Rousseau：OntheOriginofInequality：DedicationADISCOURSEONASUBJECTPROPOSEDBYTHEACADEMYOFDIJON：WHATISTHEORIGINOFINEQUALITYAMONGMEN，ANDISITAUTHORISEDBYNATURALLAW？JeanJacquesRousseau1754
Weshouldconsiderwhatisnaturalnotinthingsdepravedbutinthosewhicharerightlyorderedaccordingtonature。Aristotle，Politics，Bk。i，ch。5
DEDICATIONTOTHEREPUBLICOFGENEVAMOSTHONOURABLE，MAGNIFICENTANDSOVEREIGNLORDS，convincedthatonlyavirtuouscitizencanconferonhiscountryhonourswhichitcanaccept，Ihavebeenforthirtyyearspastworkingtomakemyselfworthytoofferyousomepublichomage;and，thisfortunateopportunitysupplementinginsomedegreetheinsufficiencyofmyefforts，Ihavethoughtmyselfentitledtofollowinembracingitthedictatesofthezealwhichinspiresme，ratherthantherightwhichshouldhavebeenmyauthorisation。
Havinghadthehappinesstobebornamongyou，howcouldIreflectontheequalitywhichnaturehasordainedbetweenmen，andtheinequalitywhichtheyhaveintroduced，withoutreflectingontheprofoundwisdombywhichbothareinthisStatehappilycombinedandmadetocoincide，inthemannerthatismostinconformitywithnaturallaw，andmostfavourabletosociety，tothemaintenanceofpublicorderandtothehappinessofindividuals？
Inmyresearchesafterthebestrulescommonsensecanlaydownfortheconstitutionofagovernment，Ihavebeensostruckatfindingthemallinactualityinyourown，thatevenhadInotbeenbornwithinyourwallsIshouldhavethoughtitindispensableformetoofferthispictureofhumansocietytothatpeople，whichofallothersseemstobepossessedofitsgreatestadvantages，andtohavebestguardedagainstitsabuses。
IfIhadhadtomakechoiceoftheplaceofmybirth，Ishouldhavepreferredasocietywhichhadanextentproportionatetothelimitsofthehumanfaculties;thatis，tothepossibilityofbeingwellgoverned：
inwhicheverypersonbeingequaltohisoccupation，nooneshouldbeobligedtocommittoothersthefunctionswithwhichhewasentrusted：aState，inwhichalltheindividualsbeingwellknowntooneanother，neitherthesecretmachinationsofvice，northemodestyofvirtueshouldbeabletoescapethenoticeandjudgmentofthepublic;andinwhichthepleasantcustomofseeingandknowingoneanothershouldmaketheloveofcountryratheraloveofthecitizensthanofitssoil。
IshouldhavewishedtobeborninacountryinwhichtheinterestoftheSovereignandthatofthepeoplemustbesingleandidentical;totheendthatallthemovementsofthemachinemighttendalwaystothegeneralhappiness。Andasthiscouldnotbethecase，unlesstheSovereignandthepeoplewereoneandthesameperson，itfollowsthatIshouldhavewishedtobebornunderademocraticgovernment，wiselytempered。
Ishouldhavewishedtoliveanddiefree：thatis，sofarsubjecttothelawsthatneitherI，noranybodyelse，shouldbeabletocastofftheirhonourableyoke：theeasyandsalutaryyokewhichthehaughtiestnecksbearwiththegreaterdocility，astheyaremadetobearnoother。
IshouldhavewishedthenthatnoonewithintheStateshouldbeabletosayhewasabovethelaw;andthatnoonewithoutshouldbeabletodictatesothattheStateshouldbeobligedtorecognisehisauthority。
For，betheconstitutionofagovernmentwhatitmay，iftherebewithinitsjurisdictionasinglemanwhoisnotsubjecttothelaw，alltherestarenecessarilyathisdiscretion。Andiftherebeanationalrulerwithin，andaforeignrulerwithout，howevertheymaydividetheirauthority，itisimpossiblethatbothshouldbedulyobeyed，orthattheStateshouldbewellgoverned。
Ishouldnothavechosentoliveinarepublicofrecentinstitution，howeverexcellentitslaws;forfearthegovernment，beingperhapsotherwiseframedthanthecircumstancesofthemomentmightrequire，mightdisagreewiththenewcitizens，ortheywithit，andtheStateruntheriskofoverthrowanddestructionalmostassoonasitcameintobeing。Foritiswithlibertyasitiswiththosesolidandsucculentfoods，orwiththosegenerouswineswhicharewelladaptedtonourishandfortifyrobustconstitutionsthatareusedtothem，butruinandintoxicateweakanddelicateconstitutionstowhichtheyarenotsuited。Peoplesonceaccustomedtomastersarenotinaconditiontodowithoutthem。Iftheyattempttoshakeofftheyoke，theystillmoreestrangethemselvesfromfreedom，as，bymistakingforitanunbridledlicensetowhichitisdiametricallyopposed，theynearlyalwaysmanage，bytheirrevolutions，tohandthemselvesovertoseducers，whoonlymaketheirchainsheavierthanbefore。TheRomanpeopleitself，amodelforallfreepeoples，waswhollyincapableofgoverningitselfwhenitescapedfromtheoppressionoftheTarquins。Debasedbyslavery，andtheignominioustaskswhichhadbeenimposeduponit，itwasatfirstnobetterthanastupidmob，whichitwasnecessarytocontrolandgovernwiththegreatestwisdom;inorderthat，beingaccustomedbydegreestobreathethehealth-givingairofliberty，mindswhichhadbeenenervatedorratherbrutalisedundertyranny，mightgraduallyacquirethatseverityofmoralsandspiritoffortitudewhichmadeitatlengththepeopleofallmostworthyofrespect。Ishould，then，havesoughtoutformycountrysomepeacefulandhappyRepublic，ofanantiquitythatlostitself，asitwere，inthenightoftime：whichhadexperiencedonlysuchshocksasservedtomanifestandstrengthenthecourageandpatriotismofitssubjects;
andwhosecitizens，longaccustomedtoawiseindependence，werenotonlyfree，butworthytobeso。
Ishouldhavewishedtochoosemyselfacountry，diverted，byafortunateimpotence，fromthebrutalloveofconquest，andsecured，byastillmorefortunatesituation，fromthefearofbecomingitselftheconquestofotherStates：afreecitysituatedbetweenseveralnations，noneofwhichshouldhaveanyinterestinattackingit，whileeachhadaninterestinpreventingitfrombeingattackedbytheothers;inshort，aRepublicwhichshouldhavenothingtotempttheambitionofitsneighbours，butmightreasonablydependontheirassistanceincaseofneed。ItfollowsthatarepublicanStatesohappilysituatedcouldhavenothingtofearbutfromitself;andthat，ifitsmemberstrainedthemselvestotheuseofarms，itwouldberathertokeepalivethatmilitaryardourandcourageousspiritwhicharesoproperamongfreemen，andtendtokeepuptheirtasteforliberty，thanfromthenecessityofprovidingfortheirdefence。
