thoughfactoryworkisderivative，whileagriculturalworkisfundamental，andwithoutitnofactorycouldexist—yeteconomicscienceaffirmsthatallthecountrypeoplenotonlyarenotinjuredbythetransitionfromthecountrytothetown，butthemselvesdesireitandstrivetowardsit。TheSlaveryofOurTimes——Ch5——LeoTolstoyFromTheSlaveryofOurTimesbyLeoTolstoyCHAPTERV。
WHYLEARNEDECONOMISTSASSERTWHATISFALSE
HOWEVERobviouslyunjustmayhetheassertionofthemenofsciencethatthewelfareofhumanitymustconsistintheverythingthatisprofoundlyrepulsivetohumanfeelings—inmonotonous，enforcedfactorylabor—themenofsciencewereinevitablyledtothenecessityofmakingthisobviouslyunjustassertion，justasthetheologiansofoldwereinevitablyledtomaketheequallyevidentunjustassertionthatslavesandtheirmasterswerecreaturesdifferinginkind，andthattheinequalityoftheirpositioninthisworldwouldbecompensatedinthenext。
Thecauseofthisevidentlyunjustassertionisthatthosewhohaveformulated，andwhoareformulating，thelawsofsciencebelongtothewell—to—doclasses，andaresoaccustomedtotheconditions，advantageousforthemselves，amongwhichtheylive，thattheydonotadmitthethoughtthatsocietycouldexistunderotherconditions。
Theconditionoflifetowhichpeopleofthewell—to—doclassesareaccustomedisthatofanabundantproductionofvariousarticlesnecessaryfortheircomfortandpleasure，andthesethingsareobtainedonlythankstotheexistenceoffactoriesandworksorganisedasatpresent。
And，therefore，discussingtheimprovementoftheworkers’position，themenofsciencebelongingtothewell—
to—doclassesalwayshaveinviewonlysuchimprovementsaswillnotdoawaywiththesystemoffactory—productionandthoseconveniencesofwhichtheyavailthemselves。
Eventhemostadvancedeconomists—theSociaists，whodemandthecompletecontrolofthemeansofproductionfortheworkers—expectproductionofthesameoralmostofthesamearticlesasareproducednowtocontinueinthepresentorinsimilarfactorieswiththepresentdivisionoflabor。
Thedifference，astheyimagineit，willonlybethatinthefuturenottheyalone，butallmen，willmakeuseofsuchconveniencesastheyalonenowenjoy。Theydimlypicturetothemselvesthat，withthecommunalisationofthemeansofproduction，they，too—menofscience，andingeneraltherulingclasses—willdosomework，butchieflyasmanagers，designers，scientistsorartists。Tothequestions，Whowillhavetowearamuzzleandmakewhitelead？Whowillbestokers，miners，andcesspool—
cleaners？theyareeithersilent，orforetellthatallthesethingswillbesoimprovedthatevenworkatcesspoolsandundergroundwillaffordpleasantoccupation。Thatisbowtheyrepresenttothemselvesfutureeconomicconditions，bothinUtopiassuchasthatofBellamyandinscientificworks。
Accordingtotheirtheories，theworkerswillalljoinunionsandassociations，andcultivatesolidarityamongthemselvesbyunions，strikes，andparticipationinParliamenttilltheyobtainpossessionofallthemeansofproduction，aswellastheland，andthentheywillbesowellfed，sowelldressed，andenjoysuchamusementsonholidaysthattheywillpreferlifeintown，amidbrickbuildingsandsmokingchimneys，tofreevillagelifeamidplantsanddomesticanimals；andmonotonous，bell—regulatedmachineworktothevaried，healthy，andfreeagriculturallabor。
Thoughthisanticipationisasimprobableastheanticipationofthetheologiansaboutaheaventobeenjoyedhereafterbyworkmenincompensationfortheirhardlaborhere，yetlearnedandeducatedpeopleofoursocietybelievethisstrangeteaching，justasformerlywiseandlearnedpeoplebelievedinaheavenforworkmeninthenextworld。
Andlearnedmenandtheirdisciples，peopleofthewell—to—doclasses，believethisbecausetheymustbelieveit。Thisdilemmastandsbeforethem：eithertheymustseethatallthattheymakeuseofintheirlives，fromrailwaystolucifermatchesandcigarets，representslaborwhichcoststhelivesoftheirbrothermen，andthatthey，notsharinginthattoil，butmakinguseofit，areverydishonorablemen；ortheymustbelievethatallthattakesplacetakesplaceforthegeneraladvantageinaccordwithunalterablelawsofeconomicscience。Thereinliestheinnerpsychologicalcause，compellingmenofscience，menwiseandeducated，butnotenlightened，toaffirmpositivelyandtenaciouslysuchanobviousuntruthasthatthelaborers，fortheirownwell—being，shouldleavetheirhappyandhealthylifeintouchwithnature，andgotoruintheirbodiesandsoulsinfactoriesandworkshops。TheSlaveryofOurTimes——Ch6——LeoTolstoyFromTheSlaveryofOurTimesbyLeoTolstoyCHAPTERVI。
BANKRUPTCYOFTHESOCIALISTIDEAL
BUTevenallowingtheassertion（evidentlyunfoundedasitis，andcontrarytothefactsofhumannature）thatitisbetterforpeopletoliveintownsandtodocompulsorymachineworkinfactoriesratherthantoliveinvillagesandworkfreelyathandicrafts，thereremains，intheveryidealitself，towhichthemenofsciencetellustheeconomicrevolutionisleading，aninsolublecontradiction。Theidealisthattheworkers，havingbecomethemastersofallthemeansofproduction，aretoobtainallthecomfortsandpleasuresnowpossessedbywell—to—dopeople。Theywillallbewellclothed，andhoused，andwellnourished，andwillallwalkonelectricallylighted，asphaltstreets，andfrequentconcertsandtheaters，andreadpapersandbooks，andrideonmotorcars，etc。Butthateverybodymayhavecertainthings，theproductionofthosethingsmustbeapportioned，andconsequentlyitmustbedecidedhowlongeachworkmanistowork。
Howisthattobedecided？
Statisticsmayshow（thoughveryimperfectly）whatpeoplerequireinasocietyfetteredbycapital，bycompetition，andbywant。Butnostatisticscanshowhowmuchiswantedandwhatarticlesareneededtosatisfythedemandinasocietywherethemeansofproductionwillbelongtothesocietyitself—thatis，wherethepeoplewillbefree。
Thedemandsinsuchasocietycannotbedefined，andtheywillalwaysinfinitelyexceedthepossibilityofsatisyingthem。Everybodywillwishtohaveallthattherichestnowpossesses，and，therefore，itisquiteimpossibletodefinethequantityofgoodsthatsuchasocietywillrequire。
Furthermore，howarepeopletobeinducedtoworkatarticleswhichsomeconsidernecessaryandothersconsiderunnecessaryorevenharmful？
Ifitbefoundnecessaryforeverybodytowork，saysixhoursaday，inordertosatisfytherequirementsofthesociety，whoinafreesocietycancompelamanworkthosesixhours，ifheknowsthatpartofthetimeisspentinproducingthingsheconsidersunnecessaryorevenharmful？
Itisundeniablethatunderthepresentstateofthingsmostvariedarticlesareproducedwithgreateconomyofexertion，thankstomachinery，andthanksespeciallytothedivisionoflaborwhichhasbeenbroughttoanextremenicetyandcarriedtothehighestperfection，andthatthosearticlesareprofitabletothemanufacturers，andthatwefindthemconvenientandpleasanttouse。Butthefactthatthesearticlesarewellmadeandareproducedwithlittleexpenditureofstrength，thattheyareprofitabletothecapitalistsandconvenientforus，doesnotprovethatfreemenwould，withoutcompulsion，continuetoproducethem。ThereisnodoubtthatKrupp，withthepresentdivisionoflabor，makesadmirablecannonsveryquicklyandartfully；N。M。veryquicklyandartfullyproducessilkmaterials；X，Y。andZ。
producetoilet—scents，powdertopreservethecomplexion，orglazedpacksofcards，andK。produceswhiskeyofchoiceflavor，etc。；and，nodoubt，bothforthosewhowantthesearticlesandfortheownersofthefactoriesinwhichtheyaremadeitisveryadvantageous。ButcannonsandscentsandwhiskeyarewantedbythosewhowishtoobtaincontroloftheChinesemarket，orwholiketogetdrunk，orareconcernedabouttheircomplexions；
buttherewillbesomewhoconsidertheproductionofthesearticlesharmful。Andtherewillalwaysbepeoplewhoconsiderthatbesidesthesearticles，exhibitions，academies，beerandbeefareunnecessaryandevenharmful。Howarethesepeopletobemadetoparticipateintheproductionofsucharticles？
