Societyconsistedatfirstmerelyofafewgeneralconventions，whicheverymemberboundhimselftoobserve;andfortheperformanceofcovenantsthewholebodywentsecuritytoeachindividual。Experienceonlycouldshowtheweaknessofsuchaconstitution，andhoweasilyitmightbeinfringedwithimpunity，fromthedifficultyofconvictingmenoffaults，wherethepublicalonewastobewitnessandjudge：thelawscouldnotbutbeeludedinmanyways;disordersandinconveniencescouldnotbutmultiplycontinually，tillitbecamenecessarytocommitthedangeroustrustofpublicauthoritytoprivatepersons，andthecareofenforcingobediencetothedeliberationsofthepeopletothemagistrate。Fortosaythatchiefswerechosenbeforetheconfederacywasformed，andthattheadministratorsofthelawsweretherebeforethelawsthemselves，istooabsurdasuppositiontoconsiderseriously。
Itwouldbeasunreasonabletosupposethatmenatfirstthrewthemselvesirretrievablyandunconditionallyintothearmsofanabsolutemaster，andthatthefirstexpedientwhichproudandunsubduedmenhituponfortheircommonsecuritywastorunheadlongintoslavery。Forwhatreason，infact，didtheytaketothemselvessuperiors，ifitwasnotinorderthattheymightbedefendedfromoppression，andhaveprotectionfortheirlives，libertiesandproperties，whichare，sotospeak，theconstituentelementsoftheirbeing？Now，intherelationsbetweenmanandman，theworstthatcanhappenisforonetofindhimselfatthemercyofanother，anditwouldhavebeeninconsistentwithcommon-sensetobeginbybestowingonachieftheonlythingstheywantedhishelptopreserve。Whatequivalentcouldheofferthemforsogreataright？Andifhehadpresumedtoexactitunderpretextofdefendingthem，wouldhenothavereceivedtheanswerrecordedinthefable：\"Whatmorecantheenemydotous？\"Itisthereforebeyonddispute，andindeedthefundamentalmaximofallpoliticalright，thatpeoplehavesetupchiefstoprotecttheirliberty，andnottoenslavethem。Ifwehaveaprince，saidPlinytoTrajan，itistosaveourselvesfromhavingamaster。
Politiciansindulgeinthesamesophistryabouttheloveoflibertyasphilosophersaboutthestateofnature。Theyjudge，bywhattheysee，ofverydifferentthings，whichtheyhavenotseen;andattributetomananaturalpropensitytoservitude，becausetheslaveswithintheirobservationareseentobeartheyokewithpatience;theyfailtoreflectthatitiswithlibertyaswithinnocenceandvirtue;thevalueisknownonlytothosewhopossessthem，andthetasteforthemisforfeitedwhentheyareforfeitedthemselves。\"Iknowthecharmsofyourcountry，\"saidBrasidastoasatrap，whowascomparingthelifeatSpartawiththatatPersepolis，\"butyoucannotknowthepleasuresofmine。\"
Anunbrokenhorseerectshismane，pawsthegroundandstartsbackimpetuouslyatthesightofthebridle;whileonewhichisproperlytrainedsufferspatientlyevenwhipandspur：sosavagemanwillnotbendhisnecktotheyoketowhichcivilisedmansubmitswithoutamurmur，butprefersthemostturbulentstateoflibertytothemostpeacefulslavery。Wecannottherefore，fromtheservilityofnationsalreadyenslaved，judgeofthenaturaldispositionofmankindfororagainstslavery;weshouldgobytheprodigiouseffortsofeveryfreepeopletosaveitselffromoppression。Iknowthattheformerareforeverholdingforthinpraiseofthetranquillitytheyenjoyintheirchains，andthattheycallastateofwretchedservitudeastateofpeace：miserrimamservitutempacemappellant。6ButwhenIobservethelattersacrificingpleasure，peace，wealth，powerandlifeitselftothepreservationofthatonetreasure，whichissodisdainedbythosewhohavelostit;whenIseefree-bornanimalsdashtheirbrainsoutagainstthebarsoftheircage，fromaninnateimpatienceofcaptivity;
whenIbeholdnumbersofnakedsavages，thatdespiseEuropeanpleasures，bravinghunger，fire，theswordanddeath，topreservenothingbuttheirindependence，Ifeelthatitisnotforslavestoargueaboutliberty。
Withregardtopaternalauthority，fromwhichsomewritershavederivedabsolutegovernmentandallsociety，itisenough，withoutgoingbacktothecontraryargumentsofLockeandSidney，toremarkthatnothingonearthcanbefurtherfromtheferociousspiritofdespotismthanthemildnessofthatauthoritywhichlooksmoretotheadvantageofhimwhoobeysthantothatofhimwhocommands;that，bythelawofnature，thefatheristhechild’smasternolongerthanhishelpisnecessary;thatfromthattimetheyarebothequal，thesonbeingperfectlyindependentofthefather，andowinghimonlyrespectandnotobedience。Forgratitudeisadutywhichoughttobepaid，butnotarighttobeexacted：insteadofsayingthatcivilsocietyisderivedfrompaternalauthority，weoughttosayratherthatthelatterderivesitsprincipalforcefromtheformer。Noindividualwaseveracknowledgedasthefatherofmany，tillhissonsanddaughtersremainedsettledaroundhim。Thegoodsofthefather，ofwhichheisreallythemaster，arethetieswhichkeephischildrenindependence，andhemaybestowonthem，ifhepleases，noshareofhisproperty，unlesstheymerititbyconstantdeferencetohiswill。Butthesubjectsofanarbitrarydespotaresofarfromhavingthelikefavourtoexpectfromtheirchief，thattheythemselvesandeverythingtheypossessarehisproperty，oratleastareconsideredbyhimassuch;sothattheyareforcedtoreceive，asafavour，thelittleoftheirownheispleasedtoleavethem。Whenhedespoilsthem，hedoesbutjustice，andmercyinthathepermitsthemtolive。
Byproceedingthustotestfactbyright，weshoulddiscoveraslittlereasonastruthinthevoluntaryestablishmentoftyranny。Itwouldalsobenoeasymattertoprovethevalidityofacontractbindingononlyoneoftheparties，wherealltheriskisononeside，andnoneontheother;
sothatnoonecouldsufferbuthewhoboundhimself。Thishatefulsystemisindeed，eveninmoderntimes，veryfarfrombeingthatofwiseandgoodmonarchs，andespeciallyofthekingsofFrance;asmaybeseenfromseveralpassagesintheiredicts;particularlyfromthefollowingpassageinacelebratededictpublishedin1667inthenameandbyorderofLouisXIV。