Ishouldhavesoughtacountry，inwhichtherightoflegislationwasvestedinallthecitizens;forwhocanjudgebetterthantheyoftheconditionsunderwhichtheyhadbestdwelltogetherinthesamesociety？NotthatIshouldhaveapprovedofPlebiscita，likethoseamongtheRomans;inwhichtherulersintheState，andthosemostinterestedinitspreservation，wereexcludedfromthedeliberationsonwhichinmanycasesitssecuritydepended;andinwhich，bythemostabsurdinconsistency，themagistratesweredeprivedofrightswhichthemeanestcitizensenjoyed。
Onthecontrary，Ishouldhavedesiredthat，inordertopreventself-interestedandill-conceivedprojects，andallsuchdangerousinnovationsasfinallyruinedtheAthenians，eachmanshouldnotbeatlibertytoproposenewlawsatpleasure;butthatthisrightshouldbelongexclusivelytothemagistrates;andthateventheyshoulduseitwithsomuchcaution，thepeople，onitsside，besoreservedingivingitsconsenttosuchlaws，andthepromulgationofthembeattendedwithsomuchsolemnity，thatbeforetheconstitutioncouldbeupsetbythem，theremightbetimeenoughforalltobeconvinced，thatitisaboveallthegreatantiquityofthelawswhichmakesthemsacredandvenerable，thatmensoonlearntodespiselawswhichtheyseedailyaltered，andthatStates，byaccustomingthemselvestoneglecttheirancientcustomsunderthepretextofimprovement，oftenintroducegreaterevilsthanthosetheyendeavourtoremove。
Ishouldhaveparticularlyavoided，asnecessarilyill-governed，aRepublicinwhichthepeople，imaginingthemselvesinapositiontodowithoutmagistrates，oratleasttoleavethemwithonlyaprecariousauthority，shouldimprudentlyhavekeptforthemselvestheadministrationofcivilaffairsandtheexecutionoftheirownlaws。Suchmusthavebeentherudeconstitutionofprimitivegovernments，directlyemergingfromastateofnature;andthiswasanotherofthevicesthatcontributedtothedownfalloftheRepublicofAthens。
ButIshouldhavechosenacommunityinwhichtheindividuals，contentwithsanctioningtheirlaws，anddecidingthemostimportantpublicaffairsingeneralassemblyandonthemotionoftherulers，hadestablishedhonouredtribunals，carefullydistinguishedtheseveraldepartments，andelectedyearbyyearsomeofthemostcapableanduprightoftheirfellow-citizenstoadministerjusticeandgoverntheState;acommunity，inshort，inwhichthevirtueofthemagistratesthusbearingwitnesstothewisdomofthepeople，eachclassreciprocallydidtheotherhonour。Ifinsuchacaseanyfatalmisunderstandingsarosetodisturbthepublicpeace，eventheseintervalsofblindnessanderrorwouldbearthemarksofmoderation，mutualesteem，andacommonrespectforthelaws;whicharesuresignsandpledgesofareconciliationaslastingassincere。Sucharetheadvantages，mosthonourable，magnificentandsovereignlords，whichIshouldhavesoughtinthecountryinwhichIshouldhavechosentobeborn。Andifprovidencehadaddedtoalltheseadelightfulsituation，atemperateclimate，afertilesoil，andthemostbeautifulcountrysideunderHeaven，Ishouldhavedesiredonly，tocompletemyfelicity，thepeacefulenjoymentofalltheseblessings，inthebosomofthishappycountry;toliveatpeaceinthesweetsocietyofmyfellow-citizens，andpractisingtowardsthem，fromtheirownexample，thedutiesoffriendship，humanity，andeveryothervirtue，toleavebehindmethehonourablememoryofagoodman，andanuprightandvirtuouspatriot。
But，iflessfortunateortoolategrownwise，Ihadseenmyselfreducedtoendaninfirmandlanguishinglifeinotherclimates，vainlyregrettingthatpeacefulreposewhichIhadforfeitedintheimprudenceofyouth，Ishouldatleasthaveentertainedthesamefeelingsinmyheart，thoughdeniedtheopportunityofmakinguseoftheminmynativecountry。Filledwithatenderanddisinterestedloveformydistantfellow-citizens，I
shouldhaveaddressedthemfrommyheart，muchinthefollowingterms。
\"Mydearfellow-citizens，orrathermybrothers，sincethetiesofblood，aswellasthelaws，unitealmostallofus，itgivesmepleasurethatIcannotthinkofyou，withoutthinking，atthesametime，ofalltheblessingsyouenjoy，andofwhichnoneofyou，perhaps，moredeeplyfeelsthevaluethanIwhohavelostthem。ThemoreIreflectonyourcivilandpoliticalcondition，thelesscanIconceivethatthenatureofhumanaffairscouldadmitofabetter。Inallothergovernments，whenthereisaquestionofensuringthegreatestgoodoftheState，nothinggetsbeyondprojectsandideas，oratbestbarepossibilities。Butasforyou，yourhappinessiscomplete，andyouhavenothingtodobutenjoyit;yourequirenothingmoretobemadeperfectlyhappy，thantoknowhowtobesatisfiedwithbeingso。Yoursovereignty，acquiredorrecoveredbythesword，andmaintainedfortwocenturiespastbyyourvalourandwisdom，isatlengthfullyanduniversallyacknowledged。Yourboundariesarefixed，yourrightsconfirmedandyourreposesecuredbyhonourabletreaties。Yourconstitutionisexcellent，beingnotonlydictatedbytheprofoundestwisdom，butguaranteedbygreatandfriendlypowers。YourStateenjoysperfecttranquillity;youhaveneitherwarsnorconquerorstofear;youhavenoothermasterthanthewiselawsyouhaveyourselvesmade;andtheseareadministeredbyuprightmagistratesofyourownchoosing。Youareneithersowealthyastobeenervatedbyeffeminacy，andthencetolose，inthepursuitoffrivolouspleasures，thetasteforrealhappinessandsolidvirtue;norpoorenoughtorequiremoreassistancefromabroadthanyourownindustryissufficienttoprocureyou。Inthemeantimethepreciousprivilegeofliberty，whichingreatnationsismaintainedonlybysubmissiontothemostexorbitantimpositions，costsyouhardlyanythingforitspreservation。