Butevenifameanscouldbefoundtogetalltoagreetoproducecertainarticles（thoughthereisnosuchmeans，andcanbenone，exceptcoercion），who，inafreesociety，withoutcapitalisticproduction，competition，anditslawofsupplyanddemand，willdecidewhicharticlesaretohavethepreference？Whicharetobemadefirst，andwhichafter？ArewefirsttobuildtheSiberianRailwayandfortifyPortArthur，andthenmacadamisetheroadsinourcountrydistricts，orvice—versa？Whichistocomefirst，electriclightingorirrigationofthefields？
Andthencomesanotherquestion，insolublewithfreeworlonen，Whichmenaretodowhichwork？Evidentlyallwillpreferhay—makingordrawingtostokingorcess—
pool—cleaning。How，inapportioningthework，arepeopletobeinducedtoagree？
Nostatisticscananswerthesequestions。Thesolutioncanbeonlytheoretical；itmaybesaidthattherewillbepeopletowhompowerwillbegiventoregulateallthesematters。Somepeoplewilldecidethesequestionsandotherswillobeythem。
Butbesidesthequestionsofapportioninganddirectingproductionandofselectingwork，whenthemeansofproductionarecommunalised，therewillbeanotherandmostimportantquestion，astothedegreeofdivisionoflaborthatcanbeestablishedinasocialisticallyorganisedsociety。Thenowexistingdivisionoflaborisconditionedbythenecessitiesoftheworkers。Aworkeronlyagreestoliveallhislifeunderground，ortomaketheone—hundredthpartofonearticleallhislife，ortomovehishandsupanddownamidtheroarofmachineryallhislife，becausehewillotherwisenothavemeanstolive。
Butitwillonlybebycompulsionthataworkman，owningthemeansofproductionandnotsufferingwant，canbeinducedtoacceptsuchstupefyingandsoul—destroyingconditionsoflaborasthoseinwhichpeoplenowwork。
Divisionoflaborisundoubtedlyveryprofitableandnaturaltopeople；butifpeoplearefree，divisionoflaborisonlypossibleuptoacertainverylimitedextent，whichhasbeenfaroversteppedinoursociety。
Ifonepeasantoccupieshimselfchieflywithbootmaking，andhiswifeweaves，andanotherpeasantplows，andathirdisablacksmith，andtheyall，havingacquiredspecialdexterityintheirownwork，afterwardsexchangewhattheyhaveproduced，suchdivisionoflaborisadvantageoustoall，andfreepeoplewillnaturallydividetheirworkinthisway。Butadivisionoflaborbywhichamanmakesoneone—hundredthofanarticle，orastokerworksin1500ofheat，orischokedwithharmfulgases，suchdivisionsoflaborisdisadvantageous，becausethoughitfurtherstheproductionofinsignificantarticles，itdestroysthatwhichismostprecious—thelifeofman。And，therefore，suchdivisionoflaborasnowexistscanonlyexistwherethereiscompulsion。Rodbertussaysthatcommunaldivisionoflaborunitesmankind。Thatistrue，butitisonlyfreedivision，suchaspeoplevoluntarilyadopt，thatunites。
Ifpeopledecidetomakearoad，andonedigs，anotherbringsstones，athirdbreaksthem，etc。，thatsortofdivisionofworkunitespeople。
Butif，independentlyofthewishes，andsometimesagainstthewishes，oftheworkers，astrategicalrailwayisbuilt，oranEiffeltower，orstupiditiessuchasfilltheParisExhibition，andoneworkmaniscompelledtoobtainiron，anothertodigcoal，athirdtomakecastings，afourthtocutdowntrees，andafifthtosawthemup，withoutevenhavingtheleastideawhatthethingstheyaremakingarewantedfor，thensuchdivisionoflabornotonlydoesnotunitemen，but，onthecontrary，itdividesthem。
And，therefore，withcommunalisedimplementsofproduction，ifpeoplearefree，theywillonlyadoptdivisionoflabourinsofarasthegoodresultingwilloutweightheevilsitoccasionstotheworkers。Andaseachmannaturallyseesgoodinextendinganddiversifyinghisactivities，suchdivisionoflaborasnowexistswillevidentlybeimpossibleinafreesociety。
Tosupposethatwithcommunalisedmeansofproduc—
tiontherewillbesuchanabundanceofthingsasisnowproducedbycompulsorydivisionoflaborislikesuppos—
ingthataftertheemancipationoftheserfsthedomesticorchestras2andtheaters，thehome—madecarpetsandlacesandtheelaborategardenswhichdependedonserf—laborwouldcontinuetoexistasbefore。SothatthesuppositionthatwhentheSocialistidealisrealisedeveryonewillbefree，andwillatthesametimehaveathisdisposaleverything，oralmosteverything，thatisnowmadeuseofbythewell—to—doclasses，involvesanobviousself—
contradiction。TheSlaveryofOurTimes——Ch7——LeoTolstoyFromTheSlaveryofOurTimesbyLeoTolstoyCHAPTERVII。
CULTUREORFREEDOM
JUSTwhathappenedwhenserfdomexistedisnowbeingrepeated。Thenthemajorityoftheserf—ownersandofpeopleofthewell—to—doclasses，iftheyacknowledgedtheserf’spositiontobenotquitesatisfactory，yetrecommendedonlysuchalterationsaswouldnotdeprivetheownersofwhatwasessentialtotheirprofit；now，peopleofthewell—to—doclasses，admittingthatthepositionoftheworkersisnotaltogethersatisfactory，proposeforitsamendmentonlysuchmeasuresaswillnotdeprivethewell—to—doclassesoftheiradvantages。Aswell—disposedownersthenspokeof\"paternalauthority，\"and，likeGo’g~，1advisedownerstobekindtotheirserfs，andtotakecareofthem，butwouldnottoleratetheideaofemancipation，2consideringitharmfulanddangerous，justsothemajorityofwell—to—dopeopleto—dayadviseemployerstolookafterthewell—beingoftheirwork—
people，butdonotadmitthethoughtofanysuchalterationoftheeconomicstructureoflifeaswouldsetthelaborersquitefree。
AndjustasadvancedLiberalsthen，whileconsideringserfdomtobeanimmutablearrangement，demandedthatthegovernmentshouldlimitthepoweroftheowners，andsympathisedwiththeserfs’agitation，sotheLiberalsofto—day，whileconsideringtheexistingorderimmutabledemandthatgovernmentshouldlimitthepowersofcapitalistsandmanufacturers，andtheysympathisewithunions，andstrikes，and，ingeneral，withtheworkers’
agitation。Andjustasthemostadvancedmenthendemandedtheemancipationoftheserfs，butdrewupaprojectwhichlefttheserfsdependentonprivateland—
owners，orfetteredthemwithtributesandland—taxes，sonowthemostadvancedpeopledemandtheemancipationoftheworkmenfromthepowerofthecapitalists，thecommunalisationofthemeansofproduction，butyetwouldleavetheworkersdependentonthepresentapportionmentanddivisionoflabor，which，intheiropinion，mustremainunaltered。
Theteachingsofeconomicsciencewhichareadopted，thoughwithoutcloselyexaminingtheirdetailsbyallthoseofthewell—to—doclasseswhoconsiderthemselvesenlightenedandadvanced，3seemonasuperficialexaminationtobeliberalandevenradical，containingastheydoattacksonthewealthyclassesofsociety；butessentiallythatbteachingisinthehighestdegreeconservative，grossandcruel。Onewayoranotherthemenofscience，andintheirtrainallthewell—to—doclasses，wishatallcosttomaintainthepresentsystemofdistributionanddivisionoflabor，whichmakespossibletheproductionofthatgreatquantityofgoodswhichtheymakeuseof。Theexistingeconomicorderis，bythemenofscienceand，followingthem，byallthewell—to—doclasses，calledculture；andinthisculture—railways，telegraphs，telephones，photographs，Roentgenrays，clinicalhospitals，exhibitions，and，chiefly，alltheappliancesofcomfort—
theyseesomethingsosacrosanctthattheywillnotallowevenathoughtofalterationswhichmightdestroyitall，orbutendangerasmallpartoftheseacquisitions。Everythingmay，accordingtotheteachingsofthatscience，bechangedexceptwhatitcallsculture。Butitbecomesmoreandmoreevidentthatthisculturecanexistonlywhiletheworkersarecompelledtowork。Yetmenofsciencearesosurethatthiscultureisthegreatestofblessingsthattheyboldlyproclaimthecontraryofwhatthelawyersoncesaid，Fiatjustitla，pereatmundus!
