takesomeotherkindofwickednessundertheirpatronage，andwonderatthedepravityoftheirancestors。Noristhisall。Posterity，thathighcourtofappealwhichisnevertiredofeulogizingitsownjusticeanddiscernment，actsonsuchoccasionslikeaRomandictatorafterageneralmutiny。Findingthedelinquentstoonumeroustobeallpunished，itselectssomeofthemathazard，tobearthewholepenaltyofanoffenceinwhichtheyarenotmoredeeplyimplicatedthanthosewhoescape。Whetherdecimationbeaconvenientmodeofmilitaryexecution，weknownot；butwesolemnlyprotestagainsttheintroductionofsuchaprincipleintothephilosophyofhistory。
Inthepresentinstance，thelothasfallenonMachiavelli，amanwhosepublicconductwasuprightandhonorable，whoseviewsofmorality，wheretheydifferedfromthoseofthepersonsaroundhim，seemedtohavedifferedforthebetter，andwhoseonlyfaultwas，that，havingadoptedsomeofthemaximsthengenerallyreceived，hearrangedthemmoreluminously，andexpressedthemmoreforcibly，thananyotherwriter。
Havingnow，wehope，insomedegreeclearedthepersonalcharacterofMachiavelli，wecometotheconsiderationofhisworks。Asapoet，heisnotentitledtoaveryhighplace；4butthecomediesdeservemoreattention。
[Footnote4：IntheoriginalessayMacaulayhadheresomecriticalremarksonthepoetryofMachiavelli，butheomittedthemonrepublication。]
The\"Mandragola，\"inparticular，issuperiortothebestofGoldoni，andinferioronlytothebestofMoliere。Itistheworkofamanwho，ifhehaddevotedhimselftothedrama，wouldprobablyhaveattainedthehighesteminence，andproducedapermanentandsalutaryeffectonthenationaltaste。
Thisweinfer，notsomuchfromthedegreeasfromthekindofitsexcellence。
Therearecompositionswhichindicatestillgreatertalent，andwhichareperusedwithstillgreaterdelight，fromwhichweshouldhavedrawnverydifferentconclusions。Booksquiteworthlessarequiteharmless。Thesuresignofthegeneraldeclineofanartisthefrequentoccurrence，notofdeformity，butofmisplacedbeauty。Ingeneral，tragedyiscorruptedbyeloquence，andcomedybywit。
Therealobjectofthedramaistheexhibitionofhumancharacter。This，weconceive，isnoarbitrarycanon，originatinginlocalandtemporaryassociations，likethosecanonswhichregulatethenumberofactsinaplay，orofsyllablesinaline。Tothisfundamentallaweveryotherregulationissubordinate。Thesituationswhichmostsignallydevelopcharacterformthebestplot。Themothertongueofthepassionsisthebeststyle。
Thisprinciple，rightlyunderstood，doesnotdebarthepoetfromanygraceofcomposition。Thereisnostyleinwhichsomemanmaynot，undersomecircumstances，expresshimself。Thereis，therefore，nostylewhichthedramarejects，nonewhichitdoesnotoccasionallyrequire。Itisinthediscernmentofplace，oftime，andofperson，thattheinferiorartistsfail。ThefantasticrhapsodyofMercutio，theelaboratedeclamationofAntony，are，whereShakespearehasplacedthem，naturalandpleasing。ButDrydenwouldhavemadeMercutiochallengeTybaltinhyperbolesasfancifulasthoseinwhichhedescribesthechariotofMab。CorneillewouldhaverepresentedAntonyasscoldingandcoaxingCleopatrawithallthemeasuredrhetoricofafuneraloration。
NowritershaveinjuredthecomedyofEnglandsodeeplyasCongreveandSheridan。Bothweremenofsplendidwitandpolishedtaste。Unhappily，theymadealltheircharactersintheirownlikeness。Theirworksbearthesamerelationtothelegitimatedramawhichatransparencybearstoapainting。
Therearenodelicatetouches，nohuesimperceptiblyfadingintoeachother：