\"Letitnot，therefore，besaidthattheSovereignisnotsubjecttothelawsofhisState;sincethecontraryisatruepropositionoftherightofnations，whichflatteryhassometimesattackedbutgoodprinceshavealwaysdefendedasthetutelarydivinityoftheirdominions。HowmuchmorelegitimateisittosaywiththewisePlato，thattheperfectfelicityofakingdomconsistsintheobedienceofsubjectstotheirprince，andoftheprincetothelaws，andinthelawsbeingjustandconstantlydirectedtothepublicgood！\"7
Ishallnotstayheretoinquirewhether，aslibertyisthenoblestfacultyofman，itisnotdegradingourverynature，reducingourselvestothelevelofthebrutes，whicharemereslavesofinstinct，andevenanaffronttotheAuthorofourbeing，torenouncewithoutreservethemostpreciousofallHisgifts，andtobowtothenecessityofcommittingallthecrimesHehasforbidden，merelytogratifyamadoracruelmaster;
orifthissublimecraftsmanoughtnottobelessangeredatseeingHisworkmanshipentirelydestroyedthanthusdishonoured。Iwillwaive（ifmyopponentsplease）theauthorityofBarbeyrac，who，followingLocke，roundlydeclaresthatnomancansofarsellhislibertyastosubmittoanarbitrarypowerwhichmayusehimasitlikes。For，headds，thiswouldbetosellhisownlife，ofwhichheisnotmaster。I
shallaskonlywhatrightthosewhowerenotafraidthustodebasethemselvescouldhavetosubjecttheirposteritytothesameignominy，andtorenounceforthemthoseblessingswhichtheydonotowetotheliberalityoftheirprogenitors，andwithoutwhichlifeitselfmustbeaburdentoallwhoareworthyofit。
Puffendorfsaysthatwemaydivestourselvesofourlibertyinfavourofothermen，justaswetransferourpropertyfromonetoanotherbycontractsandagreements。Butthisseemsaveryweakargument。Forinthefirstplace，thepropertyIalienatebecomesquiteforeigntome，norcanIsufferfromtheabuseofit;butitverynearlyconcernsmethatmylibertyshouldnotbeabused，andIcannotwithoutincurringtheguiltofthecrimesI
maybecompelledtocommit，exposemyselftobecomeaninstrumentofcrime。
Besides，therightofpropertybeingonlyaconventionofhumaninstitution，menmaydisposeofwhattheypossessastheyplease：butthisisnotthecasewiththeessentialgiftsofnature，suchaslifeandliberty，whicheverymanispermittedtoenjoy，andofwhichitisatleastdoubtfulwhetheranyhavearighttodivestthemselves。Bygivinguptheone，wedegradeourbeing;bygivinguptheother，wedoourbesttoannulit;and，asnotemporalgoodcanindemnifyusforthelossofeither，itwouldbeanoffenceagainstbothreasonandnaturetorenouncethematanypricewhatsoever。
But，evenifwecouldtransferourliberty，aswedoourproperty，therewouldbeagreatdifferencewithregardtothechildren，whoenjoythefather’ssubstanceonlybythetransmissionofhisright;whereas，libertybeingagiftwhichtheyholdfromnatureasbeingmen，theirparentshavenorightwhatevertodeprivethemofit。Asthen，toestablishslavery，itwasnecessarytodoviolencetonature，so，inordertoperpetuatesucharight，naturewouldhavetobechanged。Jurists，whohavegravelydeterminedthatthechildofaslavecomesintotheworldaslave，havedecided，inotherwords，thatamanshallcomeintotheworldnotaman。
Iregarditthenascertain，thatgovernmentdidnotbeginwitharbitrarypower，butthatthisisthedepravation，theextremeterm，ofgovernment，andbringsitback，finally，tojustthelawofthestrongest，whichitwasoriginallydesignedtoremedy。Supposing，however，ithadbeguninthismanner，suchpower，beinginitselfillegitimate，couldnothaveservedasabasisforthelawsofsociety，nor，consequently，fortheinequalitytheyinstituted。
Withoutenteringatpresentupontheinvestigationswhichstillremaintobemadeintothenatureofthefundamentalcompactunderlyingallgovernment，Icontentmyselfwithadoptingthecommonopinionconcerningit，andregardtheestablishmentofthepoliticalbodyasarealcontractbetweenthepeopleandthechiefschosenbythem：acontractbywhichbothpartiesbindthemselvestoobservethelawsthereinexpressed，whichformthetiesoftheirunion。Thepeoplehavinginrespectoftheirsocialrelationsconcentratedalltheirwillsinone，theseveralarticles，concerningwhichthiswillisexplained，becomesomanyfundamentallaws，obligatoryonallthemembersoftheStatewithoutexception，andoneofthesearticlesregulatesthechoiceandpowerofthemagistratesappointedtowatchovertheexecutionoftherest。Thispowerextendstoeverythingwhichmaymaintaintheconstitution，withoutgoingsofarastoalterit。Itisaccompaniedbyhonours，inordertobringthelawsandtheiradministratorsintorespect。
Theministersarealsodistinguishedbypersonalprerogatives，inordertorecompensethemforthecaresandlabourwhichgoodadministrationinvolves。
Themagistrate，onhisside，bindshimselftousethepowerheisentrustedwithonlyinconformitywiththeintentionofhisconstituents，tomaintainthemallinthepeaceablepossessionofwhatbelongstothem，andtopreferoneveryoccasionthepublicinteresttohisown。
Beforeexperiencehadshown，orknowledgeofthehumanheartenabledmentoforesee，theunavoidableabusesofsuchaconstitution，itmusthaveappearedsomuchthemoreexcellent，asthosewhowerechargedwiththecareofitspreservationhadthemselvesmostinterestinit;formagistracyandtherightsattachingtoitbeingbasedsolelyonthefundamentallaws，themagistrateswouldceasetobelegitimateassoonastheseceasedtoexist;thepeoplewouldnolongerowethemobedience;andasnotthemagistrates，butthelaws，areessentialtothebeingofaState，themembersofitwouldregaintherighttotheirnaturalliberty。
Ifwereflectwitheversolittleattentiononthissubject，weshallfindnewargumentstoconfirmthistruth，andbeconvincedfromtheverynatureofthecontractthatitcannotbeirrevocable：for，iftherewerenosuperiorpowercapableofensuringthefidelityofthecontractingparties，orcompellingthemtoperformtheirreciprocalengagements，thepartieswouldbesolejudgesintheirowncause，andeachwouldalwayshavearighttorenouncethecontract，assoonashefoundthattheotherhadviolateditsterms，orthattheynolongersuitedhisconvenience。Itisuponthisprinciplethattherightofabdicationmaypossiblybefounded。Now，if，ashere，weconsideronlywhatishumaninthisinstitution，itiscertainthat，ifthemagistrate，whohasallthepowerinhisownhands，andappropriatestohimselfalltheadvantagesofthecontract，hasnonethelessarighttorenouncehisauthority，thepeople，whosufferforallthefaultsoftheirchief，musthaveamuchbetterrighttorenouncetheirdependence。