Theynowsay，Fiatcultura，pereatjustitiaAndtheynotonlysayit，butactaccordingly。Everythingmaybechangedinpracticeandintheory，butnotculture；notallthatisgoingoninworkshopsandfactories，andcertainlynotwhatisbeingsoldintheshops。
ButIthinkthatenlightenedpeople，professingtheChristianlawofbrotherhoodandlovetoone’sneighbor，shouldsayjustthecontrary。
Electriclightsandtelephonesandexhibitionsareexcellent，andsoareallthepleasure—gardens，withconcertsandperformances，andallthecigars，andmatch—boxes，andbraces，andmotorcars，buttheymayallgotoperdition，andnottheyalone，buttherailways，andallthefactory—madechintzstuffsandclothsintheworld，iftoproducethemitisnecessarythatninety—ninepercent。ofthepeopleshouldremaininslaveryandperishbythousandsinfactoriesneededfortheproductionofthesearticles。If，inorderthatLondonorPetersburgmaybelightedbyelectricity，orinordertoconstructexhibition—
buildings，orinorderthattheremaybebeautifulpaints，orinordertoweavebeautifulstuffsquicklyandabundantly，itisnecessarythatevenaveryfewlivesshouldbedestroyed，orruined，orshortened—andstatisticsshowushowmanyaredestroyed—letLondonorPetersburgratherbelitbygasoroil；letthereratherbenoexhibition，nopaints，ormaterials，onlylettherebenoslavery，andnodestructionofhumanlivesresultingfromit。Trulyenlightenedpeoplewillalwaysagreerathertogobacktoridingonhorsesandusingpack—horses，oreventotillingtheearthwithsticksorwithone’shands，thantotravelonrailwayswhichregularlyeveryyearcrushsomanypeopleasisdoneinChicago—merelybecausetheproprietorsoftherailwayfinditmoreprofitabletocompensatethefamiliesofthosekilledthantobuildthelinesothatitshouldnotkillpeople。Themottofortrulyenlightenedpeopleisnot，Fiatcultura，pereatjustitia，butFiatjustitia，pereatcultura。
Butculture，usefulculture，willnotbedestroyed。
Letjusticebedone，thoughtheworldperish。Itwillcertainlynotbenecessaryforpeopletoreverttotillageofthelandwithsticksortolightingupwithtorches。Itisnotfornothingthatmankind，intheirslavery，haveachievedsuchgreatprogressintechnicalmatters。Ifonlyitisunderstoodthatwemustnotsacrificethelivesofourfellow—menforourpleasure，itwillbepossibletoapplytechnicalimprovementswithoutdestroyingmen’slives，andtoarrangelifesoastoprofitbyallsuchmethodsgivinguscontrolofnatureashavebeendevisedandcanbeappliedwithoutkeepingourbrothermeninslavery。TheSlaveryofOurTimes——Ch8——LeoTolstoyFromTheSlaveryofOurTimesbyLeoTolstoyCHAPTERVIII。
SLAVERYEXISTSAMONGUS
IMAGINEamanfromthecountryquitedifferentfromourown，withnoideaofourhistoryorofourlaws，andsupposethat，aftershowinghimthevariousaspectsofourlife，weweretoaskhimwhatwasthechiefdifferencehenoticedinthelivesofpeopleofourworld？Thechiefdifferencewhichsuchamanwouldnoticeinthewaypeopleliveisthatsomepeople—asmallnumber—
whohaveclean，whitehands，andarewellnourishedandclothedandlodged，doverylittleandverylightwork，orevendonotworkatall，butonlyamusethemselves，spendingontheseamusementstheresultsofmillionsofdaysdevotedbyotherpeopletoseverelabor；butotherpeople，alwaysdirty，poorlyclothedandlodgedandfed，withdirty，hornyhands，toilunceasinglyfrommorningtonight，andsometimesallnightlong，workingforthosewhodonotwork，butwhocontinuallyamusethemselves。
Ifbetweentheslavesandslave—ownersofto—dayitisdifficulttodrawassharpadividinglineasthatwhichseparatedtheformerslavesfromtheirmasters，andifamongtheslavesofto—daytherearesomewhoareonlytemporarilyslavesandthenbecomeslave—owners，orsomewho，atoneandthesametime，areslavesandslave—
owners，thisblendingofthetwoclassesattheirpointsofcontactdoesnotupsetthefactthatthepeopleofourtimearedividedintoslavesandslave—ownersasdefinitelyas，inspiteofthetwilight，eachtwenty—fourhoursisdividedintodayandnight。
Iftheslave—ownerofourtimeshasnoslave，John，whomhecansendtothecesspool，hehasfiveshillings，ofwhichhundredsofsuchJohnsareinsuchneedthattheslave—ownerofourtimesmaychooseanyoneoutofhundredsofJohnsandbeabenefactortohimbygivinghimthepreference，andallowinghim，ratherthananother，toclimbdownintothecesspool。
Theslavesofourtimesarenotallthosefactoryandworkshophandsonlywhomustsellthemselvescompletelyintothepowerofthefactoryandfoundry—ownersinordertoexist，butnearlyalltheagriculturallaborersareslaves，working，astheydo，unceasinglytogrowanother’scornonanother’sfield，andgatheringitintoanother’sbarn；ortillingtheirownfieldsonlyinordertopaytobankerstheinterestondebtstheycannotgetridof。Andslavesalsoarealltheinnumerablefootmen，cooks，porters，housemaids，coachmen，bathmen，waiters，etc。，whoalltheirlifelongperformdutiesmostunnaturaltoahumanbeing，andwhichtheythemselvesdislike。
Slaveryexistsinfullvigor，butwedonotperceiveit，justasinEuropeattheendoftheEighteenthCenturytheslaveryofserfdomwasnotperceived。
Peopleofthatdaythoughtthatthepositionofmenobligedtotillthelandfortheirlords，andtoobeythem，wasanatural，inevitable，economicconditionoflife，andtheydidnotcallitslavery。
Itisthesameamongus：peopleofourdayconsiderthepositionofthelaborertobeanatural，inevitableeconomiccondition，andtheydonotcallitslavery。
Andas，attheendoftheEighteenthCentury，thepeopleofEuropebeganlittlebylittletounderstandthatwhatformerlyseemedanaturalandinevitableformofeconomiclife—namely，thepositionofpeasantswhowerecompletelyinthepoweroftheirlords—waswrong，unjustandimmoral，anddemandedalteration，sonowpeoplet（）~dayarebeginningtounderstandthatthepositionofhiredworkmen，andoftheworkingclassesingeneral，whichformerlyseemedquiterightandquitenormal，isnotwhatitshouldbe，anddemandsalteration。
ThequestionoftheslaveryofourtimesisjustinthesamephasenowinwhichthequestionofserfdomstoodinEuropetowardstheendoftheEighteenthCentury，andinwhichthequestionsofserfdomamongusandofslaveryinAmericastoodinthesecondquarteroftheNineteenthCentury。
Theslaveryoftheworkersinourtimeisonlybeginningtobeadmittedbyadvancedpeopleinoursociety；
themajorityasyetareconvincedthatamongusnoslaveryexists。
