Deciduousforestsgrowinthewell-balancedregionswheresummerandwinterapproachequality，whereneitherisundulylong，andwhereneitherissubjecttoprolongeddrought。TheyextendsouthwardfromcentralNewEngland，theGreatLakes，andMinnesota，toMississippi，Arkansas，andeasternTexas。TheypredominateeveninpartsofsuchprairieStatesasMichigan，Indiana，southernIllinois，andsoutheasternMissouri。Nopartofthecontinentismorepopulousormoreprogressivethantheregionsoncecoveredbydeciduousforests。IntheUnitedStatesnearlysixtypercentoftheinhabitantsliveinareasreclaimedfromsuchforests。YettheareaoftheforestsislessthanaquarterofthethreemillionsquaremilesthatmakeuptheUnitedStates。
IntheirrelationtohumanlifetheforestsofAmericadifferfarmorethandoeithergrass-landsordeserts。Inthefarnorth，aswehaveseen，thepineforestsfurnishoneoftheleastfavorableenvironments。Inmiddlelatitudesthedeciduousforestsgototheoppositeextremeandfurnishthemosthighlyfavoredofthehomesofman。Stillfarthersouthwardtheincreasingluxurianceoftheforests，especiallyalongtheAtlanticcoast，rendersthemlessandlessfavorabletomankind。InsouthernMexicoandYucatanthestatelyequatorialrainforest，themostexuberantofalltypesofvegetationandthemostunconquerablebyman，makesitsappearance。ItformsadiscontinuousbeltalongtheweteastcoastandonthelowerslopesofthemountainsfromsouthernYucatantoVenezuela。ThenitisinterruptedbythegrasslandsoftheOrinoco，butrevivesagaininstillgreatermagnificenceintheGuianas。ThenceitstretchesnotonlyalongthecoastbutfarintothelittleknowninterioroftheGreatAmazonbasin，whilesouthwarditbordersallthecoastasfarassouthernBrazil。IntheAmazonbasinitreachesitshighestdevelopmentandbecomesthecrowninggloryofthevegetableworld，themostbafflingobstacletohumanprogress。
Exceptinitsevileffectsonman，theequatorialrainforestistheantithesisoftheforestsoftheextremenorth。Theequatorialtreesarehardwoodgiants，broadleaved，brightflowered，andoftenfruit-bearing。Thenortherntreesaresoftwooddwarfs，needle-leaved，flowerless，andcone-bearing。Theequatorialtreesareoftenbranchlessforonehundredfeet，butspreadatthetopintoabroadoverarchingcanopywhichshutsoutthesunperpetually。Thenortherntreesformsharplittlepyramidswithlow，widelyspreadingbranchesatthebaseandonlyshorttwigsatthetop。Intheequatorialforeststhereisalmostnounderbrush。Theanimals，suchasmonkeys，snakes，parrots，andbrilliantinsects，livechieflyintheloftytreetops。Inthenorthernforeststhereisalmostnothingexceptunderbrush，andthefoxes，rabbits，weasels，ptarmigans，andmosquitoesliveclosetothegroundintheshelterofthebranches。Bothforestsarealike，however，inbeingpracticallyuninhabitedbyman。Eachispeopledonlybyprimitivenomadichunterswhostandattheverybottominthescaleofcivilization。
Asidefromtherainforesttherearetwoothertypesintropicalcountries——jungleandscrub。Thedistinctionbetweenrainforest，jungle，andscrubisduetotheamountandtheseasonofrainfall。AnunderstandingofthisdistinctionnotonlyexplainsmanythingsinthepresentconditionofLatinAmericabutalsointhehistoryofpre-ColumbianCentralAmerica。Forests，aswehaveseen，requirethatthegroundbemoistthroughoutpracticallythewholeoftheseasonthatiswarmenoughforgrowth。Sincethewarmseasonlaststhroughouttheyearwithinthetropics，denseforestscomposedofuniformlylargetreescorrespondingtoouroaks，maples，andbeecheswillnotthriveunlessthegroundiswetmostofthetime。Ofcoursetheremaybenorainforafewweeks，buttheremustbenolongandregularlyrecurrentperiodsofdrought。Smallertreesandsuchspeciesasthecocoanutpalmaremuchlessexactingandwillflourishevenifthereisadryperiodofseveralmonths。Stillsmaller，bushyspecieswillthriveevenwhentherainfalllastsonlytwoorthreemonths。
Hencewheretherainyseasonlastsmostoftheyear，rainforestprevails;wheretherainyanddryseasonsdonotdiffergreatlyinlength，tropicaljungleisthedominantgrowth;andwheretherainyseasonisshortandthedryseasonlong，thejungledegeneratesintoscruborbush。
Therelationofscrub，jungle，andrainforestiswellillustratedinYucatan，wheretheancientMayasrearedtheirstatelytemples。Onthenortherncoasttheannualrainfallisonlytenorfifteeninchesandisconcentratedlargelyinoursummermonths。Therethecountryiscoveredwithscrubbybushessixtotenfeethigh。ThesearebeautifullygreenduringtherainyseasonfromJunetoOctober，butlaterintheyearlosealmostalltheirleaves。Thelandscapewouldbemuchlikethatofathick，bushypastureintheUnitedStatesatthesameseason，wereitnotthatinthelatewinterandearlyspringsomeofthebushesbearbrilliantred，yellow，orwhiteflowers。AsonegoesinlandfromthenorthcoastofYucatantherainfallincreases。
Thebushesbecometalleranddenser，treestwentyfeethighbecomenumerous，andmanyrisethirtyorfortyfeetorevenhigher。Thisisthejungle。ItssmallerportionssuggestasecondgrowthoftimberinthedeciduousforestsoftheUnitedStatesfifteenortwentyyearsafterthecuttingoftheoriginalforest，butherethereismuchmoreevidenceofrapidgrowth。Afewspeciesofbushesandtreesmayremaingreenthroughouttheyear，butduringthedryseasonmostofthejungleplantslosetheirleaves，atleastinpart。
Witheverymilethatoneadvancesintothemorerainyinterior，thejunglebecomesgreenerandfresher，thedensityofthelowergrowthsincreases，andtheproportionoflargetreesbecomesgreateruntilfinallyjunglegivesplacetogenuineforest。Theremanyofthetreesremaingreenthroughouttheyear。Theyrisetoheightsoffiftyorsixtyfeetevenonthebordersoftheirprovince，andatthetopformacanopysothickthatthegroundisshadymostofthetime。Eveninthedrierpartoftheyearwhensomeoftheleaveshavefallen，theraysofthesunscarcelyreachthegrounduntilnineorteno’clockinthemorning。Evenathighnoonthesunlightstragglesthroughonlyinsmallpatches。Long，sinuouslianas，oftenqueerlybraided，hangdownfromthetrees;epiphytesandvariousparasiticgrowthsaddtheirstrangegreenandredtothecomplexvarietyofvegetation。Youngpalmsgrowupalmostinadayandblockatrailwhichwashewnoutwithmuchlaboronlyafewmonthsbefore。Whereverthedeathofoldtreesformsanopening，athousandseedlingsbeginafierceracetoreachthelight。Everywherethedominantnoteisintenselyvigorouslife，rapidgrowth，andquickdecay。
