，theidealpersonificationofthetotalnationalcapital。Themoreitproceedstothetakingoverofproductiveforces，themoredoesitactuallybecomethenationalcapitalist，themorecitizensdoesitexploit。Theworkersremainwage—workers？proletarians。Thecapitalistrelationisnotdoneawaywith。Itis，rather，broughttoahead。But，broughttoahead，ittopplesover。State—ownershipoftheproductiveforcesisnotthesolutionoftheconflict，butconcealedwithinitarethetechnicalconditionsthatformtheelementsofthatsolution。

Thissolutioncanonlyconsistinthepracticalrecognitionofthesocialnatureofthemodernforcesofproduction，andthereforeintheharmonizingwiththesocializedcharacterofthemeansofproduction。Andthiscanonlycomeaboutbysocietyopenlyanddirectlytakingpossessionoftheproductiveforceswhichhaveoutgrownallcontrol，exceptthatofsocietyasawhole。Thesocialcharacterofthemeansofproductionandoftheproductstodayreactsagainsttheproducers，periodicallydisruptsallproductionandexchange，actsonlylikealawofNatureworkingblindly，forcibly，destructively。But，withthetakingoverbysocietyoftheproductiveforces，thesocialcharacterofthemeansofproductionandoftheproductswillbeutilizedbytheproducerswithaperfectunderstandingofitsnature，andinsteadofbeingasourceofdisturbanceandperiodicalcollapse，willbecomethemostpowerfulleverofproductionitself。

Activesocialforcesworkexactlylikenaturalforces：blindly，forcibly，destructively，solongaswedonotunderstand，andreckonwith，them。

But，whenonceweunderstandthem，whenoncewegrasptheiraction，theirdirection，theireffects，itdependsonlyuponourselvestosubjectthemmoreandmoretoourownwill，and，bymeansofthem，toreachourownends。Andthisholdsquiteespeciallyofthemightyproductiveforcesoftoday。Aslongasweobstinatelyrefusetounderstandthenatureandthecharacterofthesesocialmeansofaction？andthisunderstandinggoesagainstthegrainofthecapitalistmodeofproduction，anditsdefenders？solongtheseforcesareatworkinspiteofus，inoppositiontous，solongtheymasterus，aswehaveshownaboveindetail。

Butwhenoncetheirnatureisunderstood，theycan，inthehandworkingtogether，betransformedfrommasterdemonsintowillingservants。Thedifferenceisasthatbetweenthedestructiveforceofelectricityinthelightninginthestorm，andelectricityundercommandinthetelegraphandthevoltaicarc；thedifferencebetweenaconflagration，andfireworkingintheserviceofman。Withthisrecognition，atlast，oftherealnatureoftheproductiveforcesoftoday，thesocialanarchyofproductiongivesplacetoasocialregulationofproductionuponadefiniteplan，accordingtotheneedsofthecommunityandofeachindividual。Thenthecapitalistmodeofappropriation，inwhichtheproductenslavesfirsttheproducer，andthentheappropriator，isreplacedbythemodeofappropriationoftheproductsthatisbaseduponthenatureofthemodernmeansofproduction；

upontheonehand，directsocialappropriation，asmeanstothemaintenanceandextensionofproduction？ontheother，directindividualappropriation，asmeansofsubsistenceandofenjoyment。

Whilstthecapitalistmodeofproductionmoreandmorecompletelytransformsthegreatmajorityofthepopulationintoproletarians，itcreatesthepowerwhich，underpenaltyofitsowndestruction，isforcedtoaccomplishthisrevolution。Whilstitforcesonmoreandmoreofthetransformationofthevastmeansofproduction，alreadysocialized，intoStateproperty，itshowsitselfthewaytoaccomplishingthisrevolution。TheproletariatseizespoliticalpowerandturnsthemeansofproductionintoStateproperty。

But，indoingthis，itabolishesitselfasproletariat，abolishesallclassdistinctionandclassantagonisms，abolishesalsotheStateasState。