MayaRepublic，sowiselyandhappilyconstituted，lastforever，foranexampletoothernations，andforthefelicityofitsowncitizens！
Thisistheonlyprayeryouhavelefttomake，theonlyprecautionthatremainstobetaken。Itdepends，forthefuture，onyourselvesalone（nottomakeyouhappy，foryourancestorshavesavedyouthattrouble），buttorenderthathappinesslasting，byyourwisdominitsenjoyment。Itisonyourconstantunion，yourobediencetothelaws，andyourrespectfortheirministers，thatyourpreservationdepends。Ifthereremainsamongyouthesmallesttraceofbitternessordistrust，hastentodestroyit，asanaccursedleavenwhichsoonerorlatermustbringmisfortuneandruinontheState。Iconjureyoualltolookintoyourhearts，andtohearkentothesecretvoiceofconscience。Isthereanyamongyouwhocanfind，throughouttheuniverse，amoreupright，moreenlightenedandmorehonourablebodythanyourmagistracy？Donotallitsmemberssetyouanexampleofmoderation，ofsimplicityofmanners，ofrespectforthelaws，andofthemostsincereharmony？Place，therefore，withoutreserve，insuchwisesuperiors，thatsalutaryconfidencewhichreasoneverowestovirtue。Considerthattheyareyourownchoice，thattheyjustifythatchoice，andthatthehonoursduetothosewhomyouhavedignifiedarenecessarilyyoursbyreflexion。
Notoneofyouissoignorantasnottoknowthat，whenthelawslosetheirforceandthosewhodefendthemtheirauthority，securityandlibertyareuniversallyimpossible。Why，therefore，shouldyouhesitatetodothatcheerfullyandwithjustconfidencewhichyouwouldallalonghavebeenboundtodobyyourtrueinterest，yourdutyandreasonitself？
Letnotaculpableandperniciousindifferencetothemaintenanceoftheconstitutioneverinduceyoutoneglect，incaseofneed，theprudentadviceofthemostenlightenedandzealousofyourfellow-citizens;butletequity，moderationandfirmnessofresolutioncontinuetoregulateallyourproceedings，andtoexhibityoutothewholeuniverseastheexampleofavaliantandmodestpeople，jealousequallyoftheirhonourandoftheirliberty。Bewareparticularly，asthelastpieceofadviceIshallgiveyou，ofsinisterconstructionsandvenomousrumours，thesecretmotivesofwhichareoftenmoredangerousthantheactionsatwhichtheyarelevelled。
Awholehousewillbeawakeandtakethefirstalarmgivenbyagoodandtrustywatch-dog，whobarksonlyattheapproachofthieves;butwehatetheimportunityofthosenoisycurs，whichareperpetuallydisturbingthepublicrepose，andwhosecontinualill-timedwarningspreventourattendingtothem，whentheymayperhapsbenecessary。\"
Andyou，mosthonourableandmagnificentlords，theworthyandreveredmagistratesofafreepeople，permitmetoofferyouinparticularmydutyandhomage。Ifthereisintheworldastationcapableofconferringhonouronthosewhofillit，itisundoubtedlythatwhichvirtueandtalentscombinetobestow，thatofwhichyouhavemadeyourselvesworthy，andtowhichyouhavebeenpromotedbyyourfellow-citizens。Theirworthaddsanewlustretoyourown;while，asyouhavebeenchosen，bymencapableofgoverningothers，togovernthemselves，Icannotbutholdyouasmuchsuperiortoallothermagistrates，asafreepeople，andparticularlythatoverwhichyouhavethehonourtopreside，isbyitswisdomanditsreasonsuperiortothepopulaceofotherStates。
Beitpermittedmetociteanexampleofwhichthereoughttohaveexistedbetterrecords，andonewhichwillbeeverneartomyheart。Icannotrecalltomind，withoutthesweetestemotions，thememoryofthatvirtuouscitizen，towhomIowemybeing，andbywhomIwasofteninstructed，inmyinfancy，intherespectwhichisduetoyou。Iseehimstill，livingbytheworkofhishands，andfeedinghissoulonthesublimesttruths。IseetheworksofTacitus，Plutarch，andGrotiuslyingbeforehiminthemidstofthetoolsofhistrade。Athissidestandshisdearson，receiving，alaswithtoolittleprofit，thetenderinstructionsofthebestoffathers。But，ifthefolliesofyouthmademeforawhileforgethiswiselessons，I
haveatlengththehappinesstobeconsciousthat，whateverpropensityonemayhavetovice，itisnoteasyforaneducation，withwhichlovehasmingled，tobeentirelythrownaway。
Such，mymosthonourableandmagnificentlords，arethecitizens，andeventhecommoninhabitantsoftheStatewhichyougovern;sucharethoseintelligentandsensiblemen，ofwhom，underthenameofworkmenandthepeople，itisusual，inothernations，tohavealowandfalseopinion。
Myfather，Iownwithpleasure，wasinnowaydistinguishedamonghisfellow-citizens。
Hewasonlysuchastheyallare;andyet，suchashewas，thereisnocountry，inwhichhisacquaintancewouldnothavebeencoveted，andcultivatedevenwithadvantagebymenofthehighestcharacter。Itwouldnotbecomeme，norisit，thankHeaven，atallnecessaryformetoremindyouoftheregardwhichsuchmenhavearighttoexpectoftheirmagistrates，towhomtheyareequalbothbyeducationandbytherightsofnatureandbirth，andinferioronly，bytheirownwill，bythatpreferencewhichtheyowetoyourmerit，and，forgivingyou，canclaimsomesortofacknowledgmentonyourside。ItiswithalivelysatisfactionIunderstandthatthegreatestcandourandcondescensionattend，inallyourbehaviourtowardsthem，onthatgravitywhichbecomestheministersofthelaw;andthatyousowellrepaythem，byyouresteemandattention，therespectandobediencewhichtheyowetoyou。Thisconductisnotonlyjustbutprudent;asithappilytendstoobliteratethememoryofmanyunhappyevents，whichoughttobeburiedineternaloblivion。Itisalsosomuchthemorejudicious，asittendstomakethisgenerousandequitablepeoplefindapleasureintheirduty;tomakethemnaturallylovetodoyouhonour，andtocausethosewhoarethemostzealousinthemaintenanceoftheirownrightstobeatthesametimethemostdisposedtorespectyours。