Athingthathelpspeopleto—daytomisunderstandtheirpositioninthismatteristhefactthatwehave，inRussiaandinAmerica，onlyrecentlyabolishedslavery。Butinrealitytheabolitionofserfdomandofslaverywasonlytheabolitionofanobsoleteformofslaverythathadbecomeunnecessary，andthesubstitutionforitofafirmerformofslaveryandonethatholdsagreaternumberofpeopleinbondage。Theabolitionofserfdomandofslaverywaslikewhatthe’FartarsoftheCrimeadidwiththeirprisoners。Theyinventedtheplanofslittingthesolesoftheslaves’feetandsprinklingchopped—upbristlesintothewounds。Havingperformedthatoperation，theyreleasedthemfromtheirweightsandchains。TheabolitionofserfdominRussiaandofslaveryinAmerica，thoughitabolishedtheformermethodofslavery，notonlydidnotabolishwhatwasessentialinit，butwasonlyaccomplishedwhenthebristleshadformedsoresinthesoles，andonecouldbequitesurethatwithoutchainsorweightstheprisonerswouldnotrunaway，butwouldhavetowork。（TheNorthernersinAmericaboldlydemandedtheabolitionoftheformerslaverybecauseamongthemthenew，monetaryslaveryhadalreadyshownitspowertoshacklethepeople。TheSouthernersdidnotperceivetheplainsignsofthenewslavery，and，therefore，didnotconsenttoabolishtheoldform。）
AmongusinRussiaserfdomwasabolishedonlywhenallthelandhadbeenappropriated。Whenlandwasgrantedtothepeasantsitwasburdenedwithpayments，whichtooktheplaceoftheland—slavery。InEuropetaxesthatkeptthepeopleinbondagebegantobeabolishedonlywhenthepeoplehadlosttheirland，wereunaccustomedtoagriculturalworkand，havingacquiredtowntastes，werequitedependentonthecapitalists。
OnlythenwerethetaxesoncornabolishedinEngland。
Andtheyarenowbeginning，inGermanyandinothercountries，toabolishthetaxesthatfallontheworkersandtoshiftthemontotherich，onlybecausethemajorityofthepeoplearealreadyinthehandsofthecapitalists。
Oneformofslaveryisnotabolisheduntilanotherhasalreadyreplacedit。Thereareseveralsuchforms。Andifnotone，thenanother（andsometimesseveralofthesemeanstogether）keepsapeopleinslavery—thatis，placesitinsuchapositionthatonesmallpartofthepeoplehasfullpoweroverthelabo~andthelifeofalargernumber。Inthisenslavementofthelargerpartofthepeoplebyasmallerpartliesthechiefcauseofthemiserableconditionofthepeople。And，therefore，themeansofimprovingthepositionoftheworkersmustconsistinthis：First，inadmittingthatamongusslaveryexistsnotinsomefignrative，metaphoricalsense，butinthesimplestandplainestsense；slaverywhichkeepssomepeople—themajority—inthepowerofothers—theminority；secondly，havingadmittedthis，infindingthecausesoftheenslavementofsomepeoplebyothers；andthirdly，havingfoundthesecauses，todestroythem。TheSlaveryofOurTimes——Ch9——LeoTolstoyFromTheSlaveryofOurTimesbyLeoTolstoyCHAPTERIX。
WHATISSLAVERY？
INwhatdoestheslaveryofourtimeconsist？Whataretheforcesthatmakesomepeopletheslavesofothers？
IfweaskalltheworkersinRussiaandinEuropeandinAmericaalikeinthefactoriesandinvarioussituationsinwhichtheyworkforhire，intownsandvillages，whathasmadethemchoosethepositioninwhichtheyareliving，theywillallreplythattheyhavebeenbroughttoiteitherbecausetheybadnolandonwhichtheycouldandwishedtoliveandwork（thatwillbethereplyofalltheRussianworkmenandofverymanyoftheEuropeans），orthattaxes，directandindirect，weredemandedofthem，whichtheycouldonlypaybysellingtheirlabor，orthattheyremainatfactoryworkensnaredbythemoreluxurioushabitstheyhaveadopted，andwhichtheycangratifyonlybysellingtheirlaborandtheirliberty。
Thefirsttwoconditions，thelackoflandandthetaxes，drivementocompulsorylabor；whilethethird，hisincreasedandunsatisfiedneeds，decoyhimtoitandkeephimatit。
WecanimaginethatthelandmaybefreedfromtheclaimsofprivateproprietorsbyHenryGeorge’splan，andthat，therefore，thefirstcausedrivingpeopleintoslavery—thelackofland—maybedoneawaywith。Withreferencetotaxes（besidesthesingle—taxplan）wemayimaginetheabolitionoftaxes，orthattheyshouldbetransferredfromthepoortotherich，asisbeingdonenowinsomecountries；butunderthepresenteconomicorganizationonecannotevenimagineapositionofthingsunderwhichmoreandmoreluxurious，andoftenharmful，habitsoflifeshouldnot，littlebylittle，passtothoseofthelowerclasseswhoareincontactwiththerichasinevitablyaswatersinksintodryground，andthatthosehabitsshouldnotbecomesonecessarytotheworkersthatinordertobeabletosatisfythemtheywillbereadytoselltheirfreedom。
Sothatthisthirdcondition，thoughitisavoluntaryone—thatis，itwouldseemthatamanmightresistthetemptation—andthoughsciencedoesnotacknowledgeittobeacauseofthemiserableconditionoftheworkers，isthefirmestandmostirremovablecauseofslavery。
Workmenlivingnearrichpeoplealwaysareinfectedwithnewrequirements，andobtainmeanstosatisfytheserequirementsonlytotheextenttowhichtheydevotetheirmostintenselabortothissatisfaction。SothatworkmeninEnglandandAmerica，receivingsometimestentimesasmuchasisnecessaryforsubsistence，continuetobejustsuchslavesastheywerebefore。
Threecauses，astheworkmenthemselvesexplain，producetheslaveryinwhichtheylive；andthehistoryoftheirenslavementandthefactsoftheirpositionconfirmthecorrectnessofthisexplanation。
Alltheworkersarebroughttotheirpresentstateandarekeptinitbythesethreecauses。Thesecauses，actingonpeoplefromdifferentsides，aresuchthatnonecanescapefromtheirenslavement。Theagriculturalistwhohasnoland，orwhohasnotenough，willalwaysbeobligedtogointoperpetualortemporaryslaverytothelandowner，inordertohavethepossibilityoffeedinghimselffromtheland。Shouldheinonewayorotherobtainlandenoughtobeabletofeedhimselffromitbyhisownlabor，suchtaxes，directandindirect，aredemandedfromhimthatinordertopaythemhehasagaintogointoslavery。
Iftoescapefromslaveryonthelandheceasestocultivateland，and，livingonsomeoneelse’sland，beginstooccupyhimselfwithahandicraft，ortoexchangehisproduceforthethingsheneeds，then，ontheonehand，taxes，andontheotherhand，thecompetitionofcapitalistsproducingsimilararticlestothosehemakes，butwithbetterimplementsofproduction，compelhimtogointotemporaryorperpetualslaverytoacapitalist。Ifworkingforacapitalisthemightsetupfreerelationswithhim，andnotbeobligedtosellhisliberty，yetthenewrequirementswhichheassimilatesdeprivehimofanysuchpossibility。Sothatonewayoranotherthelaborerisalwaysinslaverytothosewhocontrolthetaxes，theland，andthearticlesnecessarytosatisfyhisrequirements。TheSlaveryofOurTimes——Ch10——LeoTolstoyFromTheSlaveryofOurTimesbyLeoTolstoyCHAPTERX。
LAWSCONCERNINGTAXES，LANDANDPROPERTY
THEGermanSocialistshavetermedthecombinationofconditionswhichputtheworkerinsubjectiontothecapitaliststheironlawofwages，implyingbytheword\"iron’’thatthislawisimmutable。Butintheseconditionsthereisnothingimmutable。Theseconditionsmerelyresultfromhumanlawsconcerningtaxes，land，and，aboveall，concerningthingswhichsatisfyourrequirements—thatis，concerningproperty。Lawsareframedandrepealedbyhumanbeings。Sothatitisnotsomesociological\"ironlaw，\"butordinary，man—madelawthatproducesslavery。Inthecaseinhandtheslaveryofourtimesisveryclearlyanddefinitelyproducednotbysome\"iron\"elementallaw，butbyhumanenactmentsaboutland，abouttaxes，andaboutproperty。