Society，thusfar，baseduponclassantagonisms，hadneedoftheState。

Thatis，ofanorganizationoftheparticularclasswhichwas，protempore，theexploitingclass，anorganizationforthepurposeofpreventinganyinterferencefromwithoutwiththeexistingconditionsofproduction，and，therefore，especially，forthepurposeofforciblykeepingtheexploitedclassesintheconditionofoppressioncorrespondingwiththegivenmodeofproduction（slavery，serfdom，wage—labor）。TheStatewastheofficialrepresentativeofsocietyasawhole；thegatheringofittogetherintoavisibleembodiment。But，itwasthisonlyinsofarasitwastheStateofthatclasswhichitselfrepresented，forthetimebeing，societyasawhole：

inancienttimes，theStateofslaveowningcitizens；

intheMiddleAges，thefeudallords；

inourowntimes，thebourgeoisie。

When，atlast，itbecomestherealrepresentativeofthewholeofsociety，itrendersitselfunnecessary。Assoonasthereisnolongeranysocialclasstobeheldinsubjection；assoonasclassrule，andtheindividualstruggleforexistencebaseduponourpresentanarchyinproduction，withthecollisionsandexcessesarisingfromthese，areremoved，nothingmoreremainstoberepressed，andaspecialrepressiveforce，aState，isnolongernecessary。ThefirstactbyvirtueofwhichtheStatereallyconstitutesitselftherepresentativeofthewholeofsociety？thetakingpossessionofthemeansofproductioninthenameofsociety？thisis，atthesametime，itslastindependentactasaState。Stateinterferenceinsocialrelationsbecomes，inonedomainafteranother，superfluous，andthendiesoutofitself；thegovernmentofpersonsisreplacedbytheadministrationofthings，andbytheconductofprocessesofproduction。TheStateisnot\"abolished\"。Itdiesout。Thisgivesthemeasureofthevalueofthephrase：\"afreeState\"，bothastoitsjustifiableuseattimesbyagitators，andastoitsultimatescientificinefficiency；andalsoofthedemandsoftheso—calledanarchistsfortheabolitionoftheStateoutofhand。

Sincethehistoricalappearanceofthecapitalistmodeofproduction，theappropriationbysocietyofallthemeansofproductionhasoftenbeendreamedof，moreorlessvaguely，byindividuals，aswellasbysects，astheidealofthefuture。Butitcouldbecomepossible，couldbecomeahistoricalnecessity，onlywhentheactualconditionsforitsrealizationwerethere。Likeeveryothersocialadvance，itbecomespracticable，notbymenunderstandingthattheexistenceofclassesisincontradictiontojustice，equality，etc。，notbythemerewillingnesstoabolishtheseclasses，butbyvirtueofcertainneweconomicconditions。Theseparationofsocietyintoanexploitingandanexploitedclass，arulingandanoppressedclass，wasthenecessaryconsequencesofthedeficientandrestricteddevelopmentofproductioninformertimes。Solongasthetotalsociallaboronlyyieldsaproducewhichbutslightlyexceedsthatbarelynecessaryfortheexistenceofall；solong，therefore，aslaborengagesalloralmostallthetimeofthegreatmajorityofthemembersofsociety？solong，ofnecessity，thissocietyisdividedintoclasses。Sidebysidewiththegreatmajority，exclusivelybondslavestolabor，arisesaclassfreedfromdirectlyproductivelabor，whichlooksafterthegeneralaffairsofsociety：thedirectionoflabor，Statebusiness，law，science，art，etc。Itis，therefore，thelawofdivisionoflaborthatliesatthebasisofthedivisionintoclasses。

Butthisdoesnotpreventthisdivisionintoclassesfrombeingcarriedoutbymeansofviolenceandrobbery，trickeryandfraud。itdoesnotpreventtherulingclass，oncehavingtheupperhand，fromconsolidatingitspowerattheexpenseoftheworking—class，fromturningitssocialleadershipintoanintensifiedexploitationofthemasses。