Buttheterribleandinnumerablequarrelsanddisordersthatwouldnecessarilyarisefromsodangerousaprivilege，show，morethananythingelse，howmuchhumangovernmentstoodinneedofamoresolidbasisthanmerereason，andhowexpedientitwasforthepublictranquillitythatthedivinewillshouldinterposetoinvestthesovereignauthoritywithasacredandinviolablecharacter，whichmightdeprivesubjectsofthefatalrightofdisposingofit。Iftheworldhadreceivednootheradvantagesfromreligion，thiswouldbeenoughtoimposeonmenthedutyofadoptingandcultivatingit，abusesandall，sinceithasbeenthemeansofsavingmorebloodthanfanaticismhaseverspilt。Butletusfollowthethreadofourhypothesis。
Thedifferentformsofgovernmentowetheirorigintothedifferingdegreesofinequalitywhichexistedbetweenindividualsatthetimeoftheirinstitution。Iftherehappenedtobeanyonemanamongthempre-eminentinpower，virtue，richesorpersonalinfluence，hebecamesolemagistrate，andtheStateassumedtheformofmonarchy。Ifseveral，nearlyequalinpointofeminence，stoodabovetherest，theywereelectedjointly，andformedanaristocracy。Again，amongapeoplewhohaddeviatedlessfromastateofnature，andbetweenwhosefortuneortalentstherewaslessdisproportion，thesupremeadministrationwasretainedincommon，andademocracywasformed。Itwasdiscoveredinprocessoftimewhichoftheseformssuitedmenthebest。Somepeoplesremainedaltogethersubjecttothelaws;otherssooncametoobeytheirmagistrates。Thecitizenslabouredtopreservetheirliberty;thesubjects，irritatedatseeingothersenjoyingablessingtheyhadlost，thoughtonlyofmakingslavesoftheirneighbours。
Inaword，ontheonesidearoserichesandconquests，andontheotherhappinessandvirtue。
Inthesedifferentgovernments，alltheofficeswereatfirstelective;
andwhentheinfluenceofwealthwasoutofthequestion，thepreferencewasgiventomerit，whichgivesanaturalascendancy，andtoage，whichisexperiencedinbusinessanddeliberateincouncil。TheEldersoftheHebrews，theGerontesatSparta，theSenateatRome，andtheveryetymologyofourwordSeigneur，showhowoldagewasonceheldinveneration。Butthemoreoftenthechoicefelluponoldmen，themoreoftenelectionshadtoberepeated，andthemoretheybecameanuisance;intriguessetin，factionswereformed，partyfeelinggrewbitter，civilwarsbrokeout;
thelivesofindividualsweresacrificedtothepretendedhappinessoftheState;andatlengthmenwereonthepointofrelapsingintotheirprimitiveanarchy。Ambitiouschiefsprofitedbythesecircumstancestoperpetuatetheirofficesintheirownfamilies：atthesametimethepeople，alreadyusedtodependence，ease，andtheconveniencesoflife，andalreadyincapableofbreakingitsfetters，agreedtoanincreaseofitsslavery，inordertosecureitstranquillity。Thusmagistrates，havingbecomehereditary，contractedthehabitofconsideringtheirofficesasafamilyestate，andthemselvesasproprietorsofthecommunitiesofwhichtheywereatfirstonlytheofficers，ofregardingtheirfellow-citizensastheirslaves，andnumberingthem，likecattle，amongtheirbelongings，andofcallingthemselvestheequalsofthegodsandkingsofkings。
Ifwefollowtheprogressofinequalityinthesevariousrevolutions，weshallfindthattheestablishmentoflawsandoftherightofpropertywasitsfirstterm，theinstitutionofmagistracythesecond，andtheconversionoflegitimateintoarbitrarypowerthethirdandlast;sothattheconditionofrichandpoorwasauthorisedbythefirstperiod;thatofpowerfulandweakbythesecond;andonlybythethirdthatofmasterandslave，whichisthelastdegreeofinequality，andthetermatwhichalltherestremain，whentheyhavegotsofar，tillthegovernmentiseitherentirelydissolvedbynewrevolutions，orbroughtbackagaintolegitimacy。
Tounderstandthisprogressasnecessarywemustconsidernotsomuchthemotivesfortheestablishmentofthebodypolitic，astheformsitassumesinactuality，andthefaultsthatnecessarilyattendit：fortheflawswhichmakesocialinstitutionsnecessaryarethesameasmaketheabuseofthemunavoidable。IfweexceptSparta，wherethelawsweremainlyconcernedwiththeeducationofchildren，andwhereLycurgusestablishedsuchmoralityaspracticallymadelawsneedles？forlawsasarule，beingweakerthanthepassions，restrainmenwithoutalteringthem？itwouldnotbedifficulttoprovethateverygovernment，whichscrupulouslycompliedwiththeendsforwhichitwasinstituted，andguardedcarefullyagainstchangeandcorruption，wassetupunnecessarily。Foracountry，inwhichnooneeitherevadedthelawsormadeabaduseofmagisterialpower，couldrequireneitherlawsnormagistrates。
Politicaldistinctionsnecessarilyproducecivildistinctions。Thegrowingequalitybetweenthechiefsandthepeopleissoonfeltbyindividuals，andmodifiedinathousandwaysaccordingtopassions，talentsandcircumstances。
Themagistratecouldnotusurpanyillegitimatepower，withoutgivingdistinctiontothecreatureswithwhomhemustshareit。Besides，individualsonlyallowthemselvestobeoppressedsofarastheyarehurriedonbyblindambition，and，lookingratherbelowthanabovethem，cometoloveauthoritymorethanindependence，andsubmittoslavery，thattheymayinturnenslaveothers。Itisnoeasymattertoreducetoobedienceamanwhohasnoambitiontocommand;norwouldthemostadroitpoliticianfinditpossibletoenslaveapeoplewhoseonlydesirewastobeindependent。Butinequalityeasilymakesitswayamongcowardlyandambitiousminds，whichareeverreadytoruntherisksoffortune，andalmostindifferentwhethertheycommandorobey，asitisfavourableoradverse。Thus，theremusthavebeenatime，whentheeyesofthepeopleweresofascinated，thattheirruleshadonlytosaytotheleastofmen，\"Begreat，youandallyourposterity，\"tomakehimimmediatelyappeargreatintheeyesofeveryoneaswellasinhisown。Hisdescendantstookstillmoreuponthem，inproportiontotheirdistancefromhim;themoreobscureanduncertainthecause，thegreatertheeffect：thegreaterthenumberofidlersonecouldcountinafamily，themoreillustriousitwasheldtobe。