Thereisonesetoflawsbywhichanyquantityoflandmaybelongtoprivatepeople，andmaypassfromonetoanotherbyinheritance，orbywill，ormaybesold；
thereisanothersetoflawsbywhicheveryonemustpaythetaxesdemandedofhimunquestioningly；andthereisathirdsetoflawstotheeffectthatanyquantityofarticles，bywhatevermeansacquired，maybecometheabsolutepropertyofthepeoplewhoholdthem。Andinconsequenceoftheselawsslaveryexists。
Wearesoaccustomedtoalltheselawsthattheyseemtousjustasnecessaryandnaturaltohumanlifeasthelawsmaintainingserfdomandslaveryseemedinformertimes；nodoubtabouttheirnecessityandjusticeseemspossible，andnoonenoticesanythingwronginthem。ButJustasatimecamewhenpeople，havingseentheruinousconsequencesofserfdom，questionedthejusticeandnecessityofthelawswhichmaintainedit，sonow，whentheperniciousconsequencesofthepresenteconomicorderhavebecomeevident，oneinvoluntarilyquestionsthejusticeandinevitabilityofthelegislationaboutland，taxesandpropertywhichproducestheseresults。
Aspeopleformerlyasked，Isitrightthatsomepeopleshouldbejongtoothers，andthattheformershouldhavenothingoftheirown，butshouldgivealltheproduceoftheirlabortotheirowners？sonowwemustaskourselves，Isitrightthatpeoplemustnotuselandaccountedthepropertyofotherpeople；isitrightthatpeopleshouldhandovertoothers，intheformoftaxes，whateverpartoftheirlaborisdemandedofthem？Isitrightthatpeoplemaynotmakeuseofarticlesconsideredtobethepropertyofotherpeople？
Isitrightthatpeopleshouldnothavetheuseoflandwhenitisconsideredtobelongtootherswhoarenotcultivatingit？
Itissaidthatthislegislationisinstitutedbecauselandedpropertyisanessentialconditionifagricultureistoflourish，andiftherewerenoprivatepropertypassingbyinheritancepeoplewoulddriveoneanotherfromthelandtheyoccupy，andnoonewouldworkorimprovethelandonwhichheissettled。Isthistrue？Theansweristobefoundinhistoryandinthefactsofto—day。Historyshowsthatpropertyinlanddidnotarisefromanywishtomakethecultivator’stenuremoresecure，butresultedfromtheseizureofcommunallandsbyconquerorsanditsdistributiontothosewhoservedtheconqueror。Sothatpropertyinlandwasnotestablishedwiththeobjectofstimulatingtheagriculturalists。Present—dayfactsshowthefallacyoftheassertionthatlandedpropertyenablesthosewhoworkthelandtobesurethattheywillnotbedeprivedofthelandtheycultivate。Inreality，justthecontraryhaseverywherehappenedandishappening。Therightoflandedproperty，bywhichthegreatproprietorshaveprofitedandareprofitingmost，hasproducedtheresultthatall，ormost—thatis，theimmensemajorityoftheagriculturalists—arenowinthepositionofpeoplewhocultivateotherpeople’sland，fromwhichtheymaybedrivenatthewhimofmenwhodonotcultivateit。Sothattheexistingrightoflandedpropertycertainlydoesnotdefendtherightsoftheagriculturaliststoenjoythefruitsofthelaborheputsintotheland，but，onthecontrary，itisawayofdeprivingtheagriculturalistsofthelandonwhichtheyworkandhandingitovertothosewhohavenotworkedit；and，therefore，itiscertainlynotameansfortheimprovementofagriculture，but，onthecontrary，ameansofdeterioratingit。
Abouttaxesitissaidthatpeopleoughttopaythembecausetheyareinstitutedwiththegeneral，eventhoughsilent，consentofall，andareusedforpublicneedstotheadvantageofall。Isthistrue？
Theanswerstothisquestionisgiveninhistoryandinpresent—dayfacts。Historyshowsthattaxesneverwereinstitutedbycommonconsent，but，onthecontraryalwaysonlyinconsequenceofthefactthatsomepeoplehavingobtainedpowerbyconquest，orbyothermeansoverotherpeople，imposedtributenotforpublicneeds，butforthemselves。Andthesamethingisstillgoingon。
Taxesaretakenbythosewhohavethepoweroftakingthem。Ifnowadayssomeportionofthesetributes，calledtaxesandduties，areusedforpublicpurposes，forthemostpartitisforpublicpurposesthatareharmfulratherthanusefultomostpeople。
Forinstance，inRussiaone—thirdoftherevenueisdrawnfromthepeasants，butonlyOne—Fiftiethoftherevenueisspentontheirgreatestneed，theeducationofthepeople；andeventhatamountisspentonakindofeducationwhich，bystupefyingthepeople，harmsthemmorethanitbenefitsthem。TheotherForty—nineFiftiethsarespentonunnecessarythingsharmfulforthepeople，suchasequippingthearmy，buildingstrategicalrailways，fortsandprisons，orsupportingthepriesthoodandtheCourt，andonsalariesformilitaryandcivilofficials—thatis，onsalariesforthosepeoplewhomakeitpossibletotakethismoneyfromthepeople。
ThesamethinggoesonnotonlyinPersia，TurkeyandIndia，butalsoinalltheChristianandconstitutionalstatesanddemocraticrepublics；moneyistakenfromthemajorityofthepeoplequiteindependentlyoftheconsentornon—consentofthepayers，andtheamountcollectedisnotwhatisreallyneedful，butasmuchascanbegot（itisknownhowParliamentsaremadeup，andhowlittletheyrepresentthewillofthepeople），anditisusednotforthecommonadvantage，butforwhatthegoverningclassesconsidernecessaryforthemselves—onwarsinCubaorthePhilippines，ontakingandkeepingtherichesoftheTransvaal，andsoforth。Sothattheexplanationthatpeoplemustpaytaxesbecausetheyareinstitutedwithgeneralconsent，andareusedforthecommongood，isasunjustastheotherexplanationthatprivatepropertyinlandisestablishedtoencourageagriculture。
Isittruethatpeopleshouldnotusearticlesneedfultosatisfytheirrequirementsifthesearticlesarethepropertyofotherpeople？
Itisassertedthattherightsofpropertyinacquiredarticlesisestablishedinordertomaketheworkersurethatnoonewilltakefromhimtheproduceofhislabor。
Isthistrue？
Itisonlynecessarytoglanceatwhatisdoneinourworld，wherepropertyrightsaredefendedwithespecialstrictness，inordertobeconvincedhowcompletelythefactsofliferuncountertothisexplanation。
Inoursociety，inconsequenceofpropertyrightsinacquiredarticles，theverythinghappenswhichthatrightisintendedtoprevent—namely，allarticleswhichhavebeen，andcontinuallyarebeing，producedbyworkingpeoplearepossessedby，andastheyareproducedarecontinuallytakenby，thosewhohavenotproducedthem。
Sothattheassertionthattherightofpropertysecurestotheworkersthepossibilityofenjoyingtheproductsoftheirlaborisevidentlystillmoreunjustthantheassertionconcerningpropertyinland，anditisbasedonthesamesophistry；first，thefruitoftheirtoilisunjustlyandviolentlytakenfromtheworkers，andthenthelawstepsin，andtheseveryarticleswhichhavebeentakenfromtheworkmenunjustlyandbyviolencearedeclaredtobetheabsolutepropertyofthosewhohavetakenthem。