Intheireffectonman，thethreeformsoftropicalforestareverydifferent。Inthegenuinerainforestagricultureisalmostimpossible。NotonlydoesthepoornativefindhimselfbaffledinthefaceofNature，butthewhitemanisequallyataloss。Manythingscombinetoproducethisresult。Chiefamongthemaremalariaandothertropicaldiseases。WhenafewmilesofrailroadwerebeingbuiltthroughastripoftropicalforestalongthecoastofeasternGuatemala，itwasimpossibletokeepthelaborersmorethantwentydaysatatime;indeed，unlesstheyweresentawayattheendofthreeweeks，theywerealmostsuretobestrickenwithvirulentmalarialfeversfromwhichmanydied。Anequallypotentenemyofagricultureisthevegetationitself。Imaginethedifficultyofcultivatingagardeninaplacewheretheweedsgrowallthetimeandwheremanyofthemreachaheightoftenortwentyfeetinasingleyear。Perhapstherearepeopleintheworldwhomightcultivatesucharegionandraisemarvelouscrops，buttheyarenottheindolentpeopleoftropicalAmerica;anditisinfactdoubtfulwhetheranykindofpeoplecouldlivepermanentlyinthetropicalforestandretainenergyenoughtocarryoncultivation。Nowhereintheworldistheresuchsteady，dampheatasintheseshadowy，windlessdepthsfarbelowtheloftytopsoftherainforest。Nowhereistheregreaterdisinclinationtoworkthanamongthepeoplewhodwellinthisregion。ConsequentlyinthevastrainforestsoftheAmazonbasinandinsimilarsmallforestsasfarnorthasCentralAmerica，therearetodaypracticallynoinhabitantsexceptamerehandfulofthepoorestandmostdegradedpeopleintheworld。YetinancienttimesthenorthernborderoftherainforestwastheseatofAmerica’smostadvancedcivilization。Theexplanationofthiscontradictionwillappearlater。*
*SeeChapter5，Aztecs。
TropicaljungleborderstherainforestallthewayfromsouthernMexicotosouthernBrazil。Ittreatsmanfarbetterthandoestherainforest。Inmarkedcontrasttoitsmorestatelyneighbor，itcontainsabundantgame。Wildfruitsripenatalmostallseasons。
Afewbananaplantsandpalmtreeswillwell-nighsupportafamily。Ifcornisplantedinaclearing，thereturnislargeinproportiontothelabor。Solongasthepopulationisnottoodense，lifeissoeasythatthereislittletostimulateprogress。Hence，althoughthepeopleofthejunglearefairlynumerous，theyhaveneverplayedmuchpartinhistory。Farmoreimportantistheroleofthoselivinginthetropicallandswherescrubistheprevailinggrowth。Inourday，forexample，fewtropicallowlandsaremoreprogressivethanthenarrowcoastalstripofnorthernYucatan。Thereontheborderbetweenjungleandscrubthevegetationdoesnotthrivesufficientlytomakelifeeasyforthechocolate-colorednatives。Effortisrequirediftheywouldmakealiving，yettheeffortisnotsogreatastobebeyondthecapacityoftheindolentpeopleofthetropics。
Leavingtheforests，letusstepoutintothebroad，breezygrass-lands。OnewouldscarcelyexpectthatajourneypolewardoutoftheforestofnorthernCanadawouldleadtoanimprovementintheconditionsofhumanlife，yetsuchisthecase。Wherethegrowingseasonbecomessoshortthateventhehardiesttreesdisappear，grassytundrasreplacetheforest。Byfurnishingfoodforsuchanimalsasthemusk-ox，theyareagreathelptothehandfulofscatteredIndianswhodwellonthenorthernedgeoftheforest。Insummer，whentheanimalsgrowfatontheshortnutritiousgrass，theIndiansfollowthemoutintotheopencountryandhuntthemvigorouslyforfoodandskinstosustainlifethroughthelongdrearywinter。Inmanycasesthehunterswouldadvancemuchfartherintothegrass-landswereitnotthattheabundantmusk-oxentempttheEskimooftheseacoastalsotoleavetheirhomesandbothsidesfearbloodyencounters。
Withthegrowthofcivilizationtheadvantageofthenortherngrass-landsoverthenorthernforestsbecomesstillmoreapparent。Thedomesticreindeerisbeginningtoreplacethewildmusk-ox。Thereindeerpeople，liketheIndianandEskimohunters，mustbenomadic。Neverthelesstheirmodeoflifepermitsthemtoliveinmuchgreaternumbersandonamuchhigherplaneofcivilizationthanthehunters。Sincetheyhuntthefurbearinganimalsintheneighboringforestsduringthewinter，theydiminishthefoodsupplyofthehunterswhodwellpermanentlyintheforest，andthusmaketheirlifestillmoredifficult。Thenorthernforestsbidfairtodeclineinpopulationratherthanincrease。InthisNewWorldofours，strangeasitmayseem，thealmostuninhabitedforestregionsofthefarnorthandoftheequatorareprobablymorethantwiceaslargeasthedesertareaswithequallysparsepopulation。
Southofthetundrasthegrass-landshaveastillgreateradvantageovertheforests。IntheforestregionoftheLaurentianhighlandabundantsnowlastsfarintothespringandkeepsthegroundsowetandcoldthatnocropscanberaised。
Moreover，becauseofthestillgreaterabundanceofsnowinformertimes，thelargestoficesheets，aswehaveseen，accumulatedthereduringtheGlacialPeriodandscrapedawaymostofthesoil。Thegrassyplains，onthecontrary，arefavorednotonlybyadeep，richsoil，muchofwhichwaslaiddownbytheice，butbytherelativeabsenceofsnowinwinterandtheconsequentrapiditywithwhichthegroundbecomeswarminthespring。HencetheCanadianplainsfromtheUnitedStatesboundarynorthwardtolatitude57degreescontainaprosperousagriculturalpopulationofoveramillionpeople，whilethefarlargerforestedareasinthesamelatitudesupportonlyafewthousand。
Thequestionisoftenaskedwhy，inastateofnature，treesaresoscarceontheprairies——inIowa，forinstance——althoughtheythrivewhenplanted。Inanswerweareoftentoldthatuptothemiddleofthenineteenthcenturysuchvastherdsofbuffaloesroamedtheprairiesthatseedlingtreescouldnevergetachancetogrow。Itisalsosaidthatprairiefiressweepingacrosstheplainsdestroyedthelittletreeswhenevertheysprouted。
Doubtlessthebuffaloesandthefireshelpedtopreventforestgrowth，butanotherfactorappearstobestillmoreimportant。
AlltheStatesbetweentheMississippiRiverandtheRockyMountainsreceivemuchmoreraininsummerthaninwinter。Butasthesoiliscomparativelydryinthespringwhenthetreesbegintheirgrowth，theyarehandicapped。Theycouldgrowifnothingelseinterferedwiththem，justaspeaswillgrowinagardeniftheweedsarekeptout。Ifpeas，however，areleftuncaredfor，theweedsgaintheupperhandandtherearenopeasthesecondyear。Iftheweedsarelefttocontendwithgrass，thegrassintheendprevails。Intheeasternforestregion，ifthegrassbelefttoitself，smalltreessoonspringupinitsmidst。Inhalfacenturyafieldofgrassgoesbacktoforestbecausetreesareespeciallyfavoredbytheclimate。Inthesamewayintheprairies，grassisespeciallyfavored，foritisnotweakenedbythespringdrought，anditgrowsabundantlyuntilitformsthewonderfulstretchesofwavinggreenwherethebuffalooncegrewfat。Moreoverthefineglacialsoiloftheprairiesissoclayeyandcompactthattherootsoftreescannoteasilypenetrateit。
Sincegrassessendtheirrootsonlyintothemorefriableupperlayersofsoil，theypossessanothergreatadvantageoverthetrees。