Itoughtnottobethoughtsurprisingthattherulersofacivilsocietyshouldhavethewelfareandgloryoftheircommunitiesatheart：butitisuncommonlyfortunateforthepeaceofmen，whenthosepersonswholookuponthemselvesasthemagistrates，orratherthemastersofamoreholyandsublimecountry，showsomelovefortheearthlycountrywhichmaintainsthem。Iamhappyinhavingitinmypowertomakesosingularanexceptioninourfavour，andtobeabletorank，amongitsbestcitizens，thosezealousdepositariesofthesacredarticlesoffaithestablishedbythelaws，thosevenerableshepherdsofsoulswhosepowerfulandcaptivatingeloquencearesomuchthebettercalculatedtobeartomen’sheartsthemaximsofthegospel，astheyarethemselvesthefirsttoputthemintopractice。AlltheworldknowsofthegreatsuccesswithwhichtheartofthepulpitiscultivatedatGeneva;butmenaresousedtohearingdivinespreachonethingandpractiseanother，thatfewhaveachanceofknowinghowfarthespiritofChristianity，holinessofmanners，severitytowardsthemselvesandindulgencetowardstheirneighbours，prevailthroughoutthewholebodyofourministers。Itis，perhaps，giventothecityofGenevaalone，toproducetheedifyingexampleofsoperfectaunionbetweenitsclergyandmenofletters。Itisingreatmeasureontheirwisdom，theirknownmoderation，andtheirzealfortheprosperityoftheStatethatIbuildmyhopesofitsperpetualtranquillity。Atthesametime，Inotice，withapleasuremingledwithsurpriseandveneration，howmuchtheydetestthefrightfulmaximsofthoseaccursedandbarbarousmen，ofwhomhistoryfurnishesuswithmorethanoneexample;who，inordertosupportthepretendedrightsofGod，thatistosaytheirowninterests，havebeensomuchthelessgreedyofhumanblood，astheyweremorehopefultheirowninparticularwouldbealwaysrespected。
ImustnotforgetthatprecioushalfoftheRepublic，whichmakesthehappinessoftheother;andwhosesweetnessandprudencepreserveitstranquillityandvirtue。AmiableandvirtuousdaughtersofGeneva，itwillbealwaysthelotofyoursextogovernours。Happyarewe，solongasyourchasteinfluence，solelyexercisedwithinthelimitsofconjugalunion，isexertedonlyforthegloryoftheStateandthehappinessofthepublic。ItwasthusthefemalesexcommandedatSparta;andthusyoudeservetocommandatGeneva。Whatmancanbesuchabarbarianastoresistthevoiceofhonourandreason，comingfromthelipsofanaffectionatewife？Whowouldnotdespisethevanitiesofluxury，onbeholdingthesimpleandmodestattirewhich，fromthelustreitderivesfromyou，seemsthemostfavourabletobeauty？Itisyourtasktoperpetuate，byyourinsinuatinginfluenceandyourinnocentandamiablerule，arespectforthelawsoftheState，andharmonyamongthecitizens。Itisyourstoreunitedividedfamiliesbyhappymarriages;and，aboveallthings，tocorrect，bythepersuasivesweetnessofyourlessonsandthemodestgracesofyourconversation，thoseextravagancieswhichouryoungpeoplepickupinothercountries，whence，insteadofmanyusefulthingsbywhichtheymightprofit，theybringhomehardlyanything，besidesapuerileairandaridiculousmanner，acquiredamongloosewomen，butanadmirationforIknownotwhatso-calledgrandeur，andpaltryrecompensesforbeingslaves，whichcannevercomeneartherealgreatnessofliberty。
Continue，therefore，alwaystobewhatyouare，thechasteguardiansofourmorals，andthesweetsecurityforourpeace，exertingoneveryoccasiontheprivilegesoftheheartandofnature，intheinterestsofdutyandvirtue。
IflattermyselfthatIshallneverbeprovedtohavebeenmistaken，inbuildingonsuchafoundationmyhopesofthegeneralhappinessofthecitizensandthegloryoftheRepublic。Itmustbeconfessed，however，thatwithalltheseadvantages，itwillnotshinewiththatlustre，bywhichtheeyesofmostmenaredazzled;apuerileandfataltasteforwhichisthemostmortalenemyofhappinessandliberty。
Letourdissoluteyouthseekelsewherelightpleasuresandlongrepentances。
Letourpretenderstotasteadmireelsewherethegrandeurofpalaces，thebeautyofequipages，sumptuousfurniture，thepompofpublicentertainments，andalltherefinementsofluxuryandeffeminacy。Genevaboastsnothingbutmen;suchasighthasneverthelessavalueofitsown，andthosewhohaveatasteforitarewellworththeadmirersofalltherest。
Deign，mosthonourable，magnificentandsovereignlords，toreceive，andwithequalgoodness，thisrespectfultestimonyoftheinterestItakeinyourcommonprosperity。And，ifIhavebeensounhappyastobeguiltyofanyindiscreettransportinthisglowingeffusionofmyheart，Ibeseechyoutopardonme，andtoattributeittothetenderaffectionofatruepatriot，andtotheardentandlegitimatezealofaman，whocanimagineforhimselfnogreaterfelicitythantoseeyouhappy。
Mosthonourable，magnificentandsovereignlords，Iam，withthemostprofoundrespect，Yourmosthumbleandobedientservantandfellow-citizen。J。J。ROUSSEAUChambéry，June12，1754Rousseau：OntheOriginofInequality：PrefacePREFACEOFallhumansciencesthemostusefulandmostimperfectappearstometobethatofmankind：andIwillventuretosay，thesingleinscriptionontheTempleofDelphicontainedapreceptmoredifficultandmoreimportantthanistobefoundinallthehugevolumesthatmoralistshaveeverwritten。Iconsiderthesubjectofthefollowingdiscourseasoneofthemostinterestingquestionsphilosophycanpropose，andunhappilyforus，oneofthemostthornythatphilosopherscanhavetosolve。Forhowshallweknowthesourceofinequalitybetweenmen，ifwedonotbeginbyknowingmankind？Andhowshallmanhopetoseehimselfasnaturemadehim，acrossallthechangeswhichthesuccessionofplaceandtimemusthaveproducedinhisoriginalconstitution？Howcanhedistinguishwhatisfundamentalinhisnaturefromthechangesandadditionswhichhiscircumstancesandtheadvanceshehasmadehaveintroducedtomodifyhisprimitivecondition？LikethestatueofGlaucus，whichwassodisfiguredbytime，seasandtempests，thatitlookedmorelikeawildbeastthanagod，thehumansoul，alteredinsocietybyathousandcausesperpetuallyrecurring，bytheacquisitionofamultitudeoftruthsanderrors，bythechangeshappeningtotheconstitutionofthebody，andbythecontinualjarringofthepassions，has，sotospeak，changedinappearance，soastobehardlyrecognisable。Insteadofabeing，actingconstantlyfromfixedandinvariableprinciples，insteadofthatcelestialandmajesticsimplicity，impressedonitbyitsdivineAuthor，wefindinitonlythefrightfulcontrastofpassionmistakingitselfforreason，andofunderstandinggrowndelirious。