Ifthisweretheplacetogointodetails，Icouldreadilyexplainhow，evenwithouttheinterventionofgovernment，inequalityofcreditandauthoritybecameunavoidableamongprivatepersons，assoonastheirunioninasinglesocietymadethemcomparethemselvesonewithanother，andtakeintoaccountthedifferenceswhichtheyfoundoutfromthecontinualintercourseeverymanhadtohavewithhisneighbours。8Thesedifferencesareofseveralkinds;butriches，nobilityorrank，powerandpersonalmeritbeingtheprincipaldistinctionsbywhichmenformanestimateofeachotherinsociety，IcouldprovethattheharmonyorconflictofthesedifferentforcesisthesurestindicationofthegoodorbadconstitutionofaState。Icouldshowthatamongthesefourkindsofinequality，personalqualitiesbeingtheoriginofalltheothers，wealthistheonetowhichtheyareallreducedintheend;for，asrichestendmostimmediatelytotheprosperityofindividuals，andareeasiesttocommunicate，theyareusedtopurchaseeveryotherdistinction。Bythisobservationweareenabledtojudgeprettyexactlyhowfarapeoplehasdepartedfromitsprimitiveconstitution，andofitsprogresstowardstheextremetermofcorruption。
Icouldexplainhowmuchthisuniversaldesireforreputation，honoursandadvancement，whichinflamesusall，exercisesandholdsuptocomparisonourfacultiesandpowers;howitexcitesandmultipliesourpassions，and，bycreatinguniversalcompetitionandrivalry，orratherenmity，amongmen，occasionsnumberlessfailures，successesanddisturbancesofallkindsbymakingsomanyaspirantsrunthesamecourse。Icouldshowthatitistothisdesireofbeingtalkedabout，andthisunremittingrageofdistinguishingourselves，thatweowethebestandtheworstthingswepossess，bothourvirtuesandourvices，ourscienceandourerrors，ourconquerorsandourphilosophers;thatistosay，agreatmanybadthings，andaveryfewgoodones。Inaword，Icouldprovethat，ifwehaveafewrichandpowerfulmenonthepinnacleoffortuneandgrandeur，whilethecrowdgrovelsinwantandobscurity，itisbecausetheformerprizewhattheyenjoyonlyinsofarasothersaredestituteofit;andbecause，withoutchangingtheircondition，theywouldceasetobehappythemomentthepeopleceasedtobewretched。
Thesedetailsalone，however，wouldfurnishmatterforaconsiderablework，inwhichtheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofeverykindofgovernmentmightbeweighed，astheyarerelatedtomaninthestateofnature，andatthesametimeallthedifferentaspects，underwhichinequalityhasuptothepresentappeared，ormayappearinagesyettocome，accordingtothenatureoftheseveralgovernments，andthealterationswhichtimemustunavoidablyoccasioninthem，mightbedemonstrated。Weshouldthenseethemultitudeoppressedfromwithin，inconsequenceoftheveryprecautionsithadtakentoguardagainstforeigntyranny。Weshouldseeoppressioncontinuallygaingroundwithoutitbeingpossiblefortheoppressedtoknowwhereitwouldstop，orwhatlegitimatemeanswasleftthemofcheckingitsprogress。Weshouldseetherightsofcitizens，andthefreedomofnationsslowlyextinguished，andthecomplaints，protestsandappealsoftheweaktreatedasseditiousmurmurings。Weshouldseethehonourofdefendingthecommoncauseconfinedbystatecrafttoamercenarypartofthepeople。
Weshouldseetaxesmadenecessarybysuchmeans，andthedisheartenedhusbandmandesertinghisfieldseveninthemidstofpeace，andleavingtheploughtogirdonthesword。Weshouldseefatalandcapriciouscodesofhonourestablished;andthechampionsoftheircountrysoonerorlaterbecomingitsenemies，andforeverholdingtheirdaggerstothebreastsoftheirfellow-citizens。Thetimewouldcomewhentheywouldbeheardsayingtotheoppressoroftheircountry？
PectoresifratrisgladiumjuguloqueparentisConderemejubeas，gravid渜ueinviscerapartuConjugis，invitaperagamtamenomniadextrâ。
Lucan，i。376Fromgreatinequalityoffortunesandconditions，fromthevastvarietyofpassionsandoftalents，ofuselessandperniciousarts，ofvainsciences，wouldariseamultitudeofprejudicesequallycontrarytoreason，happinessandvirtue。Weshouldseethemagistratesfomentingeverythingthatmightweakenmenunitedinsociety，bypromotingdissensionamongthem;everythingthatmightsowinittheseedsofactualdivision，whileitgavesocietytheairofharmony;everythingthatmightinspirethedifferentranksofpeoplewithmutualhatredanddistrust，bysettingtherightsandinterestsofoneagainstthoseofanother，andsostrengthenthepowerwhichcomprehendedthemall。
Itisfromthemidstofthisdisorderandtheserevolutions，thatdespotism，graduallyraisingupitshideousheadanddevouringeverythingthatremainedsoundanduntaintedinanypartoftheState，wouldatlengthtrampleonboththelawsandthepeople，andestablishitselfontheruinsoftherepublic。Thetimeswhichimmediatelyprecededthislastchangewouldbetimesoftroubleandcalamity;butatlengththemonsterwouldswallowupeverything，andthepeoplewouldnolongerhaveeitherchiefsorlaws，butonlytyrants。Fromthismomenttherewouldbenoquestionofvirtueormorality;fordespotismcuiexhonestonullaestspes，whereveritprevails，admitsnoothermaster;itnosoonerspeaksthanprobityanddutylosetheirweightandblindobedienceistheonlyvirtuewhichslavescanstillpractise。
Thisisthelasttermofinequality，theextremepointthatclosesthecircle，andmeetsthatfromwhichwesetout。Hereallprivatepersonsreturntotheirfirstequality，becausetheyarenothing;and，subjectshavingnolawbutthewilloftheirmaster，andtheirmasternorestraintbuthispassions，allnotionsofgoodandallprinciplesofequityagainvanish。Thereishereacompletereturntothelawofthestrongest，andsotoanewstateofnature，differingfromthatwesetoutfrom;fortheonewasastateofnatureinitsfirstpurity，whilethisistheconsequenceofexcessivecorruption。Thereissolittledifferencebetweenthetwostatesinotherrespects，andthecontractofgovernmentissocompletelydissolvedbydespotism，thatthedespotismasteronlysolongasheremainsthestrongest;assoonashecanbeexpelled，hehasnorighttocomplainofviolence。ThepopularinsurrectionthatendsinthedeathordepositionofaSultanisaslawfulanactasthosebywhichhedisposed，thedaybefore，ofthelivesandfortunesofhissubjects。Ashewasmaintainedbyforcealone，itisforcealonethatoverthrowshim。Thuseverythingtakesplaceaccordingtothenaturalorder;and，whatevermaybetheresultofsuchfrequentandprecipitaterevolutions，noonemanhasreasontocomplainoftheinjusticeofanother，butonlyofhisownill-fortuneorindiscretion。