Fartothesouthoftheprairiesliethegrass-landsoftropicalAmerica，ofwhichtheBanosoftheOrinocofurnishagoodexample。Almosteverywheretheirplumedgrasseshavebeenlefttogrowundisturbedbytheplough，andevengrazinganimalsarescarce。TheseextremelyflatplainsarefloodedformonthsintherainyseasonfromMaytoOctoberandareparchedinthedryseasonthatfollows。Astreescannotenduresuchextremes，grassesaretheprevailinggrowth。Elsewherethenatureofthesoilcausesmanyothergrassytractstobescatteredamongthetropicaljungleandforest。Treesareatadisadvantagebothinporous，sandysoils，wherethewaterdrainsawaytoorapidly，andinclayeysoil，whereitisheldsolongthatthegroundissaturatedforweeksormonthsatatime。SouthofthetropicalportionofSouthAmericathevastpampasofArgentinacloselyresembletheNorthAmericanprairiesandthedrierplainstothewestofthem。GrainintheeastandcattleinthewestarefastcausingthedisappearanceofthosegreattussocksoftuftedgrasseseightorninefeethighwhichholdamonggrassesapositionanalogoustothatoftheBigTreesofCaliforniaamongtreesoflowergrowth。
ItisoftensaidthatAmericahasnorealdeserts。ThisistrueinthesensethattherearenoregionssuchasarefoundinAsiaandAfricawhereonecantravelahundredmilesatastretchandscarcelyseeasignofvegetation-nothingbutbarrengravel，gracefulwavysanddunes，hardwind-sweptclay，orstillharderrocksaltbrokenintoroughblockswithupturnededges。Inthebroadersenseoftheterm，however，Americahasanabundanceofdeserts——regionswhichbearathincoverofbushyvegetationbutaretoodryforagriculturewithoutirrigation。OnthenorthsuchdesertsbegininsouthernCanadawhereadryregionaboundinginsmallsaltlakesliesattheeasternbaseoftheRockyMountains。
IntheUnitedStatesthedesertsliealmostwhollybetweentheSierraNevadaandtheRockyMountainranges，whichkeepoutanymoisturethatmightcomefromeitherthewestortheeast。
BeginningonthenorthwiththesagebrushplateauofsouthernWashington，thedesertexpandstoawidthofsevenhundredmilesinthegray，sage-coveredbasinsofNevadaandUtah。InsouthernCaliforniaandArizonathesage-brushgivesplacetosmallerformslikethesaltbush，andthedesertassumesasterneraspect。
NextcomesthecactusdesertextendingfromArizonafarsouthintoMexico。Oneofthenotablefeaturesofthedesertistheextremeheatofcertainportions。ClosetotheNevadaborderinsouthernCalifornia，DeathValley，250feetbelowsea-level，isthehottestplaceinAmerica。TherealoneamongtheAmericanregionsfamiliartothewriterdoesonehavethatfeelingofintense，overpoweringariditywhichprevailssoofteninthedesertsofArabiaandCentralAsia。SomeyearsagoaWeatherBureauthermometerwasinstalledinDeathValleyatFurnaceCreek，wheretheonlyflowingwaterinmorethanahundredmilessupportsadepressinglittleranch。Thereoneortwowhitemen，helpedbyafewIndians，raisealfalfa，whichtheysellatexorbitantpricestodeludedprospectorssearchingforricheswhichtheyneverfind。Thoughtheterribleheatruinsthehealthofthewhitemeninayearortwo，sothattheyhavetomoveaway，theyhavesucceededinkeepingathermometerrecordforsomeyears。Nootherproperlyexposed，out-of-doorthermometerintheUnitedStates，orperhapsintheworld，issofamiliarwithatemperatureof100degreesF。ormore。Duringtheperiodofnotquitefifteenhundreddaysfromthespringof1911toMay，1915，amaximumtemperatureof100degreesF。ormorewasreachedonfivehundredandforty-eightdays，ormorethanone-thirdofthetime。OnJuly10，1913，themercuryroseto134degreesF。andtouchedthetopofthetube。Howmuchhigheritmighthavegonenoonecantell。Thatdaymarksthelimitoftemperatureyetreachedinthiscountryaccordingtoofficialrecords。Inthesummerof1914therewasonenightwhenthethermometerdroppedonlyto114degreesF。，havingbeen128degreesF。atnoon。Thebranchesofapeppertreewhoserootshadbeenfreshlywateredwiltedasaflowerwiltswhenbrokenfromthestalk。
EastandsouthofDeathValleyliesthemostinterestingsectionoftheAmericandesert，theso-calledsucculentdesertofsouthernArizonaandnorthernMexico。Thereingreatestprofusiongrowthecacti，perhapsthelatestandmosthighlyspecializedofallthegreatfamiliesofplants。Thereoccursuchstrangescenesasthe\"forests\"ofsuhuaros，whosegiantcolumnshavealreadybeendescribed。TheirbeautifulcrownsoflargewhiteflowersproduceafruitwhichisoneofthemainstaysofthePapagosandotherIndiansoftheregions。Inthissameregiontheyuccaishighlydeveloped，anditstallstalksofwhiteorgreenishflowersmakethedesertappearlikeaflowergarden。Infactthiswholedesert，thankstolightrainsinsummeraswellaswinter，appearsextraordinarilygreenandprosperous。Itsfairappearancehasdeceivedmanyapoorsettlerwhohasvainlytriedtocultivateit。
FarthersouththedesertsofAmericaarelargelyconfinedtoplateauslikethoseofMexicoandPeruortobasinsshelteredonallsidesfromrain-bearingwinds。Insuchbasinsthesuddennessofthetransitionfromonetypeofvegetationtoanotherisastonishing。InGuatemala，forinstance，thecoastisborderedbythickjunglewhichquicklygivesplacetomagnificentrainforestafewmilesinland。Thiscontinuestwoorthreescoremilesfromthecoastuntilapointisreachedwheremountainsbegintoobstructtherain-bearingtrade-winds。Atoncetherainforestgivesplacetojungle;inafewmilesjungleinitsturnisreplacedbyscrub;andshortlythescrubdegeneratestomeredesertbush。Theninanotherfiftymilesonerisestothemainplateaupassingoncemorethroughscrub。Thistimethescrubgivesplacetograss-landsdiversifiedbydeciduoustreesandpineswhichgivethecountryadistinctlytemperateaspect。OnsuchplateausthechiefcivilizationofthetropicalLatin-Americancountriesnowcenters。Inthepast，however，theplateauswerefarsurpassedbytheMayalowlandsofYucatanandGuatemala。
Wearewonttothinkofdesertsasplaceswheretheplantsareoffewkindsandnotmuchcrowded。Asamatteroffact，anordinarydesertsupportsamuchgreatervarietyofplantsthandoeseitheraforestoraprairie。Thereasonissimple。Everydesertcontainswetspotsnearspringsorinswamps。Suchplacesaboundwithallsortsofwater-lovingplants。Thedesertsalsocontainafewvalleyswherethelargerstreamskeepthegroundmoistatallseasons。Insuchplacesthevarietyoftreesisasgreatasinmanyforests。Moreoveralmostalldesertshaveshortperiodsofabundantmoisture。
Atsuchtimestheseedsofallsortsoflittleannualplants，includinggrasses，daisies，lupines，andahostofothers，sproutquickly，andgiverisetoacarpetofvegetationasvariedandbeautifulasthatoftheprairie。Thusthedeserthasnotonlyitsownpeculiarbushesandsucculentsbutmanyoftheproductsofvegetationinswamps，grasslands，andforests。Thoughmuchofthegroundisbareinthedesert，theplantsareactuallycrowdedtogetherascloselyaspossible。Theshowersofsuchregionsareusuallysobriefthattheymerelywetthesurface。Atadepthofafootormorethesoilofmanydesertsneverbecomesmoistfromyear’sendtoyear’send。Itisuselessforplantstosendtheirrootsdeepdownundersuchcircumstances，fortheymightnotreachwaterforahundredfeet。Theironlyrecourseistospreadhorizontally。Thefarthertheyspread，themorewatertheycanabsorbafterthescantyshowers。Hencetheplantsofthedesertthrottleoneanotherbyextendingtheirrootshorizontally，justasthoseoftheforestkilloneanotherbyspringingrapidlyupwardandshuttingoutthelight。