thewholeislightedupwithauniversalglare。Outlinesandtintsareforgotteninthecommonblazewhichilluminatesall。Theflowersandfruitsoftheintellectabound；butitistheabundanceofajungle，notofagarden，unwholesome，bewildering，unprofitablefromitsveryplenty，rankfromitsveryfragrance。
Everyfop，everyboor，everyvalet，isamanofwit。Theverybuttsanddupes，Tattle，Witwould，Puff，Acres，outshinethewholeHotelofRambouillet。
Toprovethewholesystemofthisschoolerroneous，itisonlynecessarytoapplythetestwhichdissolvedtheenchantedFlorimel，toplacethetruebythefalseThalia，tocontrastthemostcelebratedcharacterswhichhavebeendrawnbythewritersofwhomwespeakwiththeBastardin\"KingJohn，\"ortheNursein\"RomeoandJuliet。\"ItwasnotsurelyfromwantofwitthatShakespeareadoptedsodifferentamanner。BenedickandBeatricethrowMirabelandMillamant5intotheshade。AllthegoodsayingsofthefacetioushoursofAbsoluteandSurfacemighthavebeenclippedfromthesinglecharacterofFalstaffwithoutbeingmissed。ItwouldhavebeeneasyforthatfertilemindtohavegivenBardolphandShallowasmuchwitasPrinceHal，andtohavemadeDogberryandVergesretortoneachotherinsparklingepigrams。
Butheknewthatsuchindiscriminateprodigalitywas，tousehisownadmirablelanguage，\"fromthepurposeofplaying，whoseend，bothatthefirstandnow，was，andis，tohold，asitwere，themirroruptonature。\"
[Footnote5：InCongreve’s\"WayoftheWorld。\"]
Thisdigressionwillenableourreaderstounderstandwhatwemeanwhenwesay，that，inthe\"Mandragola，\"Machiavellihasprovedthathecompletelyunderstoodthenatureofthedramaticart，andpossessedtalentswhichwouldhaveenabledhimtoexcelinit。Bythecorrectandvigorousdelineationofhumannature，itproducesinterestwithoutapleasingorskillfulplot，andlaughterwithouttheleastambitionofwit。Thelover，notaverydelicateorgenerouslover，andhisadvisertheparasite，aredrawnwithspirit。
Thehypocriticalconfessorisanadmirableportrait。Heis，ifwemistakenot，theoriginalofFatherDominic，6thebestcomiccharacterofDryden。ButoldNiciasisthegloryofthepiece。Wecannotcalltomindanythingthatresembleshim。ThefollieswhichMoliereridiculesarethoseofaffectation，notthoseoffatuity。Coxcombsandpedants，notabsolutesimpletons，arehisgame。Shakespearehasindeedavastassortmentoffools；buttheprecisespeciesofwhichwespeakisnot，ifwerememberright，tobefoundthere。
Shallowisafool。Buthisanimalspiritssupply，toacertaindegree，theplaceofcleverness。HistalkistothatofSirJohnwhatsoda-wateristochampagne。
Ithastheeffervescence，thoughnotthebodyortheflavor。SlenderandSirAndrewAguecheekarefools，troubledwithanuneasyconsciousnessoftheirfolly，which，inthelatter，producesmeeknessanddocility，andintheformer，awkwardness，obstinacy，andconfusion。Clotenisanarrogantfool，Osricafoppishfool，Ajaxasavagefool；butNiciasis，asThersitessaysofPatroclus，afoolpositive。Hismindisoccupiedbynostrongfeeling；ittakeseverycharacter，andretainsnone；itsaspectisdiversified，notbypassions，butbyfaintandtransitorysemblancesofpassion，amockjoy，amockfear，amocklove，amockpride，whichchaseeachotherlikeshadowsoveritssurface，andvanishassoonastheyappear。Heisjustidiotenoughtobeanobject，notofpityorhorror，butofridicule。HebearssomeresemblancetopoorCalandrino，whosemishaps，asrecountedbyBoccaccio，havemadeallEuropemerryformorethanfourcenturies。HeperhapsresemblesstillmorecloselySimondeVilla，towhomBrunoandBuffalmaccopromisedtheloveoftheCountessCivillari。Niciasis，likeSimon，ofalearnedprofession；