Ifthereaderthusdiscoversandretracesthelostandforgottenroad，bywhichmanmusthavepassedfromthestateofnaturetothestateofsociety;ifhecarefullyrestores，alongwiththeintermediatesituationswhichIhavejustdescribed，thosewhichwantoftimehascompelledmetosuppress，ormyimaginationhasfailedtosuggest，hecannotfailtobestruckbythevastdistancewhichseparatesthetwostates。Itisintracingthisslowsuccessionthathewillfindthesolutionofanumberofproblemsofpoliticsandmorals，whichphilosopherscannotsettle。Hewillfeelthat，menbeingdifferentindifferentages，thereasonwhyDiogenescouldnotfindamanwasthathesoughtamonghiscontemporariesamanofanearlierperiod。HewillseethatCatodiedwithRomeandliberty，becausehedidnotfittheageinwhichhelived;thegreatestofmenservedonlytoastonishaworldwhichhewouldcertainlyhaveruled，hadhelivedfivehundredyearssooner。Inaword，hewillexplainhowthesoulandthepassionsofmeninsensiblychangetheirverynature;whyourwantsandpleasuresintheendseeknewobjects;andwhy，theoriginalmanhavingvanishedbydegrees，societyofferstousonlyanassemblyofartificialmenandfactitiouspassions，whicharetheworkofallthesenewrelations，andwithoutanyrealfoundationinnature。Wearetaughtnothingonthissubject，byreflection，thatisnotentirelyconfirmedbyobservation。
Thesavageandthecivilisedmandiffersomuchinthebottomoftheirheartsandintheirinclinations，thatwhatconstitutesthesupremehappinessofonewouldreducetheothertodespair。Theformerbreathesonlypeaceandliberty;hedesiresonlytoliveandbefreefromlabour;eventheataraxiaoftheStoicfallsfarshortofhisprofoundindifferencetoeveryotherobject。Civilisedman，ontheotherhand，isalwaysmoving，sweating，toilingandrackinghisbrainstofindstillmorelaboriousoccupations：
hegoesonindrudgerytohislastmoment，andevenseeksdeathtoputhimselfinapositiontolive，orrenounceslifetoacquireimmortality。
Hepayshiscourttomeninpower，whomhehates，andtothewealthy，whomhedespises;hestopsatnothingtohavethehonourofservingthem;heisnotashamedtovaluehimselfonhisownmeannessandtheirprotection;
and，proudofhisslavery，hespeakswithdisdainofthose，whohavenotthehonourofsharingit。WhatasightwouldtheperplexingandenviedlaboursofaEuropeanministerofStatepresenttotheeyesofaCaribbean！
Howmanycrueldeathswouldnotthisindolentsavageprefertothehorrorsofsuchalife，whichisseldomevensweetenedbythepleasureofdoinggood！But，forhimtoseeintothemotivesofallthissolicitude，thewordspowerandreputation，wouldhavetobearsomemeaninginhismind;hewouldhavetoknowthattherearemenwhosetavalueontheopinionoftherestoftheworld;whocanbemadehappyandsatisfiedwiththemselvesratheronthetestimonyofotherpeoplethanontheirown。
Inreality，thesourceofallthesedifferencesis，thatthesavageliveswithinhimself，whilesocialmanlivesconstantlyoutsidehimself，andonlyknowshowtoliveintheopinionofothers，sothatheseemstoreceivetheconsciousnessofhisownexistencemerelyfromthejudgmentofothersconcerninghim。Itisnottomypresentpurposetoinsistontheindifferencetogoodandevilwhicharisesfromthisdisposition，inspiteofourmanyfineworksonmorality，ortoshowhow，everythingbeingreducedtoappearances，thereisbutartandmummeryinevenhonour，friendship，virtue，andoftenviceitself，ofwhichweatlengthlearnthesecretofboasting;toshow，inshort，how，alwaysaskingotherswhatweare，andneverdaringtoaskourselves，inthemidstofsomuchphilosophy，humanityandcivilisation，andofsuchsublimecodesofmorality，wehavenothingtoshowforourselvesbutafrivolousanddeceitfulappearance，honourwithoutvirtue，reasonwithoutwisdom，andpleasurewithouthappiness。ItissufficientthatI
haveprovedthatthisisnotbyanymeanstheoriginalstateofman，butthatitismerelythespiritofsociety，andtheinequalitywhichsocietyproduces，thatthustransformandalterallournaturalinclinations。
Ihaveendeavouredtotracetheoriginandprogressofinequality，andtheinstitutionandabuseofpoliticalsocieties，asfarasthesearecapableofbeingdeducedfromthenatureofmanmerelybythelightofreason，andindependentlyofthosesacreddogmaswhichgivethesanctionofdivinerighttosovereignauthority。Itfollowsfromthissurveythat，asthereishardlyanyinequalityinthestateofnature，alltheinequalitywhichnowprevailsowesitsstrengthandgrowthtothedevelopmentofourfacultiesandtheadvanceofthehumanmind，andbecomesatlastpermanentandlegitimatebytheestablishmentofpropertyandlaws。Secondly，itfollowsthatmoralinequality，authorisedbypositiverightalone，clasheswithnaturalright，wheneveritisnotproportionatetophysicalinequality;adistinctionwhichsufficientlydetermineswhatweoughttothinkofthatspeciesofinequalitywhichprevailsinallcivilised，countries;sinceitisplainlycontrarytothelawofnature，howeverdefined，thatchildrenshouldcommandoldmen，foolswisemen，andthattheprivilegedfewshouldgorgethemselveswithsuperfluities，whilethestarvingmultitudeareinwantofthebarenecessitiesoflife。
5。Ovid，Metamorphoses，xi。127。Bothrichandpoor，shockedattheirnew-foundills，Wouldflyfromwealth，andlosewhattheyhadsought。6。Tacitus，Hist。iv。17。Themostwretchedslaverytheycallpeace。
7。OftheRightsoftheMostChristianQueenoverVariousStatesoftheMonarchyofSpain，1667。