Vegetation，whetherinforests，grasslands，ordeserts，istheprimarysourceofhumansustenance。Withoutitmanwouldperishmiserably;andwhereitisdeficient，hecannotrisetogreatheightsinthescaleofcivilization。Yetstrangelyenoughthescantinessofthevegetationofthedesertswasagreathelpintheascentofman。Onlyindryregionscouldprimitivemancompetewithnatureinfosteringtherightkindofvegetation。Insuchregionsarosethenationswhichfirstpractisedagriculture。
Theremanbecamecomparativelycivilizedwhilehiscontemporarieswerestillnomadichuntersinthegrasslandsandtheforests。
CHAPTERV。THEREDMANINAMERICA
WhenthewhitemanfirstexploredAmerica，thepartsofthecontinentthathadmademostprogresswerebynomeansthosethataremostadvancedtoday。*Noneoftheinhabitants，tobesure，hadrisenabovebarbarism。Yetcertainnationsortribeshadadvancedmuchhigherthanothers。Therewasagreatcontrast，forexample，betweenthewell-organizedbarbariansofPeruandthealmostcompletelyunorganizedAthapascansavagesnearHudsonBay。
*InthepresentchaptermostofthefactsastotheIndiansnorthofMexicoaretakenfromtheadmirable\"HandbookofAmericanIndiansNorthofMexico，\"editedbyF。W。Hodge，SmithsonianInstitution，BureauofEthnology，Bulletin30，Washington，1907，twovolumes。InsummingupthecharacterandachievementsoftheIndiansIhavedrawnalsoonothersources，buthaveeverywheretakenpainstomakenostatementswhicharenotabundantlysupportedbythisauthoritativepublication。InsomecasesIhavenothesitatedtoparaphraseconsiderableportionsofitsarticles。
InthenortherncontinentaboriginalAmericareacheditshighestdevelopmentinthreetypicalenvironments。ThefirstoftheseregionscenteredinthevalleyofMexicowheredwelttheAztecs，butitextendedasfarnorthasthePueblosinArizonaandNewMexico。Thespecialfeatureoftheenvironmentwastherelativelydry，warmclimatewiththechiefrainfallinsummer。TheIndianslivinginthisenvironmentwerenotablefortheircomparativelyhighsocialorganizationandforreligiousceremonialswhoseelaboratenesshasrarelybeensurpassed。Onthewhole，thepeopleofthissummerrainorMexicantypewerenotwarlikeandofferedlittleresistancetoEuropeanconquest。Sometribes，tobesure，foughtfiercelyatfirst，butyieldedwithinafewyears;therestsubmittedtothelordlySpaniardsalmostwithoutamurmur。
Theircivilization，ifsuchwemaycallit，hadlongagoseenitsbestdays。Theperiodofenergyandprogresshadpassed，andatimeofinertiaanddecayhadsetin。AcenturyaftertheSpaniardshadovercometheaboriginesofMexico，otherEuropeans——French，English，andDutch——cameintocontactwithasturdiertypeofredman，bestrepresentedbytheIroquoisorFiveNationsofcentralNewYork。Thismoreactivetypedweltinaphysicalenvironmentnotablefortwofeatures——theabundanceofcyclonicstormsbringingrainorsnowatallseasonsandthedeciduousforestwhichthicklycoveredthewholeregion。UnliketheMexican，thecivilizationoftheIroquoiswasyoung，vigorous，andgrowing。IthadnotlearnedtoexpressitselfindurablearchitecturalformslikethoseofMexico，norcoulditrivaltheoldertypeinsocialandreligiousorganization。Inpoliticalorganization，however，theFiveNationshadsurpassedtheotheraboriginalpeoplesofNorthAmerica。WhenthewhitemanbecameacquaintedwiththeIroquoisintheseventeenthcentury，hefoundfiveoftheirtribesorganizedintoaremarkableconfederationwhoseavowedobjectwastoabolishwaramongthemselvesandtosecuretoallthemembersthepeacefulexerciseoftheirrightsandprivileges。Sowellwastheconfederationorganizedthat，inspiteofwarwithitsenemies，itpersistedforatleasttwohundredyears。OneofthechiefcharacteristicsoftheIroquoiswastheirtremendousenergy。TheyweresoenergeticthattheypursuedtheirenemieswithanimplacablerelentlessnesssimilartotherestlesseagernesswithwhichthepeopleoftheregionfromNewYorktoChicagonowpursuetheirbusinessenterprises。ThisledtheIroquoistotorturetheirprisonerswiththeutmostingenuityandcruelty。Notonlydidthesavagesburnandmutilatetheircaptives，buttheysometimesaddedthelastrefinementoftorturebycompellingthesufferingwretchestoeatpiecesoffleshcutfromtheirownbodies。Energymayleadtohighcivilization，butitmayalsoleadtoexcessesofevil。ThethirdprominentaboriginaltypewasthatofthefishermenofthecoastofBritishColumbia，especiallytheHaidasoftheQueenCharlotteIslands。Themostimportantfeaturesoftheirenvironmentwerethesubmergedcoastwithitseasynavigation，themildoceanicclimate，andthedensepineforests。
TheHaidas，liketheIroquois，appeartohavebeenapeoplewhowerestilladvancing。Suchasitwas，theirgreatnesswasapparentlytheproductoftheirowningenuityandnot，likethatoftheMexicans，aninheritancefromagreaterpast。TheHaidaslackedtherelentlessenergyoftheIroquoisandsharedthecomparativelygentlecharacterwhichprevailedamongalltheIndiansalongthePacificCoast。Theywerebynomeansweaklings，however。Commercially，forinstance，theyseemtohavebeenmoreadvancedthananyNorthAmericantribeexceptthoseintheMexicanarea。Inarchitecturetheystoodequallyhigh。WearepronetothinkoftheMexicansasthebestarchitectsamongtheaborigines，butwhenthewhitemancameeventheAztecsweremerelyimitatingtheworkoftheirpredecessors。TheHaidas，onthecontrary，wereshowingrealoriginality。Theyhadnostonewithwhichtobuild，fortheircountryissodenselyforestedthatstoneisrarelyvisible。Theywereremarkablyskillful，however，inhewinggreatbeamsfromtheforest。Withthesetheyconstructedhouseswhosecarvedtotempolesandgracefulfacadesgavepromiseofanarchitectureofgreatbeauty。Takingintoaccountthedifficultiespresentedbyamaterialwhichwasnotdurableandbytoolswhichwerenothingbutbitsofstone，wemustregardtheirtotempolesandmuraldecorationsasrealcontributionstoprimitivearchitecture。
Inadditiontothesethreehighesttypesoftheredmanthereweremanyothers。Each，asweshallsee，oweditspeculiaritieslargelytothephysicalsurroundingsinwhichitlived。Ofcoursedifferenttribespossesseddifferentdegreesofinnateability，butthechiefdifferencesintheirhabitsandmodeoflifearosefromthetopography，theclimate，theplants，andtheanimalswhichformedthegeographicalsettingoftheirhomes。