Butif，uponthisshowing，divisionintoclasseshasacertainhistoricaljustification，ithasthisonlyforagivenperiod，onlyundergivensocialconditions。Itwasbasedupontheinsufficiencyofproduction。Itwillbesweptawaybythecompletedevelopmentofmodernproductiveforces。

And，infact，theabolitionofclassesinsocietypresupposesadegreeofhistoricalevolutionatwhichtheexistence，notsimplyofthisorthatparticularrulingclass，butofanyrulingclassatall，and，therefore，theexistenceofclassdistinctionitself，hasbecomeaobsoleteanachronism。

Itpresupposes，therefore，thedevelopmentofproductioncarriedouttoadegreeatwhichappropriationofthemeansofproductionandoftheproducts，and，withthis，ofpoliticaldomination，ofthemonopolyofculture，andofintellectualleadershipbyaparticularclassofsociety，hasbecomenotonlysuperfluousbuteconomically，politically，intellectually，ahindrancetodevelopment。

Thispointisnowreached。Theirpoliticalandintellectualbankruptcyisscarcelyanylongerasecrettothebourgeoisiethemselves。Theireconomicbankruptcyrecursregularlyevery10years。Ineverycrisis，societyissuffocatedbeneaththeweightofitsownproductiveforcesandproducts，whichitcannotuse，andstandshelpless，face—to—facewiththeabsurdcontradictionthattheproducershavenothingtoconsume，becauseconsumersarewanting。Theexpansiveforceofthemeansofproductionburstthebondsthatthecapitalistmodeofproductionhadimposeduponthem。Theirdeliverancefromthesebondsistheonepreconditionforanunbroken，constantly—accelerateddevelopmentoftheproductiveforces，andtherewithforapracticallyunlimitedincreaseofproductionitself。Noristhisall。Thesocializedappropriationofthemeansofproductiondoesaway，notonlywiththepresentartificialrestrictionsuponproduction，butalsowiththepositivewasteanddevastationofproductiveforcesandproductsthatareatthepresenttimetheinevitableconcomitantsofproduction，andthatreachtheirheightinthecrises。

Further，itsetsfreeforthecommunityatlargeamassofmeansofproductionandofproducts，bydoingawaywiththesenselessextravaganceoftherulingclassesoftoday，andtheirpoliticalrepresentatives。Thepossibilityofsecuringforeverymemberofsociety，bymensofsocializedproduction，anexistencenotonlyfullysufficientmaterially，andbecomingday—by—daymorefull，butanexistenceguaranteeingtoallthefreedevelopmentandexerciseoftheirphysicalandmentalfaculties？thispossibilityisnow，forthefirsttime，here，butitishere。[5]

Withtheseizingofthemeansofproductionbysociety，productionofcommoditiesisdoneawaywith，and，simultaneously，themasteryoftheproductovertheproducer。Anarchyinsocialproductionisreplacedbysystematic，definiteorganization。Thestruggleforindividualexistencedisappears。Then，forthefirsttime，man，inacertainsense，isfinallymarkedofffromtherestoftheanimalkingdom，andemergesfrommereanimalconditionsofexistenceintoreallyhumanones。Thewholesphereoftheconditionsoflifewhichenvironman，andwhichhavehithertoruledman，nowcomesunderthedominionandcontrolofman，whoforthefirsttimebecomesthereal，consciouslordofnature，becausehehasnowbecomemasterofhisownsocialorganization。Thelawsofhisownsocialaction，hithertostandingface—to—facewithmanaslawsofNatureforeignto，anddominatinghim，willthenbeusedwithfullunderstanding，andsomasteredbyhim。

Man’sownsocialorganization，hithertoconfrontinghimasanecessityimposedbyNatureandhistory，nowbecomestheresultofhisownfreeaction。