Itisstillmorecruelthat，aseveryadvancemadebythehumanspeciesremovesitstillfartherfromitsprimitivestate，themorediscoverieswemake，themorewedepriveourselvesofthemeansofmakingthemostimportantofall。Thusitis，inonesense，byourverystudyofman，thattheknowledgeofhimisputoutofourpower。
Itiseasytoperceivethatitisinthesesuccessivechangesintheconstitutionofmanthatwemustlookfortheoriginofthosedifferenceswhichnowdistinguishmen，who，itisallowed，areasequalamongthemselvesasweretheanimalsofeverykind，beforephysicalcauseshadintroducedthosevarietieswhicharenowobservableamongsomeofthem。
Itis，infact，nottobeconceivedthattheseprimarychanges，howevertheymayhavearisen，couldhavealtered，allatonceandinthesamemanner，everyindividualofthespecies。Itisnaturaltothinkthat，whiletheconditionofsomeofthemgrewbetterorworse，andtheywereacquiringvariousgoodorbadqualitiesnotinherentintheirnature，therewereotherswhocontinuedalongertimeintheiroriginalcondition。Suchwasdoubtlessthefirstsourceoftheinequalityofmankind，whichitismucheasiertopointoutthusingeneralterms，thantoassignwithprecisiontoitsactualcauses。
LetnotmyreadersthereforeimaginethatIflattermyselfwithhavingseenwhatitappearstomesodifficulttodiscover。Ihavehereentereduponcertainarguments，andriskedsomeconjectures，lessinthehopeofsolvingthedifficulty，thanwithaviewtothrowingsomelightuponit，andreducingthequestiontoitsproperform。Othersmayeasilyproceedfartheronthesameroad，andyetnoonefinditveryeasytogettotheend。Foritisbynomeansalightundertakingtodistinguishproperlybetweenwhatisoriginalandwhatisartificialintheactualnatureofman，ortoformatrueideaofastatewhichnolongerexists，perhapsneverdidexist，andprobablyneverwillexist;andofwhich，itis，nevertheless，necessarytohavetrueideas，inordertoformaproperjudgmentofourpresentstate。Itrequires，indeed，morephilosophythancanbeimaginedtoenableanyonetodetermineexactlywhatprecautionsheoughttotake，inordertomakesolidobservationsonthissubject;anditappearstomethatagoodsolutionofthefollowingproblemwouldbenotunworthyoftheAristotlesandPlinysofthepresentage。Whatexperimentswouldhavetobemade，todiscoverthenaturalman？Andhowarethoseexperimentstobemadeinastateofsociety？
SofaramIfromundertakingtosolvethisproblem，thatIthinkIhavesufficientlyconsideredthesubject，toventuretodeclarebeforehandthatourgreatestphilosopherswouldnotbetoogoodtodirectsuchexperiments，andourmostpowerfulsovereignstomakethem。Suchacombinationwehaveverylittlereasontoexpect，especiallyattendedwiththeperseverance，orrathersuccessionofintelligenceandgoodwillnecessaryonbothsidestosuccess。
Theseinvestigations，whicharesodifficulttomake，andhavebeenhithertosolittlethoughtof，are，nevertheless，theonlymeansthatremainofobviatingamultitudeofdifficultieswhichdepriveusoftheknowledgeoftherealfoundationsofhumansociety。Itisthisignoranceofthenatureofman，whichcastssomuchuncertaintyandobscurityonthetruedefinitionofnaturalright：for，theideaofright，saysBurlamaqui，andmoreparticularlythatofnaturalright，areideasmanifestlyrelativetothenatureofman。
Itisthenfromthisverynatureitself，hegoeson，fromtheconstitutionandstateofman，thatwemustdeducethefirstprinciplesofthisscience。
Wecannotseewithoutsurpriseanddisgusthowlittleagreementthereisbetweenthedifferentauthorswhohavetreatedthisgreatsubject。Amongthemoreimportantwriterstherearescarcelytwoofthesamemindaboutit。Nottospeakoftheancientphilosophers，whoseemtohavedonetheirbestpurposelytocontradictoneanotheronthemostfundamentalprinciples，theRomanjuristssubjectedmanandtheotheranimalsindiscriminatelytothesamenaturallaw，becausetheyconsidered，underthatname，ratherthelawwhichnatureimposesonherselfthanthatwhichsheprescribestoothers;orratherbecauseoftheparticularacceptationofthetermlawamongthosejurists;whoseemonthisoccasiontohaveunderstoodnothingmorebyitthanthegeneralrelationsestablishedbynaturebetweenallanimatedbeings，fortheircommonpreservation。Themoderns，understanding，bythetermlaw，merelyaruleprescribedtoamoralbeing，thatistosayintelligent，freeandconsideredinhisrelationstootherbeings，consequentlyconfinethejurisdictionofnaturallawtoman，astheonlyanimalendowedwithreason。But，definingthislaw，eachafterhisownfashion，theyhaveestablisheditonsuchmetaphysicalprinciples，thatthereareveryfewpersonsamonguscapableofcomprehendingthem，muchlessofdiscoveringthemforthemselves。Sothatthedefinitionsoftheselearnedmen，alldifferingineverythingelse，agreeonlyinthis，thatitisimpossibletocomprehendthelawofnature，andconsequentlytoobeyit，withoutbeingaverysubtlecasuistandaprofoundmetaphysician。Allwhichisasmuchastosaythatmankindmusthaveemployed，intheestablishmentofsociety，acapacitywhichisacquiredonlywithgreatdifficulty，andbyveryfewpersons，eveninastateofsociety。