andthedignitywithwhichhewearsthedoctoralfurrendershisabsurditiesinfinitelymoregrotesque。TheoldTuscanistheverylanguageforsuchabeing。
Itspeculiarsimplicitygiveseventothemostforciblereasoningandthemostbrilliantwitaninfantineair，generallydelightful，buttoaforeignreadersometimesalittleludicrous。Heroesandstatesmenseemtolispwhentheyuseit。ItbecomesNiciasincomparably，andrendersallhissillinessinfinitelymoresilly。
[Footnote6：InDryden’s\"SpanishFriar。\"]
Wemayadd，thattheverseswithwhichthe\"Mandragola\"isinterspersedappeartoustobethemostspiritedandcorrectofallthatMachiavellihaswritteninmetre。Heseemstohaveentertainedthesameopinion，forhehasintroducedsomeoftheminotherplaces。Thecontemporariesoftheauthorwerenotblindtothemeritsofthisstrikingpiece。ItwasactedatFlorencewiththegreatestsuccess。LeoXwasamongitsadmirers，andbyhisorderitwasrepresentedatRome。7
[Footnote7：NothingcanbemoreevidentthanthatPaulusJoviusdesignatesthe\"Mandragola\"underthenameofthe\"Nicias。\"Weshouldnothavenoticedwhatissoperfectlyobvious，wereitnotthatthisnaturalandpalpablemisnomerhasledthesagaciousandindustriousBayleintoagrosserror-M。]
The\"Clizia\"isanimitationofthe\"Casina\"ofPlautus，whichisitselfanimitationofthelostkxnpoumevolofDiphilus。8Plautuswas，unquestionably，oneofthebestLatinwriters；butthe\"Casina\"isbynomeansoneofhisbestplays，norisitonewhichoffersgreatfacilitiestoanimitator。
Thestoryisasalienfrommodernhabitsoflifeasthemannerinwhichitisdevelopedfromthemodernfashionofcomposition。Theloverremainsinthecountryandtheheroineinherchamberduringthewholeaction，leavingtheirfatetobedecidedbyafoolishfather，acunningmother，andtwoknavishservants。
Machiavellihasexecutedhistaskwithjudgmentandtaste。Hehasaccommodatedtheplottoadifferentstateofsociety，andhasverydexterouslyconnecteditwiththehistoryofhisowntimes。Therelationofthetrickputonthedotingoldloverisexquisitelyhumorous。ItisfarsuperiortothecorrespondingpassageintheLatincomedy，andscarcelyyieldstotheaccountwhichFalstaffgivesofhisducking。
[Footnote8：AwriteroftheGreek\"NewComedy，\"
whichfollowedthatofAristophanes。]
Twoothercomedies，withouttitles，theoneinprose，theotherinverse，appearamongtheworksofMachiavelli。Theformerisveryshort，livelyenough，butofnogreatvalue。Thelatterwecanscarcelybelievetobegenuine。Neitheritsmeritsnoritsdefectsremindusofthereputedauthor。Itwasfirstprintedin1796，fromamanuscriptdiscoveredinthecelebratedlibraryoftheStrozzi。Itsgenuineness，ifwehavebeenrightlyinformed，isestablishedsolelybythecomparisonofhands。Oursuspicionsarestrengthenedbythecircumstance，thatthesamemanuscriptcontainedadescriptionoftheplagueof1527，whichhasalso，inconsequence，beenaddedtotheworksofMachiavelli。Ofthislastcomposition，thestrongestexternalevidencewouldscarcelyinduceustobelievehimguilty。Nothingwaseverwrittenmoredetestableinmatterandmanner。Thenarrations，thereflections，thejokes，thelamentations，arealltheveryworstoftheirrespectivekinds，atoncetriteandaffected，threadbaretinselfromtheRagFairs9andMonmouthstreets9ofliterature。Afoolishschoolboymightwritesuchapiece，and，afterhehadwrittenit，thinkitmuchfinerthantheincomparableintroductionof\"TheDecameron。\"Butthatashrewdstatesman，whoseearliestworksarecharacterizedbymanlinessofthoughtandlanguage，should，atnearsixtyyearsofage，descendtosuchpuerility，isutterlyinconceivable。