Theextraneousobjectiveforcesthathave，hitherto，governedhistory，passunderthecontrolofmanhimself。Onlyfromthattimewillmanhimself，moreandmoreconsciously，makehisownhistory？onlyfromthattimewillthesocialcausessetinmovementbyhimhave，inthemainandinaconstantlygrowingmeasure，theresultsintendedbyhim。Itistheascentofmanfromthekingdomofnecessitytothekingdomoffreedom。

Letusbrieflysumupoursketchofhistoricalevolution。

I。MediaevalSociety？Individualproductiononasmallscale。Meansofproductionadaptedforindividualuse；henceprimitive，ungainly，petty，dwarfedinaction。Productionforimmediateconsumption，eitheroftheproducerhimselforhisfeudallord。

Onlywhereanexcessofproductionoverthisconsumptionoccursissuchexcessofferedforsale，entersintoexchange。Productionofcommodities，therefore，onlyinitsinfancy。Butalreadyitcontainswithinitself，inembryo，anarchyintheproductionofsocietyatlarge。

II。CapitalistRevolution？transformationofindustry，atfirstbemeansofsimplecooperationandmanufacture。Concentrationofthemeansofproduction，hithertoscattered，intogreatworkshops。Asaconsequence，theirtransformationfromindividualtosocialmeansofproduction？atransformationwhichdoesnot，onthewhole，affecttheformofexchange。Theoldformsofappropriationremaininforce。Thecapitalistappears。Inhiscapacityasownerofthemeansofproduction，healsoappropriatestheproductsandturnsthemintocommodities。Productionhasbecomeasocialact。Exchangeandappropriationcontinuetobeindividualacts，theactsofindividuals。Thesocialproductisappropriatedbytheindividualcapitalist。Fundamentalcontradiction，whenceariseallthecontradictionsinwhichourpresent—daysocietymoves，andwhichmodernindustrybringstolight。

A。Severanceoftheproducerfromthemeansofproduction。

Condemnationoftheworkertowage—laborforlife。Antagonismbetweentheproletariatandthebourgeoisie。

B。Growingpredominanceandincreasingeffectivenessofthelawsgoverningtheproductionofcommodities。Unbridledcompetition。

Contradictionbetweensocializedorganizationintheindividualfactoryandsocialanarchyintheproductionasawhole。

C。Ontheonehand，perfectingofmachinery，madebycompetitioncompulsoryforeachindividualmanufacturer，andcomplementedbyaconstantlygrowingdisplacementoflaborers。Industrialreserve—army。

Ontheotherhand，unlimitedextensionofproduction，alsocompulsoryundercompetition，foreverymanufacturer。Onbothsides，unheard—ofdevelopmentofproductiveforces，excessofsupplyoverdemand，over—productionandproducts？excessthere，oflaborers，withoutemploymentandwithoutmeansofexistence。Butthesetwoleversofproductionandofsocialwell—beingareunabletoworktogether，becausethecapitalistformofproductionpreventstheproductiveforcesfromworkingandtheproductsfromcirculating，unlesstheyarefirstturnedintocapital？whichtheirverysuperabundanceprevents。Thecontradictionhasgrownintoanabsurdity。Themodeofproductionrisesinrebellionagainsttheformofexchange。

D。Partialrecognitionofthesocialcharacteroftheproductiveforcesforceduponthecapitaliststhemselves。Takingoverofthegreatinstitutionsforproductionandcommunication，firstbyjoint—stockcompanies，laterinbytrusts，thenbytheState。Thebourgeoisiedemonstratedtobeasuperfluousclass。Allitssocialfunctionsarenowperformedbysalariedemployees。

III。ProletarianRevolution？Solutionofthecontradictions。Theproletariatseizesthepublicpower，andbymeansofthistransformsthesocializedmeansofproduction，slippingfromthehandsofthebourgeoisie，intopublicproperty。Bythisact，theproletariatfreesthemeansofproductionfromthecharacterofcapitaltheyhavethusfarborne，andgivestheirsocializedcharactercompletefreedomtoworkitselfout。Socializedproductionuponapredeterminedplanbecomeshenceforthpossible。Thedevelopmentofproductionmakestheexistenceofdifferentclassesofsocietythenceforthananachronism。Inproportionasanarchyinsocialproductionvanishes，thepoliticalauthorityoftheStatediesout。Man，atlastthemasterofhisownformofsocialorganization，becomesatthesametimethelordoverNature，hisownmaster？free。