Knowingsolittleofnature，andagreeingsoillaboutthemeaningofthewordlaw，itwouldbedifficultforustofixonagooddefinitionofnaturallaw。Thusallthedefinitionswemeetwithinbooks，settingasidetheirdefectinpointofuniformity，haveyetanotherfault，inthattheyarederivedfrommanykindsofknowledge，whichmendonotpossessnaturally，andfromadvantagesofwhichtheycanhavenoideauntiltheyhavealreadydepartedfromthatstate。Modernwritersbeginbyinquiringwhatrulesitwouldbeexpedientformentoagreeonfortheircommoninterest，andthengivethenameofnaturallawtoacollectionoftheserules，withoutanyotherproofthanthegoodthatwouldresultfromtheirbeinguniversallypractised。Thisisundoubtedlyasimplewayofmakingdefinitions，andofexplainingthenatureofthingsbyalmostarbitraryconveniences。
Butaslongasweareignorantofthenaturalman，itisinvainforustoattempttodetermineeitherthelaworiginallyprescribedtohim，orthatwhichisbestadaptedtohisconstitution。Allwecanknowwithanycertaintyrespectingthislawisthat，ifitistobealaw，notonlythewillsofthoseitobligesmustbesensibleoftheirsubmissiontoit;
butalso，tobenatural，itmustcomedirectlyfromthevoiceofnature。
Throwingaside，therefore，allthosescientificbooks，whichteachusonlytoseemensuchastheyhavemadethemselves，andcontemplatingthefirstandmostsimpleoperationsofthehumansoul，IthinkIcanperceiveinittwoprinciplespriortoreason，oneofthemdeeplyinterestingusinourownwelfareandpreservation，andtheotherexcitinganaturalrepugnanceatseeinganyothersensiblebeing，andparticularlyanyofourownspecies，sufferpainordeath。Itisfromtheagreementandcombinationwhichtheunderstandingisinapositiontoestablishbetweenthesetwoprinciples，withoutitsbeingnecessarytointroducethatofsociability，thatalltherulesofnaturalrightappeartometobederived？ruleswhichourreasonisafterwardsobligedtoestablishonotherfoundations，whenbyitssuccessivedevelopmentsithasbeenledtosuppressnatureitself。
Inproceedingthus，weshallnotbeobligedtomakemanaphilosopherbeforeheisaman。Hisdutiestowardothersarenotdictatedtohimonlybythelaterlessonsofwisdom;and，solongashedoesnotresisttheinternalimpulseofcompassion，hewillneverhurtanyotherman，norevenanysentientbeing，exceptonthoselawfuloccasionsonwhichhisownpreservationisconcernedandheisobligedtogivehimselfthepreference。Bythismethodalsoweputanendtothetime-honoureddisputesconcerningtheparticipationofanimalsinnaturallaw：foritisclearthat，beingdestituteofintelligenceandliberty，theycannotrecognisethatlaw;astheypartake，however，insomemeasureofournature，inconsequenceofthesensibilitywithwhichtheyareendowed，theyoughttopartakeofnaturalright;sothatmankindissubjectedtoakindofobligationeventowardthebrutes。
Itappears，infact，thatifIamboundtodonoinjurytomyfellow-creatures，thisislessbecausetheyarerationalthanbecausetheyaresentientbeings：
andthisquality，beingcommonbothtomenandbeasts，oughttoentitlethelatteratleasttotheprivilegeofnotbeingwantonlyill-treatedbytheformer。
Theverystudyoftheoriginalman，ofhisrealwants，andthefundamentalprinciplesofhisduty，isbesidestheonlypropermethodwecanadopttoobviateallthedifficultieswhichtheoriginofmoralinequalitypresents，onthetruefoundationsofthebodypolitic，onthereciprocalrightsofitsmembers，andonmanyothersimilartopicsequallyimportantandobscure。
Ifwelookathumansocietywithacalmanddisinterestedeye，itseems，atfirst，toshowusonlytheviolenceofthepowerfulandtheoppressionoftheweak。Themindisshockedatthecrueltyoftheone，orisinducedtolamenttheblindnessoftheother;andasnothingislesspermanentinlifethanthoseexternalrelations，whicharemorefrequentlyproducedbyaccidentthanwisdom，andwhicharecalledweaknessorpower，richesorpoverty，allhumaninstitutionsseematfirstglancetobefoundedmerelyonbanksofshiftingsand。Itisonlybytakingacloserlook，andremovingthedustandsandthatsurroundtheedifice，thatweperceivetheimmovablebasisonwhichitisraised，andlearntorespectitsfoundations。Now，withoutaseriousstudyofman，hisnaturalfacultiesandtheirsuccessivedevelopment，weshallneverbeabletomakethesenecessarydistinctions，ortoseparate，intheactualconstitutionofthings，thatwhichistheeffectofthedivinewill，fromtheinnovationsattemptedbyhumanart。
Thepoliticalandmoralinvestigations，therefore，towhichtheimportantquestionbeforeusleads，areineveryrespectuseful;whilethehypotheticalhistoryofgovernmentsaffordsalessonequallyinstructivetomankind。
Inconsideringwhatweshouldhavebecome，hadwebeenlefttoourselves，weshouldlearntoblessHim，whosegracioushand，correctingourinstitutions，andgivingthemanimmovablebasis，haspreventedthosedisorderswhichwouldotherwisehavearisenfromthem，andcausedourhappinesstocomefromthoseverysourceswhichseemedlikelytoinvolveusinmisery。
Rousseau：OntheOriginofInequality：FirstPartADISSERTATION
ONTHEORIGINANDFOUNDATIONOF
THEINEQUALITYOFMANKINDITisofmanthatIhavetospeak;
andthequestionIaminvestigatingshowsmethatitistomenthatImustaddressmyself：forquestionsofthissortarenotaskedbythosewhoareafraidtohonourtruth。Ishallthenconfidentlyupholdthecauseofhumanitybeforethewisemenwhoinvitemetodoso，andshallnotbedissatisfiedifIacquitmyselfinamannerworthyofmysubjectandofmyjudges。
Iconceivethattherearetwokindsofinequalityamongthehumanspecies;