Property，forinstance，afactoryacquiredbyaseriesoffraudsandbytakingadvantageoftheworkmen，isconsideredaresultoflaborandisheldsacred；butthelivesofthoseworkmenwhoperishatworkinthatfactoryandtheirlaborarenotconsideredtheirproperty，butareratherconsideredtobethepropertyofthefactory—
owner，ifhe，takingadvantageofthenecessitiesoftheworkers，hasboundthemdowninamannerconsideredlegal。Hundredsofthousandsofbushelsofcorn，collectedfromthepeasantsbyusuryandbyaseriesofextortions，areconsideredtobethepropertyofthemerchant，whilethegrowingcornraisedbythepeasantsisconsideredtobethepropertyofsomeoneelseifhehasinheritedthelandfromagrandfatherorgreat—grandfatherwhotookitfromthepeople。Itissaidthatthelawdefendsequallythepropertyofthemill—owner，ofthecapitalist，ofthelandowner，andofthefactoryorcountrylaborer。Theequalityofthecapitalistandoftheworkerisliketheequalityoftwofighterswhenonehashisarmstiedandtheotherhasweapons，butduringthefightcertainrulesareappliedtobothwithstrictimpartiality。Sothatalltheexplanationsofthejusticeandnecessityofthethreesetsoflawswhichproduceslaveryareasuntrueasweretheexplanationsformerlygivenofthejusticeandnecessityofserfdom。Allthosethreesetsoflawsarenothingbuttheestablishmentofthatnewformofslaverywhichhasreplacedtheoldform。Aspeopleformerlyestablishedlawsenablingsomepeopletobuyandsellotherpeople，andtoownthem，andtomakethemwork，andslaveryexisted，sonowpeoplehaveestablishedlawsthatmenmaynotuselandthatiscon—
sideredtobelongtosomeoneelse，mustpaythetaxesdemandedofthem，andmustnotusearticlesconsideredtobethepropertyofothers—andwehavetheslaveryofourtimes。TheSlaveryofOurTimes——Ch11——LeoTolstoyFromTheSlaveryofOurTimesbyLeoTolstoyCHAPTERXI。
LAWSTHECAUSEOFSLAVERY
THEslaveryofourtimesresultsfromthreesetsoflaws—thoseaboutland，taxes，andproperty。And，therefore，alltheattemptsofthosewhowishtoimprovethepositionoftheworkersareinevitably，thoughunconsciously，directedagainstthosethreelegislations。
Onesetofpeoplerepealtaxesweighingontheworkingclassesandtransferthemontotherich；othersproposetoabolishtherightofprivatepropertyinland，andattemptsarebeingmadetoputthisinpracticebothinNewZealandandinoneoftheAmericanStates（thelimitationofthelandlord’srightsinIrelandisamoveinthesamedirection）；athirdset—theSocialists—proposetocommunalisethemeansofproduction，totaxincomesandinheritances，andtolimittherightsofcapitalist—employers。Itwould，therefore，seemasifthelegislativeenactmentswhichcauseslaverywerebeingrepealed，andthatwemay，therefore，expectslaverytobeabolishedinthisway。Butweneedonlylookmorecloselyattheconditionsunderwhichtheabolitionofthoselegislativeenactmentsisaccomplishedorproposedtobeconvincedthatnotonlythepractical，buteventhetheoreticalprojectsfortheimprovementoftheworkers’
positionaremerelythesubstitutionofonelegislationproducingslaveryforanotherestablishinganewerformofslavery。Thus，forinstance，thosewhoabolishtaxesanddutiesonthepoor，firstabolishingdirectduesandthentransferringtheburdenoftaxationfromthepoortotherich，necessarilyhavetoretain，anddoretain，thelawsmakingprivatepropertyoflandedproperty，meansofproduction，andotherarticles，ontowhichthewholeburdenofthetaxesisshifted。TheretentionofthelawsConcerninglandandpropertykeepstheworkersinslaverytothelandownersandthecapitalists，eventhoughtheworkersarefreedfromtaxes。Thosewho，likeHenryGeorgeandhispartisans，wouldabolishthelawsmakingprivatepropertyofland，proposenewlawsimposinganobligatoryrentontheland。Andthisobligatoryland—
rentwillnecessarilycreateanewformofslavery，becauseamancompelledtopayrent，orthesingletax，mayatanyfailureofthecropsorothermisfortunehavetoborrowmoneyfromamanwhohassometolend，andhewillagainlapseintoslavery。Thosewho，liketheSocialists，intheory，wishtoabolishthelegislationofpropertymlandandinmeansofproduction，retainthelegalisationoftaxes，andmust，moreover，inevitablyintroducelawsofcompulsorylabor—thatis，theymustre—establishslaveryinitsprimitiveform。
Sothat，thiswayorthatway，allthepracticalandtheoreticalrepealsofcertainlawsmaintainingslaveryinoneformhavealwaysanddoalwaysreplaceitbynewlegislationcreatingslaveryinanotherandfreshform。
Whathappensissomethinglikewhatajailermightdowhoshiftedaprisoner’schainsfromthenecktothearms，andfromthearmstothelegs，ortookthemoffandsubstitutedboltsandbars。Alltheimprovementsthathavehithertotakenplaceinthepositionoftheworkershavebeenofthiskind。
Thelawsgivingamastertherighttocompelhisslavestodocompulsoryworkwerereplacedbylawsallowingthemasterstoownalltheland。Thelawsallowingallthelandtobecometheprivatepropertyofthemastersmaybereplacedbytaxation—laws，thecontrolofthetaxesbeinginthehandsofthemasters。Thetaxation—lawsarereplacedbyothersdefendingtherightofprivatepropertyinarticlesofuseandinthemeansofproduction。Thelawsofrightofpropertyinlandandinarticlesofuseandmeansofproductionitisproposedtoreplacebytheenactmentofcompulsorylabour。
Soitisevidentthattheabolitionofoneformoflegalisationproducingtheslaveryofourtime，whethertaxes，orlandowning，orpropertyinarticlesofuseorinthemeansofproduction，willnotdestroyslavery，butwillonlyrepealoneofitsforms，whichwillimmediatelybereplacedbyanewone，aswasthecasewiththeabolitionofchattel—slavery，ofserfdom，andwiththerepealsoftaxes。Eventherepealofallthreegroupsoflawstogetherwillnotabolishslavery，butevokeanewandasyetunknownformofit，whichisnowalreadybeginningtoshowitselfandtorestrainthefreedomoflaborbylegislationconcerningthehoursofwork，theageandstateofhealthoftheworkers，aswellasbydemandingobligatoryattendanceatschools，deductionsforold—ageinsuranceoraccidents，byallthemeasuresoffactory—
inspection，therestrictionsonco—operativesocieties，etc。
Allthisisnothingbutthetransferenceoflegalisation—
preparinganewandasyetuntriedformofslavery。
Sothatitbecomesevidentthattheessenceofslaveryliesnotinthosethreerootsoflegislationonwhichitnowrests，andnoteveninsuchorsuchotherlegislativeenactments，butinthefactthatlegislationexists；thattherearepeoplewhohavepowertodecreelawsprofitableforthemselves，andthataslongaspeoplehavethatpowertherewillbeslavery。
Formerlyitwasprofitableforpeopletohavechattel—
slaves，andtheymadelawsaboutchattel—slavery。Afterwardsitbecameprofitabletoownland，totaketaxes，andtokeepthingsonehadacquired，andtheymadelawscorrespondingly。Nowitisprofitableforpeopletomaintaintheexistingdirectionanddivisionoflabor；andtheyaredevisingsuchlawsaswillcompelpeopletoworkunderthepresentapportionmentanddivisionoflabor。