8。Distributivejusticewouldopposethisrigorousequalityofthestateofnature，evenwereitpracticableincivilsociety;asallthemembersoftheStateoweittheirservicesinproportiontotheirtalentsandabilities，theyought，ontheirside，tobedistinguishedandfavouredinproportiontotheservicestheyhaveactuallyrendered。ItisinthissensewemustunderstandthatpassageofIsocrates，inwhichheextolstheprimitiveAthenians，forhavingdeterminedwhichofthetwokindsofequalitywasthemostuseful，viz。，thatwhichconsistsindividingthesameadvantagesindiscriminatelyamongallthecitizens，orthatwhichconsistsindistributingthemtoeachaccordingtohisdeserts。Theseablepoliticians，addstheorator，banishingthatunjustinequalitywhichmakesnodistinctionbetweengoodandbadmen，adheredinviolablytothatwhichrewardsandpunisheseverymanaccordingtohisdeserts。
Butinthefirstplace，thereneverexistedasociety，howevercorruptsomemayhavebecome，wherenodifferencewasmadebetweenthegoodandthebad;andwithregardtomorality，wherenomeasurescanbeprescribedbylawexactenoughtoserveasapracticalruleforamagistrate，itiswithgreatprudencethat，inordernottoleavethefortuneorqualityofthecitizenstohisdiscretion，itprohibitshimfrompassingjudgmentonpersonsandconfineshisjudgmenttoactions。OnlymoralssuchasthoseoftheancientRomanscanbearcensors，andsuchatribunalamonguswouldthroweverythingintoconfusion。Thedifferencebetweengoodandbadmenisdeterminedbypublicesteem;themagistratebeingstrictlyajudgeofrightalone;whereasthepublicisthetruestjudgeofmorals，andisofsuchintegrityandpenetrationonthishead，thatalthoughitmaybesometimesdeceived，itcanneverbecorrupted。Therankofcitizensought，therefore，toberegulated，notaccordingtotheirpersonalmerit？forthiswouldputitinthepowerofthemagistratetoapplythelawalmostarbitrarily？butaccordingtotheactualservicesdonetotheState，whicharecapableofbeingmoreexactlyestimated。
Rousseau：OntheOriginofInequality：AppendixAPPENDIX9AFAMOUSauthor，reckoningupthegoodandevilofhumanlife，andcomparingtheaggregates，findsthatourpainsgreatlyexceedourpleasures：sothat，allthingsconsidered，humanlifeisnotatallavaluablegift。Thisconclusiondoesnotsurpriseme;forthewriterdrewallhisargumentsfrommanincivilisation。Hadhegonebacktothestateofnature，hisinquirieswouldclearlyhavehadadifferentresult，andmanwouldhavebeenseentobesubjecttoveryfewevilsnotofhisowncreation。Ithasindeedcostusnotalittletroubletomakeourselvesaswretchedasweare。Whenweconsider，ontheonehand，theimmenselaboursofmankind，themanysciencesbroughttoperfection，theartsinvented，thepowersemployed，thedeepsfilledup，themountainslevelled，therocksshattered，theriversmadenavigable，thetractsoflandcleared，thelakesemptied，themarshesdrained，theenormousstructureserectedonland，andtheteemingvesselsthatcoverthesea;and，ontheotherhand，estimatewitheversolittlethought，therealadvantagesthathaveaccruedfromalltheseworkstomankind，wecannothelpbeingamazedatthevastdisproportionthereisbetweenthesethings，anddeploringtheinfatuationofman，which，togratifyhissillyprideandvainself-admiration，induceshimeagerlytopursueallthemiseriesheiscapableoffeeling，thoughbeneficentnaturehadkindlyplacedthemoutofhisway。
Thatmenareactuallywicked，asadandcontinualexperienceofthemprovesbeyonddoubt：but，allthesame，IthinkIhaveshownthatmanisnaturallygood。Whatthencanhavedepravedhimtosuchanextent，exceptthechangesthathavehappenedinhisconstitution，theadvanceshehasmade，andtheknowledgehehasacquired？Wemayadmirehumansocietyasmuchasweplease;itwillbenonethelesstruethatitnecessarilyleadsmentohateeachotherinproportionastheirinterestsclash，andtodooneanotherapparentservices，whiletheyarereallydoingeveryimaginablemischief。Whatcanbethoughtofarelation，inwhichtheinterestofeveryindividualdictatesrulesdirectlyoppositetothosethepublicreasondictatestothecommunityingeneral？inwhicheverymanfindshisprofitinthemisfortunesofhisneighbour？Thereisnotperhapsanymaninacomfortablepositionwhohasnotgreedyheirs，andperhapsevenchildren，secretlywishingforhisdeath;notashipatsea，ofwhichthelosswouldnotbegoodnewstosomemerchantorother;notahouse，whichsomedebtorofbadfaithwouldnotbegladtoseereducedtoasheswithallthepapersitcontains;notanationwhichdoesnotrejoiceatthedisastersthatbefallitsneighbours。Thusitisthatwefindouradvantageinthemisfortunesofourfellow-creatures，andthatthelossofonemanalmostalwaysconstitutestheprosperityofanother。Butitisstillmoreperniciousthatpubliccalamitiesaretheobjectsofthehopesandexpectationsofinnumerableindividuals。Somedesiresickness，somemortality，somewar，andsomefamine。
Ihaveseenmenwickedenoughtoweepforsorrowattheprospectofaplentifulseason;andthegreatandfatalfireofLondon，whichcostsomanyunhappypersonstheirlivesortheirfortunes，madethefortunesofperhapstenthousandothers。IknowthatMontaignecensuresDemadestheAthenianforhavingcausedtobepunishedaworkmanwho，bysellinghiscoffinsverydear，wasagreatgainerbythedeathsofhisfellow-citizens;but，thereasonallegedbyMontaignebeingthateverybodyoughttobepunished，mypointisclearlyconfirmedbyit。Letuspenetrate，therefore，thesuperficialappearancesofbenevolence，andsurveywhatpassesintheinmostrecessesoftheheart。Letusreflectwhatmustbethestateofthings，whenmenareforcedtocaressanddestroyoneanotheratthesametime;whentheyarebornenemiesbyduty，andknavesbyinterest。Itwillperhapsbesaidthatsocietyissoformedthateverymangainsbyservingtherest。Thatwouldbeallverywell，ifhedidnotgainstillmorebyinjuringthem。
Thereisnolegitimateprofitsogreat，thatitcannotbegreatlyexceededbywhatmaybemadeillegitimately;wealwaysgainmorebyhurtingourneighboursthanbydoingthemgood。Nothingisrequiredbuttoknowhowtoactwithimpunity;andtothisendthepowerfulemployalltheirstrength，andtheweakalltheircunning。
Savageman，whenhehasdined，isatpeacewithallnature，andthefriendofallhisfellow-creatures。Ifadisputearisesaboutameal，herarelycomestoblows，withouthavingfirstcomparedthedifficultyofconqueringhisantagonistwiththetroubleoffindingsubsistenceelsewhere：