one，whichIcallnaturalorphysical，becauseitisestablishedbynature，andconsistsinadifferenceofage，health，bodilystrength，andthequalitiesofthemindorofthesoul：andanother，whichmaybecalledmoralorpoliticalinequality，becauseitdependsonakindofconvention，andisestablished，oratleastauthorisedbytheconsentofmen。Thislatterconsistsofthedifferentprivileges，whichsomemenenjoytotheprejudiceofothers;
suchasthatofbeingmorerich，morehonoured，morepowerfuloreveninapositiontoexactobedience。
Itisuselesstoaskwhatisthesourceofnaturalinequality，becausethatquestionisansweredbythesimpledefinitionoftheword。Again，itisstillmoreuselesstoinquirewhetherthereisanyessentialconnectionbetweenthetwoinequalities;forthiswouldbeonlyasking，inotherwords，whetherthosewhocommandarenecessarilybetterthanthosewhoobey，andifstrengthofbodyorofmind，wisdomorvirtuearealwaysfoundinparticularindividuals，inproportiontotheirpowerorwealth：aquestionfitperhapstobediscussedbyslavesinthehearingoftheirmasters，buthighlyunbecomingtoreasonableandfreemeninsearchofthetruth。
Thesubjectofthepresentdiscourse，therefore，ismorepreciselythis。
Tomark，intheprogressofthings，themomentatwhichrighttooktheplaceofviolenceandnaturebecamesubjecttolaw，andtoexplainbywhatsequenceofmiraclesthestrongcametosubmittoservetheweak，andthepeopletopurchaseimaginaryreposeattheexpenseofrealfelicity。
Thephilosophers，whohaveinquiredintothefoundationsofsociety，haveallfeltthenecessityofgoingbacktoastateofnature;butnotoneofthemhasgotthere。Someofthemhavenothesitatedtoascribetoman，insuchastate，theideaofjustandunjust，withouttroublingthemselvestoshowthathemustbepossessedofsuchanidea，orthatitcouldbeofanyusetohim。Othershavespokenofthenaturalrightofeverymantokeepwhatbelongstohim，withoutexplainingwhattheymeantbybelongs。
Othersagain，beginningbygivingthestrongauthorityovertheweak，proceededdirectlytothebirthofgovernment，withoutregardtothetimethatmusthaveelapsedbeforethemeaningofthewordsauthorityandgovernmentcouldhaveexistedamongmen。Everyoneofthem，inshort，constantlydwellingonwants，avidity，oppression，desiresandpride，hastransferredtothestateofnatureideaswhichwereacquiredinsociety;sothat，inspeakingofthesavage，theydescribedthesocialman。Ithasnotevenenteredintotheheadsofmostofourwriterstodoubtwhetherthestateofnatureeverexisted;butitisclearfromtheHolyScripturesthatthefirstman，havingreceivedhisunderstandingandcommandmentsimmediatelyfromGod，wasnothimselfinsuchastate;andthat，ifwegivesuchcredittothewritingsofMosesaseveryChristianphilosopheroughttogive，wemustdenythat，evenbeforethedeluge，menwereeverinthepurestateofnature;unless，indeed，theyfellbackintoitfromsomeveryextraordinarycircumstance;
aparadoxwhichitwouldbeveryembarrassingtodefend，andquiteimpossibletoprove。
Letusbeginthenbylayingfactsaside，astheydonotaffectthequestion。
Theinvestigationswemayenterinto，intreatingthissubject，mustnotbeconsideredashistoricaltruths，butonlyasmereconditionalandhypotheticalreasonings，rathercalculatedtoexplainthenatureofthings，thantoascertaintheiractualorigin;justlikethehypotheseswhichourphysicistsdailyformrespectingtheformationoftheworld。Religioncommandsustobelievethat，GodHimselfhavingtakenmenoutofastateofnatureimmediatelyafterthecreation，theyareunequalonlybecauseitisHiswilltheyshouldbeso：butitdoesnotforbidustoformconjecturesbasedsolelyonthenatureofman，andthebeingsaroundhim，concerningwhatmighthavebecomeofthehumanrace，ifithadbeenlefttoitself。Thisthenisthequestionaskedme，andthatwhichIproposetodiscussinthefollowingdiscourse。Asmysubjectinterestsmankindingeneral，Ishallendeavourtomakeuseofastyleadaptedtoallnations，orrather，forgettingtimeandplace，toattendonlytomentowhomIamspeaking。IshallsupposemyselfintheLyceumofAthens，repeatingthelessonsofmymasters，withPlatoandXenocratesforjudges，andthewholehumanraceforaudience。
Oman，ofwhatevercountryyouare，andwhateveryouropinionsmaybe，beholdyourhistory，suchasIhavethoughttoreadit，notinbookswrittenbyyourfellow-creatures，whoareliars，butinnature，whichneverlies。
Allthatcomesfromherwillbetrue;norwillyoumeetwithanythingfalse，unlessIhaveinvoluntarilyputinsomethingofmyown。ThetimesofwhichIamgoingtospeakareveryremote：howmuchareyouchangedfromwhatyouoncewere！Itis，sotospeak，thelifeofyourspecieswhichIamgoingtowrite，afterthequalitieswhichyouhavereceived，whichyoureducationandhabitsmayhavedepraved，butcannothaveentirelydestroyed。
Thereis，Ifeel，anageatwhichtheindividualmanwouldwishtostop：
youareabouttoinquireabouttheageatwhichyouwouldhavelikedyourwholespeciestostandstill。Discontentedwithyourpresentstate，forreasonswhichthreatenyourunfortunatedescendantswithstillgreaterdiscontent，youwillperhapswishitwereinyourpowertogoback;andthisfeelingshouldbeapanegyriconyourfirstancestors，acriticismofyourcontemporaries，andaterrortotheunfortunateswhowillcomeafteryou。THEFIRSTPARTIMPORTANTasitmaybe，inordertojudgerightlyofthenaturalstateofman，toconsiderhimfromhisorigin，andtoexaminehim，asitwere，intheembryoofhisspecies;I
shallnotfollowhisorganisationthroughitssuccessivedevelopments，norshallIstaytoinquirewhathisanimalsystemmusthavebeenatthebeginning，inordertobecomeatlengthwhatitactuallyis。Ishallnotaskwhetherhislongnailswereatfirst，asAristotlesupposes，onlycrookedtalons;whetherhiswholebody，likethatofabear，wasnotcoveredwithhair;orwhetherthefactthathewalkeduponallfours，withhislooksdirectedtowardtheearth，confinedtoahorizonofafewpaces，didnotatoncepointoutthenatureandlimitsofhisideas。OnthissubjectI