[Footnote9：Old-clothesmarketsinLondon。]
Thelittlenovelof\"Belphegor\"ispleasantlyconceived，andpleasantlytold。
Buttheextravaganceofthesatireinsomemeasureinjuresitseffect。
Machiavelliwasunhappilymarried；andhiswishtoavengehisowncause，andthatofhisbrethreninmisfortune，carriedhimbeyondeventhelicenseoffiction。Jonsonseemstohavecombinedsomehintstakenfromthistale，withothersfromBoccaccio，intheplotof\"TheDevilisanAss，\"aplaywhich，thoughnotthemosthighlyfinishedofhiscompositions，isperhapsthatwhichexhibitsthestrongestproofsofgenius。
ThepoliticalcorrespondenceofMachiavelli，firstpublishedin1767，isunquestionablygenuine，andhighlyvaluable。Theunhappycircumstancesinwhichhiscountrywasplacedduringthegreaterpartofhispubliclifegaveextraordinaryencouragementtodiplomatictalents。FromthemomentthatCharlesVIIIdescendedfromtheAlpsthewholecharacterofItalianpoliticswaschanged。ThegovernmentsofthePeninsulaceasedtoformanindependentsystem。Drawnfromtheiroldorbitbytheattractionofthelargerbodieswhichnowapproachthem，theybecamemeresatellitesofFranceandSpain。Alltheirdisputes，internalandexternal，weredecidedbyforeigninfluence。Thecontestsofoppositefactionswerecarriedon，notasformerlyintheSenatehouseorinthemarket-place，butintheante-chambersofLouisandFerdinand。Underthesecircumstances，theprosperityoftheItalianStatesdependedfarmoreontheabilityoftheirforeignagents，thanontheconductofthosewhowereintrustedwiththedomesticadministration。Theambassadorhadtodischargefunctionsfarmoredelicatethantransmittingordersofknighthood，introducingtourists，orpresentinghisbrethrenwiththehomageofhishighconsideration。Hewasanadvocatetowhosemanagementthedearestinterestsofhisclientswereintrusted，aspyclothedwithaninviolablecharacter。Insteadofconsulting，byareservedmannerandambiguousstyle，thedignityofthosewhomherepresented，hewastoplungeintoalltheintriguesofthecourtatwhichheresided，todiscoverandflattereveryweaknessoftheprince，andofthefavoritewhogovernedtheprince，andofthelackeywhogovernedthefavorite。Hewastocomplimentthemistress，andbribetheconfessor，topanegyrizeorsupplicate，tolaughorweep，toaccommodatehimselftoeverycaprice，tolulleverysuspicion，totreasureeveryhint，tobeeverything，toobserveeverything，toendureeverything。HighastheartofpoliticalintriguehadbeencarriedinItaly，theseweretimeswhichrequireditall。
OnthesearduouserrandsMachiavelliwasfrequentlyemployed。HewassenttotreatwiththeKingoftheRomansandwiththeDukeofValentinois。
HewastwiceambassadorattheCourtofRome，andthriceatthatofFrance。
Inthesemissions，andinseveralothersofinferiorimportance，heacquittedhimselfwithgreatdexterity。Hisdespatchesformoneofthemostamusingandinstructivecollectionsextant。Thenarrativesareclearandagreeablywritten，theremarksonmenandthingscleverandjudicious。Theconversationsarereportedinaspiritedandcharacteristicmanner。Wefindourselvesintroducedintothepresenceofthemenwho，duringtwentyeventfulyears，swayedthedestiniesofEurope。Theirwitandtheirfolly，theirfretfulnessandtheirmerriment，areexposedtous。Weareadmittedtooverheartheirchat，andtowatchtheirfamiliargestures。Itisinterestingandcurioustorecognize，incircumstanceswhicheludethenoticeofhistorians，thefeebleviolenceandshallowcunningofLouisXII；thebustlinginsignificanceofMaximilian，cursedwithanimpotentpruriencyforrenown，rashyettimid，obstinateyetfickle，alwaysinahurry，yetalwaystoolate；thefierceandhaughtyenergywhichgavedignitytotheeccentricitiesofJulius；thesoftandgracefulmannerswhichmaskedtheinsatiableambitionandtheimplacablehatredofCaesarBorgia。