InpreviouschapterswehavegainedsomeideaofthetopographyoftheNewWorldandoftheclimateinitsrelationtoplantsandanimals。Wehavealsoseenthatclimatehasmuchtodowithhumanenergy。Wehavenot，however，gainedasufficientlyclearideaofthedistributionofclimaticenergy。Amapoftheworldshowinghowenergywouldbedistributedifitdependedentirelyuponclimateclarifiesthesubject。Thedarkshadingofthemapindicatesthoseregionswhereenergyishighest。Itisbaseduponmeasurementsofthestrengthofscoresofindividuals，uponthescholasticrecordsofhundredsofcollegestudents，uponthepieceworkofthousandsoffactoryoperatives，anduponmillionsofdeathsandbirthsinascoreofdifferentcountries。Ittakesaccountofthreechiefclimaticconditions——temperature，humidity，andvariability。Italsotakesaccountofmentalaswellasphysicalability。Underneathitisamapofthedistributionofcivilizationonthebasisoftheopinionoffiftyauthoritiesinfifteendifferentcountries。Thesimilarityofthetwomapsissostrikingthattherecanbelittlequestionthattodaythedistributionofcivilizationagreescloselywiththedistributionofclimaticenergy。WhenEgypt，Babylonia，Greece，andRomewereattheheightoftheirpowerthisagreementwaspresumablythesame，forthestormbeltwhichnowgivesvariabilityandhenceenergytothethicklyshadedregionsinourtwomapsthenapparentlylayfarthersouth。ItisgenerallyconsideredthatnoracehasbeenmorecloselydependentuponphysicalenvironmentthanweretheIndians。Why，then，didtheenergizingeffectofclimateapparentlyhavelesseffectuponthemthanupontheothergreatraces？WhywerenotthemostadvancedIndiantribesfoundinthesameplaceswherewhitecivilizationistodaymostadvanced？Climaticchangesmightinpartaccountforthedifference，but，althoughsuchchangesapparentlytookplaceonalargescaleinearliertimes，thereisnoevidenceofanythingexceptminorfluctuationssincethedaysofthefirstwhitesettlements。Racialinheritancelikewisemayaccountforsomeofthedifferencesamongthevarioustribes，butitwasprobablynotthechieffactor。Thatfactorwasapparentlytheconditionofagricultureamongpeoplewhohadneitherirontoolsnorbeastsofburden。Civilizationhasnevermademuchprogressexceptwhentherehasbeenapermanentcultivationoftheground。Ithasbeensaidthat\"thehistoryofagricultureisthehistoryofmaninhismostprimitiveandmostpermanentaspect。\"IfweexaminetheachievementsandmanneroflifeoftheIndiansinrelationtotheeffectofclimateuponagricultureandhumanenergy，aswellasinrelationtothemoreobviousfeaturesoftopographyandvegetation，weshallunderstandwhythepeopleofaboriginalAmericainonepartofthecontinentdifferedsogreatlyfromthoseinanotherpart。InthefarnorththestateoftheinhabitantstodayisscarcelydifferentfromwhatitwasinthedaysofColumbus。Then，asnow，theEskimoshadpracticallynopoliticalorsocialorganizationbeyondthefamilyorthelittlegroupofrelativeswholivedinasinglecamp。Theyhadnopermanentvillages，butmovedfromplacetoplaceaccordingtotheseasoninsearchoffish，game，andbirds。Theylivedthissimplelifenotbecausetheylackedabilitybutbecauseoftheirsurroundings。Theirkayaksorcanoesaremarvelsofingenuity。
Withnomaterialsexceptbones，driftwood，andskinstheymadeboatswhichfulfilledtheirpurposewithextraordinaryperfection。Seatedinthesmall，roundholewhichistheonlyopeninginthedeckofhiscanoe，theEskimohuntertieshisskinjackettightlyoutsidethecirculargunwaleandisthusshutintoapracticallywater-tightcompartment。Thoughthewavesdashoverhim，scarcelyadropentersthecraftasheskimsalongwithhisdoublepaddleamongcakesoffloatingice。So，too，thesnowhousewithitsanteroomsandcurvedentrancepassageisascleveranadaptationtotheneedsofwanderersinalandoficeandsnowasistheskyscrapertotheneedsofabusycommercialpeoplecrowdedintogreatcities。Thefactthattheoilburning，soapstonelampsoftheEskimoweretheonlymeansofproducingartificiallightinaboriginalAmerica，exceptbyordinaryfires，isanothertributetotheingenuityofthesenortherners。So，too，isthefire-drillbywhichtheyalonedevisedameansofincreasingthespeedwithwhichonestickcouldbetwirledagainstanothertoproducefire。InviewofthesecleverinventionsitseemssafetosaythattheEskimohasremainedanomadicsavagenotbecausehelacksinventiveskillbutpartlybecausetheclimatedeadenshisenergiesandstillmorebecauseitforbidshimtopracticeagriculture。
SouthwardandinlandfromthecoastalhomesoftheEskimoliesthegreatregionofthenorthernpineforests。ItextendsfromtheinteriorofAlaskasoutheastwardinsuchawayastoincludemostoftheCanadianRockies，thenorthernplainsfromGreatBearLakealmosttoLakeWinnipeg，andmostofthegreatLaurentianshieldaroundHudsonBayandinthepeninsulaofLabrador。ExceptamongtheinhabitantsofthenarrowPacificslopeandthoseoftheshoresofLabradorandtheSt。LawrenceValley，asingletypeofbarbarismprevailedamongtheIndiansofallthevastpineforestarea。Onlyinasmallsectionofthewheat-raisingplainsofAlbertaandSaskatchewanhavetheirhabitsgreatlychangedbecauseofthearrivalofthewhiteman。NowasalwaystheIndiansinthesenorthernregionsareheldbackbythelong，benumbingwinters。Theycannotpracticeagriculture，fornocropswillgrow。Theycannotdependtoanygreatextentuponnaturalvegetation，forasidefromblueberries，afewlichens，andoneortwootherequallyinsignificantproducts，theforestsfurnishnofoodexceptanimals。Theselowlypeopleseemtohavebeensooccupiedwiththeseverestrugglewiththeelementsthattheycouldnotevenadvanceoutofsavageryintobarbarism。Theywerehomelessnomadswhosemovementsweredeterminedlargelybythefoodsupply。
AmongtheAthapascanswhooccupiedallthewesternpartofthenorthernpineforests，clothingwasmadeofdeerskinswiththehairlefton。Thelodgeswerelikewiseofdeerorcaribouskins，althoughfarthersouththeseweresometimesreplacedbybark。Thefoodofthesetribesconsistedofcaribou，deer，moose，andmusk-oxtogetherwithsmalleranimalssuchasthebeaverandhare。Theyalsoatevariouskindsofbirdsandthefishfoundinthenumerouslakesandrivers。Theykilleddeerbydrivingthemintoanangleformedbytwoconvergingrowsofstakes，wheretheywereshotbyhunterslyinginwait。AmongtheKawchodinnetribenearGreatBearLakehareswerethechiefsourceofbothfoodandclothing。Whenanunusuallyseverewinterorsomeotherdisasterdiminishedthesupply，theIndiansbelievedthattheanimalshadmountedtotheskybymeansofthetreesandwouldreturnbythesameway。In1841owingtoscarcityofharesmanyofthistribediedofstarvation，andnumerousactsofcannibalismaresaidtohaveoccurred。Smallwonderthatcivilizationwaslowandthatinfanticide，especiallyoffemalechildren，wascommon。Amongsuchpeoplewomenwerenaturallytreatedwithaminimumofrespect。Sincetheywerenotskilledashunters，therewasrelativelylittlewhichtheycouldcontributetowardthesustenanceofthefamily。Hencetheywereheldinlowesteem，foramongmostprimitivepeoplewomanisvaluedlargelyinproportiontohereconomiccontribution。HerlowpositionisillustratedbythepeculiarfuneralcustomoftheTakulli，anAthapascantribeontheUpperFrazerRiver。Awidowwasobligedtoremainuponthefuneralpyreofherhusbandtilltheflamesreachedherownbody。