couldformnonebutvagueandalmostimaginaryconjectures。Comparativeanatomyhasasyetmadetoolittleprogress，andtheobservationsofnaturalistsaretoouncertaintoaffordanadequatebasisforanysolidreasoning。
Sothat，withouthavingrecoursetothesupernaturalinformationgivenusonthishead，orpayinganyregardtothechangeswhichmusthavetakenplaceintheinternal，aswellastheexternal，conformationofman，asheappliedhislimbstonewuses，andfedhimselfonnewkindsoffood，Ishallsupposehisconformationtohavebeenatalltimeswhatitappearstousatthisday;thathealwayswalkedontwolegs，madeuseofhishandsaswedo，directedhislooksoverallnature，andmeasuredwithhiseyesthevastexpanseofHeaven。
Ifwestripthisbeing，thusconstituted，ofallthesupernaturalgiftshemayhavereceived，andalltheartificialfacultieshecanhaveacquiredonlybyalongprocess;ifweconsiderhim，inaword，justashemusthavecomefromthehandsofnature，webeholdinhimananimalweakerthansome，andlessagilethanothers;but，takinghimallround，themostadvantageouslyorganisedofany。Iseehimsatisfyinghishungeratthefirstoak，andslakinghisthirstatthefirstbrook;findinghisbedatthefootofthetreewhichaffordedhimarepast;and，withthat，allhiswantssupplied。
Whiletheearthwaslefttoitsnaturalfertilityandcoveredwithimmenseforests，whosetreeswerenevermutilatedbytheaxe，itwouldpresentoneverysidebothsustenanceandshelterforeveryspeciesofanimal。
Men，dispersedupanddownamongtherest，wouldobserveandimitatetheirindustry，andthusattaineventotheinstinctofthebeasts，withtheadvantagethat，whereaseveryspeciesofbruteswasconfinedtooneparticularinstinct，man，whoperhapshasnotanyonepeculiartohimself，wouldappropriatethemall，andliveuponmostofthosedifferentfoodswhichotheranimalssharedamongthemselves;andthuswouldfindhissubsistencemuchmoreeasilythananyoftherest。
Accustomedfromtheirinfancytotheinclemenciesoftheweatherandtherigouroftheseasons，inuredtofatigue，andforced，nakedandunarmed，todefendthemselvesandtheirpreyfromotherferociousanimals，ortoescapethembyflight，menwouldacquirearobustandalmostunalterableconstitution。Thechildren，bringingwiththemintotheworldtheexcellentconstitutionoftheirparents，andfortifyingitbytheveryexerciseswhichfirstproducedit，wouldthusacquireallthevigourofwhichthehumanframeiscapable。NatureinthiscasetreatsthemexactlyasSpartatreatedthechildrenofhercitizens：thosewhocomewellformedintotheworldsherendersstrongandrobust，andalltherestshedestroys;differinginthisrespectfromourmoderncommunities，inwhichtheState，bymakingchildrenaburdentotheirparents，killsthemindiscriminatelybeforetheyareborn。
Thebodyofasavagemanbeingtheonlyinstrumentheunderstands，heusesitforvariouspurposes，ofwhichours，forwantofpractice，areincapable：forourindustrydeprivesusofthatforceandagility，whichnecessityobligeshimtoacquire。Ifhehadhadanaxe，wouldhehavebeenablewithhisnakedarmtobreaksolargeabranchfromatree？Ifhehadhadasling，wouldhehavebeenabletothrowastonewithsogreatvelocity？
Ifhehadhadaladder，wouldhehavebeensonimbleinclimbingatree？
Ifhehadhadahorse，wouldhehavebeenhimselfsoswiftoffoot？Givecivilisedmantimetogatherallhismachinesabouthim，andhewillnodoubteasilybeatthesavage;butifyouwouldseeastillmoreunequalcontest，setthemtogethernakedandunarmed，andyouwillsoonseetheadvantageofhavingallourforcesconstantlyatourdisposal，ofbeingalwayspreparedforeveryevent，andofcarryingone’sself，asitwere，perpetuallywholeandentireaboutone。
Hobbescontendsthatmanisnaturallyintrepid，andisintentonlyuponattackingandfighting。Anotherillustriousphilosopherholdstheopposite，andCumberlandandPuffendorfalsoaffirmthatnothingismoretimidandfearfulthanmaninthestateofnature;thatheisalwaysinatremble，andreadytoflyattheleastnoiseortheslightestmovement。Thismaybetrueofthingshedoesnotknow;andIdonotdoubthisbeingterrifiedbyeverynoveltythatpresentsitself，whenheneitherknowsthephysicalgoodorevilhemayexpectfromit，norcanmakeacomparisonbetweenhisownstrengthandthedangersheisabouttoencounter。Suchcircumstances，however，rarelyoccurinastateofnature，inwhichallthingsproceedinauniformmanner，andthefaceoftheearthisnotsubjecttothosesuddenandcontinualchangeswhicharisefromthepassionsandcapricesofbodiesofmenlivingtogether。Butsavageman，livingdispersedamongotheranimals，andfindinghimselfbetimesinasituationtomeasurehisstrengthwiththeirs，sooncomestocomparehimselfwiththem;and，perceivingthathesurpassesthemmoreinadroitnessthantheysurpasshiminstrength，learnstobenolongerafraidofthem。Setabear，orawolf，againstarobust，agile，andresolutesavage，astheyallare，armedwithstonesandagoodcudgel，andyouwillseethatthedangerwillbeatleastonbothsides，andthat，afterafewtrialsofthiskind，wildbeasts，whicharenotfondofattackingeachother，willnotbeatallreadytoattackman，whomtheywillhavefoundtobeaswildandferociousasthemselves。
Withregardtosuchanimalsashavereallymorestrengththanmanhasadroitness，heisinthesamesituationasallweakeranimals，whichnotwithstandingarestillabletosubsist;exceptindeedthathehastheadvantagethat，beingequallyswiftoffoot，andfindinganalmostcertainplaceofrefugeineverytree，heisatlibertytotakeorleaveitateveryencounter，andthustofightorfly，ashechooses。Addtothisthatitdoesnotappearthatanyanimalnaturallymakeswaronman，exceptincaseofself-defenceorexcessivehunger，orbetraysanyofthoseviolentantipathies，whichseemtoindicatethatonespeciesisintendedbynatureforthefoodofanother。