WehavementionedCaesarBorgia。ItisimpossiblenottopauseforamomentonthenameofamaninwhomthepoliticalmoralityofItalywassostronglypersonified，partiallyblendedwiththesternerlineamentsoftheSpanishcharacter。OntwoimportantoccasionsMachiavelliwasadmittedtohissociety-once，atthemomentwhenCaesar’ssplendidvillainyachieveditsmostsignaltriumph，whenhecaughtinonesnare，andcrushedatoneblow，allhismostformidablerivals；andagainwhen，exhaustedbydisease，andoverwhelmedbymisfortuneswhichnohumanprudencecouldhaveaverted，hewastheprisonerofthedeadliestenemyofhishouse。Theseinterviewsbetweenthegreatestspeculativeandthegreatestpracticalstatesmenoftheagearefullydescribedinthe\"Correspondence，\"andform，perhaps，themostinterestingpartofit。Fromsomepassagesin\"ThePrince，\"andperhapsalsofromsomeindistincttraditions，severalwritershavesupposedaconnectionbetweenthoseremarkablemenmuchcloserthaneverexisted。Theenvoyhasevenbeenaccusedofpromptingthecrimesoftheartfulandmercilesstyrant。
But，fromtheofficialdocuments，itisclearthattheirintercourse，thoughostensiblyamicable，wasinrealityhostile。Itcannotbedoubted，however，thattheimaginationofMachiavelliwasstronglyimpressed，andhisspeculationsongovernmentcolored，bytheobservationswhichhemadeonthesingularcharacterandequallysingularfortunesofamanwho，undersuchdisadvantages，hadachievedsuchexploits；who，whensensuality，variedthroughinnumerableforms，couldnolongerstimulatehissatedmind，foundamorepowerfulanddurableexcitementintheintensethirstofempireandrevenge；whoemergedfromtheslothandluxuryoftheRomanpurplethefirstprinceandgeneraloftheage；who，trainedinanunwarlikeprofession，formedagallantarmyoutofthedregsofanunwarlikepeople；who，afteracquiringsovereigntybydestroyinghisenemies，acquiredpopularitybydestroyinghistools；whohadbeguntoemployforthemostsalutaryendsthepowerwhichhehadattainedbythemostatrociousmeans；whotoleratedwithinthesphereofhisirondespotismnoplundereroroppressorbuthimself；andwhofellatlastamidstthemingledcursesandregretsofapeopleofwhomhisgeniushadbeenthewonder，andmighthavebeenthesalvation。SomeofthosecrimesofBorgiawhichtousappearthemostodious，wouldnot，fromcauseswhichwehavealreadyconsidered，havestruckanItalianofthefifteenthcenturywithequalhorror。PatrioticfeelingalsomightinduceMachiavellitolookwithsomeindulgenceandregretonthememoryoftheonlyleaderwhocouldhavedefendedtheindependenceofItalyagainsttheconfederatespoilersofCambray。
PartIII
Onthissubject，Machiavellifeltmoststrongly。Indeed，theexpulsionoftheforeigntyrants，andtherestorationofthatgoldenagewhichhadprecededtheirruptionofCharlesVIII，wereprojectswhich，atthattime，fascinatedallthemaster-spiritsofItaly。Themagnificentvisiondelightedthegreatbutill-regulatedmindofJulius。Itdividedwithmanuscriptsandsaucers，paintersandfalcons，theattentionofthefrivolousLeo。ItpromptedthegeneroustreasonofMorone。ItimpartedatransientenergytothefeeblemindandbodyofthelastSforza。ItexcitedforonemomentanhonestambitioninthefalseheartofPescara。Ferocityandinsolencewerenotamongthevicesofthenationalcharacter。Tothediscriminatingcrueltiesofpoliticians，committedforgreatendsonselectvictims，themoralcodeoftheItalianswastooindulgent。