Whenthefirehaddieddownshecollectedtheashesofherdeadandplacedtheminabasket，whichshewasobligedtocarrywithherduringthreeyearsofservitudeinthefamilyofherhusband。
Attheendofthattimeafeastwasheld，whenshewasreleasedfromthraldomandpermittedtoremarryifshedesired。
Pooranddegradedasthepeopleofthenorthernforestsmayhavebeen，theyhadtheirgoodtraits。TheKutchinsoftheYukonandLowerMackenzieregions，thoughtheykilledtheirfemalechildren，wereexceedinglyhospitableandkeptguestsformonths。
Eachheadofafamilytookhisturninfeastingthewholeband。
Onsuchoccasionsetiquetterequiredthehosttofastuntiltheguestshaddeparted。Atsuchfeastsaninterestingwrestlinggamewasplayed。Firstthesmallestboysbegantowrestle。Thevictorswrestledwiththosenextinstrengthandsoonuntilfinallythestrongestandfreshestmaninthebandremainedthefinalvictor。
Thenthegirlsandwomenwentthroughthesameprogressivecontest。ItishardtodeterminewhetherthepeopleofthenorthernpineforestweremoreorlesscompetentthantheirEskimoneighbors。Itperhapsmakeslittledifference，foritisdoubtfulwhetherevenaracewithbrilliantnaturalendowmentscouldrisefarinthescaleofcivilizationunderconditionssohighlyadverse。
TheEskimosofthenortherncoastsandthepeopleofthepineforestswerenottheonlyaborigineswhosedevelopmentwasgreatlyretardedbecausetheycouldnotpracticeagriculture。AllthepeopleofthePacificcoastfromAlaskatoLowerCaliforniawereinsimilarcircumstances。NeverthelessthoselivingalongthenorthernpartofthiscoastrosetoamuchhigherlevelthandidthoseofCalifornia。Thishassometimesbeensupposedtoshowthatgeographicalenvironmenthaslittleinfluenceuponcivilization，butinrealityitprovesexactlytheopposite。
ThecoastofBritishColumbiawasoneofthethreechiefcentersofaboriginalAmerica。AsTheEncyclopaediaBritannica*putsit：
\"TheHaidapeopleconstitutedwithlittledoubtthefinestraceandthatmostadvancedintheartsoftheentirewestcoastofNorthAmerica。\"TheyandtheiralmostequallyadvancedTlingitandTsimshianneighborsonthemainlanddisplayedmuchmechanicalskill，especiallyincanoe-building，woodcarving，andtheworkingofstoneandcopper，aswellasinmakingblanketsandbaskets。
Tothisdaytheyearnaconsiderableamountofmoneybysellingtheircarvedobjectsofwoodandslatetotradersandtourists。
Theircanoeswerehollowedoutoflogsofcedarandwereoftenverylarge。Houseswhichweresometimes40by100feetwerebuiltofhugecedarbeamsandplanks，whichwerefirstworkedwithstoneandwerethenputtogetheratgreatfeasts。Thesecorrespondtothe\"raisingbees\"atwhichtheneighborsgatheredtoerecttheframesofhousesinearlyNewEngland。EachHaidahouseordinarilyhadasinglecarvedtotempoleinthemiddleofthegableendwhichfacedtowardthebeach。Oftentheendpostsinfrontwerealsocarvedandthewholehousewaspainted。
AnotherevidenceofthefairlyadvancedstateoftheHaidaswastheiractivecommercialintercoursewithregionshundredsofmilesaway。Attheir\"potlatches，\"astheraisingbeeswerecalledbythewhites，tradingwentonvigorously。Carvedcopperplateswereamongthearticleswhichtheyesteemedofhighestvalue。Standinginthetribedependedonthepossessionofpropertyratherthanonabilityinwar，inwhichrespecttheHaidasweremorelikethepeopleoftodaythanwereanyoftheotherIndiantribes。
*11thEdition，vol。XXII，p。730。
SlaverywascommonamongtheHaidas。Evenaslateas1861，7800
Tlingitsheld828slaves。Slaverymaynotbeagoodinstitutioninitself，butitindicatesthatpeoplearewell-to-do，thattheydwellinpermanentabodes，andthattheyhaveawell-establishedsocialorder。AmongthemorebackwardIroquois，captivesrarelybecamegenuineslaves，forthesocialandeconomicorganizationwasnotsufficientlydevelopedtoadmitofthis。Thefewcaptiveswhowereretainedafterafightwereadoptedintothetribeofthecaptorsorelsewereallowedtolivewiththemandshiftforthemselves——apracticeverydifferentfromthatoftheHaidas。
AnotherfeatureoftheHaidas’lifewhichshowedcomparativeprogresswasthesocialdistinctionswhichexistedamongthem。
Oneofthewaysinwhichindividualsmaintainedtheirsocialpositionwasbygivingawayquantitiesofgoodsofallkindsatthepotlatcheswhichtheyorganized。Amansometimeswentsofarastostriphimselfofnearlyeverypossessionexcepthishouse。
Inreturnforthis，however，heobtainedwhatseemedtohimanabundantrewardintherespectwithwhichhisfellow-tribesmenafterwardregardedhim。Atsubsequentpotlatcheshereceivedinhisturnameasureoftheirgoodsinproportiontohisowngifts，sothathewassometimesricherthanbefore。Thesepotlatchesweresocialaswellasindustrialfunctions，anddancingandsingingwereinterspersedwiththefeasting。Oneoftheamusementswasamusicalcontestinwhichsingersfromonetribeorbandwouldcontendwithoneanotherastowhichcouldrememberthegreatestnumberofsongsoraccuratelyrepeatanewsongafterhearingitforthefirsttime。Atthepotlatchesthechildrenofchiefswereinitiatedintosecretsocieties。Theyhadtheirnoses，ears，andlipspiercedforornaments，andsomeofthemweretattooed。ThisgreatrespectforsocialpositionwhichtheHaidasmanifestedisdoubtlessfarfromideal，butitatleastindicatesthatapartofthetribewassufficientlyadvancedtoaccumulatepropertyandtopassitontoitsdescendants——acustomthatisalmostimpossibleamongtribeswhichmovefromplacetoplace。Thequestionsuggestsitselfwhythesecoastbarbariansweresomuchinadvanceoftheirneighborsafewhundredmilesawayinthepinewoodsofthemountains。Theclimatewasprobablyonereasonforthissuperiority。InsteadofbeinginaregionlikethecenterofthepineforestsofBritishColumbiawherehumanenergyissappedbysixoreightmonthsofwinter，theHaidasenjoyedconditionslikethoseofScotland。
Althoughsnowfelloccasionally，severecoldwasunknown。Norwastheregreatheatinsummer。TheHaidasdweltwherebothbodilystrengthandmentalactivitywerestimulated。InadditiontothisadvantageofafavorableclimatetheseIndianshadalargeandsteadysupplyoffoodcloseathand。Mostoftheirsustenancewasobtainedfromtheseaandfromtherivers，inwhichtherunsofsalmonfurnishedabundantprovisions，whichrarelyfailed。InHecateStrait，betweentheQueenCharlotteIslandsandthemainland，therewerewonderfullyproductivehalibutfisheries，fromwhichasupplyoffishwasdriedandpackedawayforthewinter，sothattherewasalwaysastoreofprovisionsonhand。