and，aspridedoesnotcomein，itallendsinafewblows;thevictoreats，andthevanquishedseeksprovisionsomewhereelse，andallisatpeace。Thecaseisquitedifferentwithmaninthestateofsociety，forwhomfirstnecessarieshavetobeprovided，andthensuperfluities;delicaciesfollownext，thenimmensewealth，thensubjects，andthenslaves。Heenjoysnotamoment’srelaxation;andwhatisyetstranger，thelessnaturalandpressinghiswants，themoreheadstrongarehispassions，and，stillworse，themorehehasitinhispowertogratifythem;sothatafteralongcourseofprosperity，afterhavingswalloweduptreasuresandruinedmultitudes，theheroendsupbycuttingeverythroattillhefindshimself，atlast，solemasteroftheworld。Suchisinminiaturethemoralpicture，ifnotofhumanlife，atleastofthesecretpretensionsoftheheartofcivilisedman。
Comparewithoutpartialitythestateofthecitizenwiththatofthesavage，andtraceout，ifyoucan，howmanyinletstheformerhasopenedtopainanddeath，besidesthoseofhisvices，hiswantsandhismisfortunes。
Ifyoureflectonthementalafflictionsthatpreyonus，theviolentpassionsthatwasteandexhaustus，theexcessivelabourwithwhichthepoorareburdened，thestillmoredangerousindolencetowhichthewealthygivethemselvesup，sothatthepoorperishofwant，andtherichofsurfeit;
ifyoureflectbutamomentontheheterogeneousmixturesandperniciousseasoningsoffoods;thecorruptstateinwhichtheyarefrequentlyeaten;
ontheadulterationofmedicines，thewilesofthosewhosellthem，themistakesofthosewhoadministerthem，andthepoisonousvesselsinwhichtheyareprepared;ontheepidemicsbredbyfoulairinconsequenceofgreatnumbersofmenbeingcrowdedtogether，orthosewhicharecausedbyourdelicatewayofliving，byourpassingfromourhousesintotheopenairandbackagain，bytheputtingonorthrowingoffourclotheswithtoolittlecare，andbyalltheprecautionswhichsensualityhasconvertedintonecessaryhabits，andtheneglectofwhichsometimescostsusourlifeorhealth;ifyoutakeintoaccounttheconflagrationsandearthquakes，which，devouringoroverwhelmingwholecities，destroytheinhabitantsbythousands;inaword，ifyouaddtogetherallthedangerswithwhichthesecausesarealwaysthreateningus，youwillseehowdearlynaturemakesuspayforthecontemptwithwhichwehavetreatedherlessons。
Ishallnothererepeat，whatIhaveelsewheresaidofthecalamitiesofwar;butwishthatthose，whohavesufficientknowledge，werewillingorboldenoughtomakepublicthedetailsofthevillainiescommittedinarmiesbythecontractorsforcommissariatandhospitals：weshouldseeplainlythattheirmonstrousfrauds，alreadynonetoowellconcealed，whichcripplethefinestarmiesinlessthannotime，occasiongreaterdestructionamongthesoldiersthantheswordsoftheenemy。
Thenumberofpeoplewhoperishannuallyatsea，byfamine，thescurvy，pirates，fireandshipwrecks，affordsmatterforanothershockingcalculation。
Wemustalsoplacetothecreditoftheestablishmentofproperty，andconsequentlytotheinstitutionofsociety，assassinations，poisonings，highwayrobberies，andeventhepunishmentsinflictedonthewretchesguiltyofthesecrimes;which，thoughexpedienttopreventgreaterevils，yetbymakingthemurderofonemancostthelivesoftwoormore，doublethelosstothehumanrace。
Whatshamefulmethodsaresometimespractisedtopreventthebirthofmen，andcheatnature;eitherbybrutalanddepravedappetiteswhichinsulthermostbeautifulwork-appetitesunknowntosavagesormereanimals，whichcanspringonlyfromthecorruptimaginationofmankindincivilisedcountries;
orbysecretabortions，thefittingeffectsofdebaucheryandvitiatednotionsofhonour;orbytheexposureormurderofmultitudesofinfants，whofallvictimstothepovertyoftheirparents，orthecruelshameoftheirmothers;or，finally，bythemutilationofunhappywretches，partofwhoselife，withtheirhopeofposterity，isgivenuptovainsinging，or，stillworse，thebrutaljealousyofothermen：amutilationwhich，inthelastcase，becomesadoubleoutrageagainstnaturefromthetreatmentofthosewhosufferit，andfromtheusetowhichtheyaredestined。Butisitnotathousandtimesmorecommonandmoredangerousforpaternalrightsopenlytooffendagainsthumanity？Howmanytalentshavenotbeenthrownaway，andinclinationsforced，bytheunwiseconstraintoffathers？
Howmanymen，whowouldhavedistinguishedthemselvesinafittingestate，havedieddishonouredandwretchedinanotherforwhichtheyhadnotaste！
Howmanyhappy，butunequal，marriageshavebeenbrokenordisturbed，andhowmanychastewiveshavebeendishonoured，byanorderofthingscontinuallyincontradictionwiththatofnature！Howmanygoodandvirtuoushusbandsandwivesarereciprocallypunishedforhavingbeenill-assorted！Howmanyyoungandunhappyvictimsoftheirparents’avariceplungeintovice，orpasstheirmelancholydaysintears，groaningintheindissolublebondswhichtheirheartsrepudiateandgoldalonehasformed！Fortunatesometimesarethosewhosecourageandvirtueremovethemfromlifebeforeinhumanviolencemakesthemspenditincrimeorindespair。Forgiveme，fatherandmother，whomIshalleverregret：mycomplaintembittersyourgriefs;
butwouldtheymightbeaneternalandterribleexampletoeveryonewhodares，inthenameofnature，toviolatehermostsacredright。
IfIhavespokenonlyofthoseill-starredunionswhicharetheresultofoursystem，isittobethoughtthatthoseoverwhichloveandsympathypresidearefreefromdisadvantages？WhatifIshouldundertaketoshowhumanityattackedinitsverysource，andeveninthemostsacredofallties，inwhichfortuneisconsultedbeforenature，and，thedisordersofsocietyconfoundingallvirtueandvice，continencebecomesacriminalprecaution，andarefusaltogivelifetoafellow-creature，anactofhumanity？But，withoutdrawingasidetheveilwhichhidesallthesehorrors，letuscontentourselveswithpointingouttheevilwhichotherswillhavetoremedy。
Toallthisaddthemultiplicityofunhealthytrades，whichshortenmen’slivesordestroytheirbodies，suchasworkinginthemines，andthepreparingofmetalsandminerals，particularlylead，copper，mercury，cobalt，andarsenic：addthoseotherdangeroustradeswhicharedailyfataltomanytilers，carpenters，masonsandminers：putallthesetogetherandwecansee，intheestablishmentandperfectionofsocieties，thereasonsforthatdiminutionofourspecies，whichhasbeennoticedbymanyphilosophers。