But，thoughtheymighthaverecoursetobarbarityasanexpedient，theydidnotrequireitasastimulant。Theyturnedwithloathingfromtheatrocityofthestrangerswhoseemedtolovebloodforitsownsake；who，notcontentwithsubjugating，wereimpatienttodestroy；whofoundafiendishpleasureinrazingmagnificentcities，cuttingthethroatsofenemieswhocriedforquarter，orsuffocatinganunarmedpopulationbythousandsinthecavernstowhichithadfledforsafety。Suchwerethecrueltieswhichdailyexcitedtheterroranddisgustofapeopleamongwhom，tilllately，theworstthatasoldierhadtofearinapitchedbattlewasthelossofhishorseandtheexpenseofhisransom。
TheswinishintemperanceofSwitzerland；thewolfishavariceofSpain；
thegrosslicentiousnessoftheFrench，indulgedinviolationofhospitality，ofdecency，ofloveitself；thewantoninhumanitywhichwascommontoalltheinvaders-hadmadethemobjectsofdeadlyhatredtotheinhabitantsofthePeninsula。Thewealthwhichhadbeenaccumulatedduringcenturiesofprosperityandreposewasrapidlymeltingaway。Theintellectualsuperiorityoftheoppressedpeopleonlyrenderedthemmorekeenlysensibleoftheirpoliticaldegradation。Literatureandtaste，indeed，stilldisguisedwithaflushofhecticlovelinessandbrilliancytheravagesofanincurabledecay。
Theironhadnotyetenteredintothesoul。Thetimewasnotyetcomewheneloquencewastobegagged，andreasontobehoodwinked，whentheharpofthepoetwastobehungonthewillowsofArno，andtherighthandofthepaintertoforgetitscunning。Yetadiscerningeyemighteventhenhaveseenthatgeniusandlearningwouldnotlongsurvivethestateofthingsfromwhichtheyhadsprung，andthatthegreatmenwhosetalentsgavelustretothatmelancholyperiodhadbeenformedundertheinfluenceofhappierdays，andwouldleavenosuccessorsbehindthem。Thetimeswhichshinewiththegreatestsplendorinliteraryhistoryarenotalwaysthosetowhichthehumanmindismostindebted。Ofthiswemaybeconvinced，bycomparingthegenerationwhichfollowsthemwiththatwhichhadprecededthem。Thefirstfruitswhicharereapedunderabadsystemoftenspringfromseedsownunderagoodone。
Thusitwas，insomemeasure，withtheAugustanage。ThusitwaswiththeageofRaphaelandAriosto，ofAldusandVida。
Machiavellideeplyregrettedthemisfortunesofhiscountry，andclearlydiscernedthecauseandtheremedy。ItwasthemilitarysystemoftheItalianpeoplewhichhadextinguishedtheirvaloranddiscipline，andlefttheirwealthaneasypreytoeveryforeignplunderer。Thesecretaryprojectedascheme，alikehonorabletohisheartandtohisintellect，forabolishingtheuseofmercenarytroops，andfororganizinganationalmilitia。
Theexertionswhichhemadetoeffectthisgreatobjectoughtalonetorescuehisnamefromobloquy。Thoughhissituationandhishabitswerepacific，hestudiedwithintenseassiduitythetheoryofwar。Hemadehimselfmasterofallitsdetails。TheFlorentinegovernmententeredintohisviews。Acouncilofwarwasappointed。Leviesweredecreed。Theindefatigableministerflewfromplacetoplaceinordertosuperintendtheexecutionofhisdesign。
Thetimeswere，insomerespects，favorabletotheexperiment。Thesystemofmilitarytacticshadundergoneagreatrevolution。Thecavalrywasnolongerconsideredasformingthestrengthofanarmy。Thehourswhichacitizencouldsparefromhisordinaryemployments，thoughbynomeanssufficienttofamiliarizehimwiththeexerciseofaman-at-arms，mightrenderhimausefulfoot-soldier。Thedreadofaforeignyoke，ofplunder，massacre，andconflagration，mighthaveconqueredthatrepugnancetomilitarypursuitswhichboththeindustryandtheidlenessofgreattownscommonlygenerate。