Theforestsintheirturnfurnishedberriesandseeds，aswellasbears，mountaingoats，andothergame。
Moreoverthepeopleofthenorthwestcoasthadtheadvantageofnotbeingforcedtomovefromplacetoplaceinordertofollowthefish。Theylivedonadrownedshorewherebays，straits，andsoundsareextraordinarilynumerous。ThegreatwavesofthePacificareshutoutbytheislandssothatthewaterwaysarealmostalwayssafeforcanoes。Insteadofmovingtheirdwellingsinordertofollowthefoodsupply，astheEskimoandthepeopleofthepineforestwereforcedtodo，theHaidasandtheirneighborswereablewithoutdifficultytobringtheirfoodhome。
Atallseasonsthecanoesmadeiteasytotransportlargesuppliesoffishfromplacesevenahundredmilesaway。Havingsettleddwellings，theHaidascouldaccumulatepropertyandacquirethatfeelingofpermanencewhichisoneofthemostimportantconditionsforthedevelopmentofcivilization。
DoubtlesstheHaidaswereintellectuallysuperiortomanyothertribes，buteveniftheyhadnotbeengreatlysuperior，theirsurroundingswouldprobablyhavemadethemstandrelativelyhighinthescaleofcivilization。SouthwardfromtheHaidas，aroundPugetSoundandinWashingtonandOregon，therewasagradualdeclineincivilization。TheChinookIndiansofthelowerColumbia，beyondthelimitsofthegreatnorthernarchipelago，hadlargecommunalhousesoccupiedbythreeorfourfamiliesoftwentyormoreindividuals。Theirvillageswerethusfairlypermanent，althoughtherewasmuchmovingaboutinsummerowingtothenatureofthefoodsupply，whichconsistedchieflyofsalmon，withrootsandberriesindigenoustotheregion。Thepeoplewerenotedastradersnotonlyamongthemselvesbutwithsurroundingtribes。Theywereextremelyskillfulinhandlingtheircanoes，whichwerewellmade，hollowedoutofsinglelogs，andoftenofgreatsize。Indispositiontheyaredescribedastreacherousanddeceitful，especiallywhentheircupiditywasaroused。Slaveswerecommonandwereusuallyobtainedbybarterfromsurroundingtribes，thoughoccasionallybysuccessfulraids。
TheseIndiansofOregonbynomeansrivaledtheHaidas，fortheirfoodsupplywaslesscertainandtheydidnothavetheadvantageofeasywatercommunication，whichdidsomuchtoraisetheHaidastoahighlevelofdevelopment。
Ofthetribesfarthersouthanobserversays：\"IngeneralrudenessofculturetheCaliforniaIndiansarescarcelyabovetheEskimo，andwhereasthelackofdevelopmentoftheEskimoonmanysidesoftheirnatureisreasonablyattributableinparttotheirdifficultandlimitingenvironment，theIndiansofCaliforniainhabitacountrynaturallyasfavorable，itwouldseem，asitmightbe。Ifthedegreeofcivilizationattainedbyapeopledependsinanylargemeasureontheirhabitat，asdoesnotseemlikely，itmightbeconcludedfromthecaseoftheCaliforniaIndiansthatnaturaladvantageswereanimpedimentratherthananincentivetoprogress。\"Insomeofthetribes，suchastheHupa，forexample，thereexistednoorganizationandnoformalitiesinthegovernmentofthevillage。Formalcouncilswereunknown，althoughthechiefmightandoftendidaskadviceofhismeninacollectedbody。IngeneralthesocialstructureoftheCaliforniaIndianswassosimpleandloosethatitishardlycorrecttospeakoftheirtribes。Whateversolidaritytherewasamongthesepeoplewasdueinparttofamilytiesandinparttothefactthattheylivedinthesamevillageandspokethesamedialect。
BetweendifferentgroupsoftheseIndians，thecommonbondwassimilarityoflanguageaswellasfrequencyandcordialityofintercourse。Insoprimitiveaconditionofsocietytherewasneithernecessitynoropportunityfordifferencesofrank。Theinfluenceofchiefswassmallandnodistinctclassesofslaveswereknown。ExtremepovertywasthechiefcauseofthelowsocialandpoliticalorganizationoftheseIndians。TheMaidusintheSacramentoValleyweresopoorthat，inadditiontoconsumingeverypossiblevegetableproduct，theynotonlydevouredallbirdsexceptthebuzzard，butatebadgers，skunks，wildcats，andmountainlions，andevenconsumedsalmonbonesanddeervertebrae。Theygatheredgrasshoppersandlocustsbydigginglargeshallowpitsinameadoworflat。Then，settingfiretothegrassonallsides，theydrovetheinsectsintothepit。Theirwingsbeingburnedoffbytheflames，thegrasshopperswerehelplessandwerethuscollectedbythebushel。AgainoftheMoquelumne，oneofthelargesttribesincentralCalifornia，itissaidthattheirhousesweresimplyframeworksofpolesandbrushwhichinwinterwerecoveredwithearth。Insummertheyerectedcone-shapedlodgesofpolesamongthemountains。Infavorableyearstheygatheredlargequantitiesofacorns，whichformedtheirprincipalfood，andstoredthemforwinteruseingranariesraisedabovetheground。Often，however，thecropwaspoor，andtheIndianswereleftonthevergeofstarvation。
Finallyinthefarsouth，inthepeninsulaofLowerCalifornia，thetribeswere\"probablythelowestincultureofanyIndiansinNorthAmerica，fortheirinhospitableenvironmentwhichmadethemwanderers，wasunfavorabletothefoundationofgovernmentevenoftherudeandunstablekindfoundelsewhere。\"TheYumantribesofthemountainseastofSantiagoworesandalsofmagueyfiberanddescendedfromtheirownterritoryamongthemountains\"toeatcalabashandotherfruits\"thatgrewbesidetheColoradoRiver。Theyweredescribedas\"verydirtyonaccountofthemuchmescaltheyeat。\"Othersspeakofthemas\"veryfilthyintheirhabits。Toovercomevermintheycoattheirheadswithmudwithwhichtheyalsopainttheirbodies。Onahotdayitisbynomeansunusualtoseethemwallowinginthemudlikepigs。\"Theywere\"exceedinglypoor，havingnoanimalsexceptfoxesofwhichtheyhadafewskins。Thedressofthewomeninsummerwasashirtandabarkskirt。Themenappeartohavebeenpracticallyunclothedduringthisseason。Thepracticeofsellingchildrenseemstohavebeencommon。Theirsustenancewasfish，fruits，vegetables，andseedsofgrass，andmanyofthetribesweresaidtohavebeendreadfullyscorbutic。\"AlittletotheeastofthesedegradedsavagesthemuchmoreadvancedMohavetribehaditshomeonthelowerColoradoRiver。ThecontrastbetweentheseneighboringtribesthrowsmuchlightonthereasonforthelowestateoftheCaliforniaIndians。\"Nobetterexampleofthepowerofenvironmenttobetterman’sconditioncanbefoundthanthatshownasthelowerColoradoisreached。Herearetribesofthesamefamily（asthoseofLowerCalifornia）remarkablenotonlyfortheirfinephysicaldevelopment，butlivinginsettledvillageswithwell-definedtriballines，practisingarude，buteffective，agriculture，andwelladvancedinmanyprimitiveIndianarts。TheusualIndianstapleswereraisedexcepttobacco，thesetribespreferringawildtobaccooftheirregiontothecultivated。\"*
*Hodge，\"HandbookofAmericanIndians。\"