Thusthefundamentalcauseofslaveryislegislation，thefactthattherearepeoplewhohavethepowertomakelaws。
Whatislegislation？andwhatgivespeoplethepowertomakelaws？TheSlaveryofOurTimes——Ch12——LeoTolstoyFromTheSlaveryofOurTimesbyLeoTolstoyCHAPTERXII。
THEESSENCEOFLEGISLATIONISORGANISEDVIOLENCE
WHATislegislation？Andwhatenablespeopletomakelaws？
Thereexistsawholescience，moreancientandmoremendaciousandconfusedthanpoliticaleconomy，theservantsofwhichinthecourseofcenturieshavewrittenmillionsofbooks（forthemostpartcontradictingoneanother）toanswerthesequestions。Butastheaimofthisscience，asofpoliticaleconomy，isnottoexplainwhatnowisandwhatoughttobe，butrathertoprovethatwhatnowisiswhatoughttobe，ithappensthatinthisScience（ofjurisprudence）wefindverymanydissertationsaboutrights，aboutobjectandsubject，abouttheideaofastateandothersuchmatterswhichareunintelligiblebothtothestudentsandtotheteachersofthisscience，butwegetnoclearreplytothequestion，Whatislegislation？
Accordingtoscience，legislationistheexpressionofthewillofthewholepeople；butasthosewhobreakthelaws，orwhowishtobreakthem，andonlyrefrainfromfearofbeingpunished，arealwaysmorenumerousthanthosewhowishtocarryoutthecode，itisevidentthatlegislationcancertainlynotbeconsideredastheexpressionofthewillofthewholepeople。
Forinstance，therearelawsaboutnotinjuringtelegraphposts，aboutshowingrespecttocertainpeople，abouteachmanperformingmilitaryserviceorservingasajuryman，aboutnottakingcertaingoodsbeyondacertainboundary，oraboutnotusinglandconsideredthepropertyofsomeoneelse，aboutnotmakingmoney—
tokens，notusingarticleswhichareconsideredtobethepropertyofothers，andaboutmanyothermatters。
Alltheselawsandmanyothersareextremelycomplex，andmayhavebeenpassedfromthemostdiversemotives，butnotoneofthemexpressesthewillofthewholepeople。
Thereisbutonegeneralcharacteristicofalltheselaws—namely，thatifanymandoesnotfulfilthem，thosewhohavemadethemwillsendarmedmen，andthearmedmenwillbeat，depriveoffreedom，orevenkillthemanwhodoesnotfulfilthelaw。
Ifamandoesnotwishtogiveastaxessuchpartoftheproduceofhislaborasisdemandedofhim，armedmenwillcomeandtakefromhimwhatisdemanded，andifheresistshewillbebeaten，deprivedoffreedom，andsometimesevenkilled。Thesamewillhappentoamanwhobeginstomakeuseoflandconsideredtobethepropertyofanother。Thesamewillhappentoamanwhomakesuseofthingshewants，tosatisfyhisrequire—
mentsortofacilitatehiswork，ifthesethingsarecon—
sideredtobethepropertyofsomeoneelse。Armedmenwillcomeandwilldeprivehimofwhathehastaken，andifheresiststheywillbeathim，deprivehimofliberty，orevenkillhim。Thesamethingwillhappentoanyonewhowillnotshowrespecttothosewhomitisdecreedthatwearetorespect，andtohimwhowillnotobeythedemandthatheshouldgoasasoldier，orwhomakesmonetarytokens。
Foreverynon—fulfilmentoftheestablishedlawsthereispunishment：theoffenderissubjectedbythosewhomakethelawstoblows，toconfinement，oreventolossoflife。
Manyconstitutionshavebeendevised，beginningwiththeEnglishandtheAmerican，andendingwiththeJapaneseandtheTurkish，accordingtowhichpeoplearetobelievethatalllawsestablishedintheircountryareestablishedattheirdesire。Buteveryoneknowsthatnotindespoticcountriesonly，butalsointhecountriesnominallymostfree—England，America，France—thelawsaremade，notbythewillofall，butbythewillofthosewhohavepower；and，therefore，alwaysandeverywhereareonlysuchasareprofitabletothosewhohavepower，whethertheyaremany，afew，oronlyoneman。Everywhereandalwaysthelawsareenforcedbytheonlymeansthathascompelled，andstillcompels，somepeopletoobeythewillofothers—thatis，byblows，bydeprivationofliberty，orbymurder。Therecanbenootherway。
Itcannotbeotherwise；forlawsaredemandstoexecutecertainrules；andtocompelsomepeopletoobeycertainrules（thatis，todowhatotherpeoplewantofthem）cannotbedoneexceptbyblows，bydeprivationofliberty，orbymurder。Iftherearelaws，theremustbetheforcethatcancompelpeopletoobeythem，andthereisonlyoneforcethatcancompelpeopletoobeyrules（thatis，toobeythewillofothers），andthatisviolence；notthesimpleviolencewhichpeopleusetooneanotherinmomentsofpassion，buttheorganisedviolenceusedbypeoplewhohavepower，inordertocompelotherstoobeythelawsthey（thepowerful）havemade；inotherwords，todotheirwill。
Andsotheessenceoflegislationdoesnotlieinthesubjectorobject，inrightsorintheideaofthedominionofthecollectivewillofthepeople，orinothersuchindefiniteandconfusedconditions；butitliesinthefactthatpeoplewhowieldorganisedviolencehavethepowertocompelotherstoobeythemandtodoastheylike。
Sothattheexactandirrefutabledefinitionoflegislation，intelligibletoall，isthat：Lawsarerulesmadebypeoplewhogovernbymeansoforganisedviolence，forcompliancewithwhichthenon—complierissubjectedtoblows，tolossofliberty，oreventobeingmurdered。
Thisdefinitionfurnishesthereplytothequestion，Whatisitthatrendersitpossibleforpeopletomakelaws？Thesamethingmakesitpossibletoestablishlawsasenforcesobediencetotheorganisedviolence。TheSlaveryofOurTimes——Ch13——LeoTolstoyFromTheSlaveryofOurTimesbyLeoTolstoyCHAPTERXIII。
WHATAREGOVERNMENTS？
ISITPOSSIBLETO
EXISTWITHOUTGOVERNMENTS？
THEcauseofthemiserableconditionoftheworkersisslavery。Thecauseofslaveryislegislation。Legislationrestsonorganisedviolence。
Itfollowsthatanimprovementintheconditionofthepeopleispossibleonlythroughtheabolitionoforganisedviolence。
\"Butorganisedviolenceisgovernment，andhowcanwelivewithoutgovernments？Withoutgovernmentstherewillbechaos，anarchy；
alltheachievementsofcivilisationwillperish，andpeoplewillreverttotheirprimitivebarbarism。\"
Itisusualnotonlyforthosetowhomtheexistingorderisprofitable，butevenforthosetowhomitisevidentlyunprofitable，butwhoaresoaccustomedtoittheycannotimaginelifewithoutgovernmentalviolence，tosaywemustnotdaretotouchtheexistingorderofthings。Thedestructionofgovernmentwill，saythey，producethegreatestmisfortunes—
riot，theft，andmurder—tillfinallytheworstmenwillagainseizepowerandenslaveallthegoodpeople。
Butnottomentionthefactthatall—thatis，riots，theftsandmurders，followedbytheruleofthewickedandtheenslavementofthegood—allthisiswhathashappenedandishappening，theanticipationthatthedisturbanceoftheexistingorderwillproduceriotsanddisorderdoesnotprovethepresentordertobegood。
\"Onlytouchthepresentorderandthegreatestevilswillfollow。\"
Onlytouchonebrickofthethousandbrickspiledintoanarrowcolumnseveralyardshighandallthebrickswilltumbledownandsmash!