Luxury，whichcannotbepreventedamongmenwhoaretenaciousoftheirownconvenienceandoftherespectpaidthembyothers，sooncompletestheevilsocietyhadbegun，and，underthepretenceofgivingbreadtothepoor，whomitshouldneverhavemadesuch，impoverishesalltherest，andsoonerorlaterdepopulatestheState。Luxuryisaremedymuchworsethanthediseaseitsetsuptocure;orratheritisinitselfthegreatestofallevils，foreveryState，greatorsmall：for，inordertomaintainalltheservantsandvagabondsitcreates，itbringsoppressionandruinonthecitizenandthelabourer;itislikethosescorchingwinds，which，coveringthetreesandplantswithdevouringinsects，depriveusefulanimalsoftheirsubsistenceandspreadfamineanddeathwherevertheyblow。
Fromsocietyandtheluxurytowhichitgivesbirtharisetheliberalandmechanicalarts，commerce，letters，andallthosesuperfluitieswhichmakeindustryflourish，andenrichandruinnations。Thereasonforsuchdestructionisplain。Itiseasytosee，fromtheverynatureofagriculture，thatitmustbetheleastlucrativeofallthearts;for，itsproducebeingthemostuniversallynecessary，thepricemustbeproportionatetotheabilitiesoftheverypoorestofmankind。
Fromthesameprinciplemaybededucedthisrule，thattheartsingeneralaremorelucrativeinproportionastheyarelessuseful;andthat，intheend，themostusefulbecomesthemostneglected。Fromthiswemaylearnwhattothinkoftherealadvantagesofindustryandtheactualeffectsofitsprogress。
Sucharethesensiblecausesofallthemiseries，intowhichopulenceatlengthplungesthemostcelebratednations。Inproportionasartsandindustryflourish，thedespisedhusbandman，burdenedwiththetaxesnecessaryforthesupportofluxury，andcondemnedtopasshisdaysbetweenlabourandhunger，forsakeshisnativefield，toseekintownsthebreadheoughttocarrythither。Themoreourcapitalcitiesstrikethevulgareyewithadmiration，thegreaterreasonistheretolamentthesightoftheabandonedcountryside，thelargetractsoflandthatlieuncultivated，theroadscrowdedwithunfortunatecitizensturnedbeggarsorhighwaymen，anddoomedtoendtheirwretchedliveseitheronadunghilloronthegallows。ThustheStategrowsrichontheonehand，andfeebleanddepopulatedontheother;themightiestmonarchies，afterhavingtakenimmensepainstoenrichanddepopulatethemselves，fallatlastapreytosomepoornation，whichhasyieldedtothefataltemptationofinvadingthem，andthen，growingopulentandweakinitsturn，isitselfinvadedandruinedbysomeother。
Letanyoneinformuswhatproducedtheswarmsofbarbarians，whooverranEurope，AsiaandAfricaforsomanyages。Wastheirprodigiousincreaseduetotheirindustryandarts，tothewisdomoftheirlaws，ortotheexcellenceoftheirpoliticalsystem？Letthelearnedtelluswhy，insteadofmultiplyingtosuchadegree，thesefierceandbrutalmen，withoutsenseorscience，withouteducation，withoutrestraint，didnotdestroyeachotherhourlyinquarrellingovertheproductionsoftheirfieldsandwoods。
Letthemtellushowthesewretchescouldhavethepresumptiontoopposesuchcleverpeopleaswewere，sowelltrainedinmilitarydiscipline，andpossessedofsuchexcellentlawsandinstitutions：andwhy，sincesocietyhasbeenbroughttoperfectioninnortherncountries，andsomuchpainstakentoinstructtheirinhabitantsintheirsocialdutiesandintheartoflivinghappilyandpeaceablytogether，weseethemnolongerproducesuchnumberlesshostsastheyusedoncetosendforthtobetheplagueandterrorofothernations。Ifearsomeonemayatlastanswermebysaying，thatallthesefinethings，arts，sciencesandlaws，werewiselyinventedbymen，asasalutaryplague，topreventthetoogreatmultiplicationofmankind，lesttheworld，whichwasgivenusforahabitation，shouldintimebetoosmallforitsinhabitants。
What，then，istobedone？Mustsocietiesbetotallyabolished？Mustmeumandtuumbeannihilated，andmustwereturnagaintotheforeststoliveamongbears？Thisisadeductioninthemannerofmyadversaries，whichIwouldassoonanticipateasletthemhavetheshameofdrawing。Oyou，whohaveneverheardthevoiceofheaven，whothinkmandestinedonlytolivethislittlelifeanddieinpeace;you，whocanresigninthemidstofpopulouscitiesyourfatalacquisitions，yourrestlessspirits，yourcorruptheartsandendlessdesires;resume，sinceitdependsentirelyonourselves，yourancientandprimitiveinnocence：retiretothewoods，theretolosethesightandremembranceofthecrimesofyourcontemporaries;andbenotapprehensiveofdegradingyourspecies，byrenouncingitsadvancesinordertorenounceitsvices。Asformenlikeme，whosepassionshavedestroyedtheiroriginalsimplicity，whocannolongersubsistonplantsoracorns，orlivewithoutlawsandmagistrates;thosewhowerehonouredintheirfirstfatherwithsupernaturalinstructions;thosewhodiscover，inthedesignofgivinghumanactionsatthestartamoralitywhichtheymustotherwisehavebeensolonginacquiring，thereasonforapreceptinitselfindifferentandinexplicableoneveryothersystem;
those，inshort，whoarepersuadedthattheDivineBeinghascalledallmankindtobepartakersinthehappinessandperfectionofcelestialintelligences，allthesewillendeavourtomerittheeternalprizetheyaretoexpectfromthepracticeofthosevirtues，whichtheymakethemselvesfollowinlearningtoknowthem。Theywillrespectthesacredbondsoftheirrespectivecommunities;theywilllovetheirfellow-citizens，andservethemwithalltheirmight：theywillscrupulouslyobeythelaws，andallthosewhomakeoradministerthem;theywillparticularlyhonourthosewiseandgoodprinces，whofindmeansofpreventing，curingorevenpalliatingalltheseevilsandabuses，bywhichweareconstantlythreatened;theywillanimatethezealoftheirdeservingrulers，byshowingthem，withoutflatteryorfear，theimportanceoftheirofficeandtheseverityoftheirduty。Buttheywillnotthereforehavelesscontemptforaconstitutionthatcannotsupportitselfwithouttheaidofsomanysplendidcharacters，muchoftenerwishedforthanfound;andfromwhich，notwithstandingalltheirpainsandsolicitude，therealwaysarisemorerealcalamitiesthanevenapparentadvantages。