Thisquotationishighlysignificant。WithitshouldbecomparedthefactthatthereisnoevidencethatcornoranythingelsewascultivatedinCaliforniawestoftheRioColoradoValley。
CaliforniaisaregionfamousthroughoutAmericaforitsagriculture，butitscropsareEuropeaninorigin。Eveninthecaseoffruits，suchasthegrape，whichhaveAmericancounterparts，thevarietiesactuallycultivatedwerebroughtfromEurope。Wheatandbarley，thechieffoodstuffsforwhichCaliforniaandsimilarsubtropicalregionsarenoted，wereunknownintheNewWorldbeforethecomingofthewhiteman。Inpre-ColumbianAmericacornwastheonlycultivatedcereal。TheothergreatstaplesofearlyAmericanagriculturewerebeansandpumpkins。AllthreearepreeminentlysummercropsandneedmuchwaterinJulyandAugust。InCaliforniathereisnorainatthisseason。Thoughthefallrains，whichbegintobeabundantinOctoberandNovember，donotaidthesesummercrops，theyfavorwheatandbarley。Thewinterrainsandthecomparativelywarmwinterweatherpermitthesegrainstogrowslowlybutcontinuously。Whenthewarmspringarrives，thereisstillenoughraintopermitwheatandbarleytomakearapidgrowthandtomaturetheirseedslongbeforethelong，drysummerbegins。ThecomparativelydryweatherofMayandJuneisjustwhatthesecerealsneedtoripenthecrop，butitisfataltoanykindofagriculturewhichdependsonsummerrain。
CropscanofcoursebegrownduringthesummerinCaliforniabymeansofirrigation，butthisisrarelyasimpleprocess。IfirrigationistobeeffectiveinCalifornia，itcannotdependonthesmallstreamswhichpracticallydryupduringthelong，rainlesssummer，butitmustdependoncomparativelylargestreamswhichflowinwell-definedchannels。Withourmodernknowledgeandmachineryitiseasyforustomakecanalsandditchesandtopreparethelevelfieldsneededtoutilizethiswater。Apeoplewithnoknowledgeofagriculture，however，andwithnoirontoolscannotsuddenlybegintopracticeacomplexandhighlydevelopedsystemofagriculture。InCaliforniathereislittleornoneofthenaturalsummerirrigationwhich，incertainpartsofAmerica，appearstohavebeenthemostimportantfactorleadingtothefirststepsintillingtheground。ThelowerColorado，however，floodsbroadareaseverysummer。Here，asontheNile，theretiringfloodsleavethelandsomoistthatcropscaneasilyberaised。HencetheMohaveIndianswereabletopracticeagricultureandtorisewellabovetheirkinsmennotonlyinLowerCaliforniabutthroughoutthewholeState。
IntheRockyMountainregionoftheUnitedStates，justasonthePacificcoast，theconditionofthetribesdeterioratedmoreandmorethefarthertheylivedtothesouth。Intheregionswheretherainfallcomesinsummer，however，andhencefavorsprimitiveagriculture，therewasamarkedimprovement。TheKutenaitribeslivednearthecornerwhereIdaho，Montana，andBritishColumbianowmeet。Theyappeartohavebeenofratherhighgrade，noteworthyfortheirmorality，kindness，andhospitality。MorethananyotherIndiansoftheRockyMountainregion，theyavoideddrunkennessandlewdintercoursewiththewhites。Theirmentalabilitywascomparativelyhigh，asappearsfromtheirskillinbuffalo-hunting，inmakingdugoutsandbarkcanoes，andinconstructingsweat-housesandlodgesofbothskinsandrushes。
EventodaythelowerKutenaiarenotedfortheirwater-tightbasketsofsplitroots。Moreoverthedegreetowhichtheyusedtheplantsthatgrewaboutthemforfood，medicine，andeconomicalpurposeswasnoteworthy。Theyalsohadanestheticappreciationofseveralplantsandflowers——agiftrareamongIndians。Thesepeoplelivedinthezoneofmoststimulatingclimateand，althoughtheydidnotpracticeagricultureandhadlittleelseintheirsurroundingstohelpthemtoriseabovethecommonlevel，theydweltinaregionwheretherewasrainenoughinsummertopreventtheirbeingonthevergeofstarvation，astheIndiansofCaliforniausuallywere。Moreovertheywerenearenoughtothehauntsofthebuffalotodependonthatgreatbeastforfood。Sinceonebuffalosuppliesasmuchfoodasahundredrabbits，theseIndianswerevastlybetteroffthanthepeopleofthedrierpartsofthewesterncoast。
SouthofthehomeoftheKutenai，ineasternOregon，southernIdaho，Nevada，Utah，andneighboringregionsdwelttheUtesandotherShoshonitribes。Inthisregiontherainfall，whichisnogreaterthanthatofCalifornia，occurschieflyinwinter。Thelongsummerissodrythat，exceptbyhighlydevelopedmethodsofirrigation，agricultureisimpossible。Henceitisnotsurprisingtofindatravelerin1850describingonetribeoftheUtefamilyas\"withoutexceptionthemostmiserablelookingsetofhumanbeingsIeversaw。Theyhavehithertosubsistedprincipallyonsnakes，lizards，roots。\"ThelowestofalltheUtetribeswerethosewholivedinthesage-brush。Theearlyexplorer，Bonneville，foundthetribesofSnakeRiverwinteringinbrushshelterswithoutroofsmerelyheapsofbrushpiledhigh，behindwhichtheIndianscrouchedforprotectionfromwindandsnow。
Crudeassuchsheltersmayseem，theywerethebestthatcouldbeconstructedbypeoplewhodweltwheretherewasnovegetationexceptlittlebushes，andwherethesoilwasforthemostpartsandyorsosaltythatitcouldnoteasilybemadeintoadobebricks。
ThefoodoftheseUtesandShoshoniswasnobetterthantheirshelters。Therewerenolargeanimalsforthemtohunt;rabbitswerethebestthattheycouldfind。Farthertotheeast，wherethebuffalowanderedduringpartoftheyearandwheretherearesomeforests，thefoodwasbetter，thesheltersweremoreeffective，and，ingeneral，thestandardoflivingwashigher，althoughraciallythetwogroupsofpeoplewerealike。Inthiscase，asinothers，thepeoplewhoseconditionwaslowestwereapparentlyascompetentasthosewhosematerialconditionsweremuchbetter。Today，althoughtheUteIndians，likemostoftheirrace，areratherslow，sometribes，suchasthePayutes，aredescribedasnotonly\"peacefulandmoral，\"butalso\"industrious。\"Theyarehighlycommendedfortheirgoodqualitiesbythosewhohavehadthebestopportunitiesforjudging。Whilenotasbrightinintellectassomeoftheprairietribeswhomweshallsoonconsider，theyappeartopossessmoresolidityofcharacter。Bytheirwillingnessandefficiencyasworkerstheyhavemadethemselvesnecessarytothewhitefarmersandhavethussuppliedthemselveswithgoodclothingandmanyofthecomfortsoflife。Theyhaveresisted，too，manyoftheevilscomingfromtheadvanceofcivilization，sothatoneagentspeaksoftheseIndiansaspresentingthesingularanomalyofimprovingbycontactwiththewhites。ApparentlytheirextremelylowconditioninformertimeswasduemerelytothatsamehandicapofenvironmentwhichkeptbacktheIndiansofCalifornia。
ComparethesebackwardbutnotwhollyungiftedUteswiththeHopiwhobelongedtothesamestock。Therelativelyhighsocialorganizationofthelatterpeopleandtheintricacyandsignificanceoftheirreligiousceremonialsarewellknown。