Butthefactthatanybrickextractedoranypushadministeredwilldestroysuchacolumnandsmashthebrickscertaililydoesnotproveittobewisetokeepthebricksinsuchanunnaturalandinconvenientposition。Onthecontrary，itshowsthatbricksshouldnotbepiledinsuchacolumn，butthattheyshouldberearrangedsothattheymayliefirmly，andsoithattheycanbemadeuseofwithoutdestroyingthewholeerection。
Itisthesamewiththepresentstateorganisations。Thestateorganisationisextremelyartificialandunstable，andthefactthattheleastpushmaydestroyitnotonlydoesnotprovethatitisnecessary，but，onthecontrary，showsthat，ifonceuponatimeitwasnecessaryitisnowabsolutelyunnecessary，andis，therefore，harmfulanddangerous。
Itisharmfulanddangerousbecausetheeffectofthisorganisationonalltheevilthatexistsinsocietyisnottolessenandcorrect，butrathertostrengthenandconfirmthatevil。Itisstrengthenedandconfirmedbybeingeitherjustifiedandputinattractiveformsorsecreted。
Allthatwell—beingofthepeoplewhichweseeinso—calledwell—governedstates，ruledbyviolence，isbutanappearance—afiction。
Everythingthatwoulddisturbtheexternalappearanceofwell—being—allthehungrypeople，thesick，therevoltinglyvicious—areallhiddenawaywheretheycannotbeseen。Butthefactthatwedonotseethemdoesnotshowthattheydonotexist；onthecontrary，themoretheyarehiddenthemoretherewillbeofthem，andthemorecrueltowardsthemwillthosebewhoarethecauseoftheircondition。Itistruethateveryinterruption，andyetmore，everystoppageofgovernmentalaction—thatis，oforganisedviolence—disturbthisexternalap—
pearanceofwell—beinginourlife，butsuchdisturbancedoesnotproducedisorder，butmerelydisplayswhatwashidden，andmakespossibleitsamendment。
Untilnow，saytillalmosttheendofthenineteenthcentury，peoplethoughtandbelievedthattheycouldnotlivewithoutgovernments。Butlifeflowsonward，andtheconditionsoflifeandpeople’sviewschange。Andnotwithstandingtheeffortsofgovernmentstokeeppeopleinthatchildishconditioninwhichaninjuredmanfeelsasifitwerebetterforhimtohavesomeonetocomplainto，people，especiallythelabouringpeople，bothinEuropeandinRussia，aremoreandmoreemergingfromchildhoodandbeginningtounderstandthetrueconditionsoftheirlife。
\"Youtellusbutthatforyouweshouldbeconqueredbyneighbouringnations—bytheChineseortheJapanese—\"menofthepeoplenowsay，\"butwereadthepapers，andknowthatnooneisthreateningtoattackus，andthatitisonlyyouwhogovernuswho，forsomeaims，unintelligibletous，exasperateeachother，andthen，underpretenceofdefendingyourownpeople，ruinuswithtaxesforthemaintenanceofthefleet，forarmaments，orforstrategicalrailways，whichareonlyrequiredtogratifyyourambitionandvanity；
andthenyouarrangewarswithoneanother，asyouhavenowdoneagainstthepeacefulChinese。Yousaythatyoudefendlandedpropertyforouradvantage；butyourdefencehasthiseffect—thatallthelandeitherhaspassedorispassingintothecontrolofrichbankingcompanies，whichdonotwork，whilewe，theimmensemajorityofthepeople，arebeingdeprivedoflandandleftinthepowerofthosewhodonotlabour。Youwithyourlawsoflandedpropertydonotdefendlandedproperty，buttakeitfromthosewhoworkit。
Yousayyousecuretoeachmantheproduceofhislabour，butyoudojustthereverse；allthosewhoproducearticlesofvalueare，thankstoyourpseudo—protection，placedinsuchapositionthattheynotonlyneverreceivethevalueoftheirlabour，butarealltheirliveslongincompletesubjectiontoandinthepowerofnon—workers。\"
Thusdopeople，attheendofthecentury，begintounderstandandtospeak。Andthisawakeningfromthelethargyinwhichgovernmentshavekeptthemisgoingoninsomerapidlyincreasingratio。Withinthelastfiveorsixyearsthepublicopinionofthecommonfolk，notonlyinthetowns，butinthevillages，andnotonlyinEurope，butalsoamongusinRussia，hasalteredamazingly。
Itissaidthatwithoutgovernmentsweshouldnothavethoseinstitutions，enlightening，educationalandpublic，thatareneedfulforall。
Butwhyshouldwesupposethis？Why
thinkthatnon—officialpeoplecouldnotarrangetheirlifethemselvesaswellasgovernmentpeoplearrangeit，notforthemselves，butforothers？
Wesee，onthecontrary，thatinthemostdiversematterspeopleinourtimesarrangetheirownlivesincomparablybetterthanthosewhogovernthemarrangeforthem。Withouttheleasthellpfromgovernment，andofteninspiteoftheinterferenceofgovernment，peopleorganiseallsortsofsocialundertakings—
workmen’sunions，co—operativesocieties，rail—
waycompanies，artels，*andsyndicates。Ifcollectionsforpublicworksareneeded，whyshouldwesupposethatfreepeoplecouldnotwithoutviolencevoluntarilycollectthenecessarymeans，andcarryoutallthatiscarriedoutbymeansoftaxes，ifonlytheundertakingsinquestionarereallyusefulforeverybody？
Whysupposethattherecannotbetribunalswithoutviolence？Trialbypeopletrustedbythedisputantshasalwaysexistedandwillexist，andneedsnoviolence。Wearesodepravedbylong—continuedslaverythatwecanhardlyimagineadministrationwithoutviolence。Andyet，again，thatisnottrue：Russiancommunesmigratingtodistantregions，whereourgovernmentleavesthemalone，arrangetheirowntaxation，administration，tribunals，andpolice，andalwaysprosperuntilgovernmentviolenceinterfereswiththeiradministration。Andinthesameway，thereisnoreasontosupposethatpeoplecouldnot，bycommonconsent，decidehowthelandistobeapportionedforuse。
Ihaveknownpeople—CossacksoftheOural—whohavelivedwithoutacknowledgingprivatepropertyinland。Andtherewassuchprosperityandorderintheircommuneasdoesnotexistinsociety，wherelandedpropertyisdefendedbyviolence。AndInowknowcommunesthatlivewithoutacknowledgingtherightofindividualstoprivateproperty。
WithinmyrecollectionthewholeRussianpeasantrydidnotaccepttheideaoflandedproperty。**
Thedefenceoflandedpropertybygovernmentalviolencenotmerelydoesnotabolishthestruggleforlandedproperty，but，onthecontrary，strengthensthatstruggle，andinmanycasescausesit。
Wereitnotforthedefenceoflandedproperty，anditsconsequentriseinprice，peoplewouldnotbecrowdedintosuchnarrowspaces，butwouldscatteroverthefreeland，ofwhichthereisstillsomuchintheworld。Butasitis，acontinualstrugglegoesonforlandedproperty；astrugglewiththeweaponsgovernmentfurnishesbymeansofitslawsoflandedproperty。Andinthisstruggleitisnotthosewhoworkontheland，butalwaysthosewhotakepartingovernmentalviolence，thathavetheadvantage。
Itisthesamewithreferencetothingsproducedbylabour。Thingsreallyproducedbyaman’sownlabour，andthatheneeds，arealwaysdefendedbycustom，bypublicopinion，byfeelingsofjusticeandreciprocity，andtheydonotneedtobeprotectedbyviolence。
Tensofthousandsofacresofforest—landsbelongingtooneproprietor，whilethousandsofpeopleclosebyhavenofuel，needprotectionbyviolence。So，too，dofactoriesandworkswhereseveralgenerationsofworkmenhavebeendefrauded，arestillbeingdefrauded。Yetmoredohundredsofthousandsofbushelsofgrain，belongingtooneowner，whohasheldthembacktillafaminehascome，tosellthemattripleprice。Butnomail，howeverdepraved，exceptarichmanoragovernmentofficial，wouldtakefromacountrymanlivingbyhisownlabourtheharvesthehasraisedorthecowhehasbred，andfromwhichhegetsmilkforhischildren，orthesokha’s，***thescythes，andthespadeshehasmadeanduses。Ifevenamanwerefoundwhodidtakefromanotherarticlesthelatterhadmadeandrequired，suchamanwouldrouseagainsthimselfsuchindignationfromeveryonelivinginsimilarcircumstancesthathewouldhardlyfindhisactionprofitableforhimself。Amansounmoralastodoitundersuchcircumstanceswouldbesuretodoitunderthestrictestsystemofpropertydefencebyviolence。Itisgenerallysaid，\"Onlyattempttoabolishtherightsofpropertyinlandandintheproduceoflabour，andnoonewilltakethetroubletowork，lackingtheassurancethathewillnotbedeprivedofwhathehasproduced。\"
Weshouldsayjusttheopposite：thedefencebyviolenceoftherightsofpropertyimmorallyobtained，whichisnowcustomary，ifithasnotquitedestroyed，hasconsiderablyweakenedpeople’snaturalconsciousnessofjusticeinthematterofusingarticles—thatis，thenaturalandinnaterightofproperty—withoutwhichhumanitycouldnotexist，andwhichhasalwaysexistedandstillexistsamongallmen。
And，therefore，thereisnoreasontoanticipatethatpeoplewillnotbeabletoarrangetheirliveswithoutorganisedviolence。
Ofcourse，itmaybesaidthathorsesandbullsmustbeguidedbytheviolenceofrationalbeings—men；butwhymustmenbeguided，notbysomehigherbeings，butbypeoplesuchasthemselves？Whyoughtpeopletobesubjecttotheviolenceofjustthosepeoplewhoareinpoweratagiventime？Whatprovesthatthesepeoplearewiserthanthoseonwhomtheyinflictviolence？
Thefactthattheyallowthemselvestouseviolencetowardhumanbeingsindicatesthattheyarenotonlynotmorewise，butarelesswisethanthosewhosubmittothem。TheexaminationsinChinafortheofficeofmandarindonot，weknow，ensurethatthewisestandbestpeopleshouldbeplacedinpower。
Andjustaslittleisthisensuredbyinheritance，orthewholemachineryofpromotionsinrank，ortheelectionsinconstitutionalcountries。Onthecontrary，powerisalwaysseizedbythosewhoarelessconscientiousandlessmoral。