Toaccomplishthisactofuniversalemancipationisthehistoricalmissionofthemodernproletariat。Tothoroughlycomprehendthehistoricalconditionsandthistheverynatureofthisact，toimparttothenowoppressedproletarianclassafullknowledgeoftheconditionsandofthemeaningofthemomentousactitiscalledupontoaccomplish，thisisthetaskofthetheoreticalexpressionoftheproletarianmovement，scientificSocialism。

Footnotes（1MephistophelesinGoethe’sFaust[2]Itishardlynecessaryinthisconnectiontopointoutthat，eveniftheformofappropriationremainsthesame，thecharacteroftheappropriationisjustasmuchrevolutionizedasproductionisbythechangesdescribedabove。Itis，ofcourse，averydifferentmatterwhetherIappropriatetomyselfmyownproductorthatofanother。Noteinpassingthatwage—labor，whichcontainsthewholecapitalistmodeofproductioninembryo，isveryancient；inasporadic，scatteredform，itexistedforcenturiesalongsideslave—labor。Buttheembryocoulddulydevelopintothecapitalisticmodeofproductiononlywhenthenecessaryhistoricalpre—conditionshadbeenfurnished。

[3]\"TheConditionsoftheWorking—ClassinEngland\"？Sonnenschein&；Co。，p。84。

[4]Isay\"haveto\"。Foronlywhenthemeansofproductionanddistributionhave_actually_outgrowntheformofmanagementbyjoint—stockcompanies，andwhen，therefore，thetakingthemoverbytheStatehasbecome_economically_

inevitable，onlythen？evenifitistheStateoftodaythateffectsthis？isthereaneconomicadvance，theattainmentofanothersteppreliminarytothetakingoverofallproductiveforcesbysocietyitself。Butoflate，sinceBismarckwentinforState—ownershipofindustrialestablishments，akindofspuriousSocialismhasarisen，degenerating，nowandagain，intosomethingofflunkyism，thatwithoutmoreadodeclaresallState—ownership，evenoftheBismarkiansort，tobesocialistic。Certainly，ifthetakingoverbytheStateofthetobaccoindustryissocialistic，thenNapoleonandMetternichmustbenumberedamongthefoundersofSocialism。

IftheBelgianState，forquiteordinarypoliticalandfinancialreasons，itselfconstructeditschiefrailwaylines；ifBismarck，notunderanyeconomiccompulsion，tookoverfortheStatethechiefPrussianlines，simplytobethebetterabletohavetheminhandincaseofwar，tobringuptherailwayemployeesasvotingcattlefortheGovernment，andespeciallytocreateforhimselfanewsourceofincomeindependentofparliamentaryvotes？thiswas，innosense，asocialisticmeasure，directlyorindirectly，consciouslyorunconsciously。Otherwise，theRoyalMaritimeCompany，theRoyalporcelainmanufacture，andeventheregimentaltailorofthearmywouldalsobesocialisticinstitutions，oreven，aswasseriouslyproposedbyaslydoginFrederickWilliamIII’sreign，thetakingoverbytheStateofthebrothels。

[5]Afewfiguresmayservetogiveanapproximateideaoftheenormousexpansiveforceofthemodernmeansofproduction，evenundercapitalistpressure。

AccordingtoMr。Giffen，thetotalwealthofGreatBritainandIrelandamounted，inroundnumbersin1814to£；2，200，000，000，1865to£；6，100，000，000，1875to£；8，500，000，000。

Asaninstanceofthesquanderingofmeansofproductionandofproductsduringacrisis，thetotallossintheGermanironindustryalone，inthecrisisof1873—78，wasgivenatthesecondGermanIndustrialCongress（Berlin，February21，1878），as22，750，000pounds。