Foratimetheschemepromisedwell。Thenewtroopsacquittedthemselvesrespectablyinthefield。Machiavellilookedwithparentalraptureonthesuccessofhisplan，andbegantohopethatthearmsofItalymightoncemorebeformidabletothebarbariansoftheTagusandtheRhine。Butthetideofmisfortunecameonbeforethebarrierswhichshouldhavewithstooditwereprepared。Foratime，indeed，Florencemightbeconsideredaspeculiarlyfortunate。FamineandswordandpestilencehaddevastatedthefertileplainsandstatelycitiesofthePo。AllthecursesdenouncedofoldagainstTyreseemedtohavefallenonVenice。Hermerchantsalreadystoodafaroff，lamentingfortheirgreatcity。Thetimeseemednearwhenthesea-weedshouldovergrowhersilentRialto，andthefishermanwashhisnetsinherdesertedarsenal。Napleshadbeenfourtimesconqueredandreconqueredbytyrantsequallyindifferenttoitswelfare，andequallygreedyforitsspoils。
Florence，asyet，hadonlytoenduredegradationandextortion，tosubmittothemandatesofforeignpowers，tobuyoverandoveragain，atanenormousprice，whatwasalreadyjustlyherown，toreturnthanksforbeingwronged，andtoaskpardonforbeingintheright。Shewasatlengthdeprivedoftheblessings，evenofthisinfamousandservilerepose。Hermilitaryandpoliticalinstitutionsweresweptawaytogether。TheMedicireturned，inthetrainofforeigninvaders，fromtheirlongexile。ThepolicyofMachiavelliwasabandoned；andhispublicserviceswererequitedwithpoverty，imprisonment，andtorture。
Thefallenstatesmanstillclungtohisprojectwithunabatedardor。
Withtheviewofvindicatingitfromsomepopularobjections，andofrefutingsomeprevailingerrorsonthesubjectofmilitaryscience，hewrotehis\"SevenBooksontheArtofWar。\"Thisexcellentworkisintheformofadialogue。
TheopinionsofthewriterareputintothemouthofFabrizioColonna，apowerfulnoblemanoftheecclesiasticalState，andanofficerofdistinguishedmeritintheserviceoftheKingofSpain。ColonnavisitsFlorenceonhiswayfromLombardytohisowndomains。HeisinvitedtomeetsomefriendsatthehouseofCosimoRucellai，anamiableandaccomplishedyoungman，whoseearlydeathMachiavellifeelinglydeplores。Afterpartakingofanelegantentertainment，theyretirefromtheheatintothemostshadyrecessesofthegarden。Fabrizioisstruckbythesightofsomeuncommonplants。Cosimosays，that，thoughrareinmoderndays，theyarefrequentlymentionedbytheclassicalauthors，andthathisgrandfather，likemanyotherItalians，amusedhimselfwithpractisingtheancientmethodsofgardening。Fabrizioexpresseshisregretthatthosewho，inlatertimes，affectedthemannersoftheoldRomans，shouldselectforimitationthemosttriflingpursuits。Thisleadstoaconversationonthedeclineofmilitarydiscipline，andonthebestmeansofrestoringit。TheinstitutionoftheFlorentinemilitiaisablydefended，andseveralimprovementsaresuggestedinthedetails。
TheSwissandtheSpaniardswere，atthattime，regardedasthebestsoldiersinEurope。TheSwissbattalionconsistedofpikemen，andboreacloseresemblancetotheGreekphalanx。TheSpaniards，likethesoldiersofRome，werearmedwiththeswordandtheshield。ThevictoriesofFlaminiusandAemiliusovertheMacedoniankingsseemtoprovethesuperiorityoftheweaponsusedbythelegions。ThesameexperimenthadbeenrecentlytriedwiththesameresultatthebattleofRavenna，oneofthosetremendousdaysintowhichhumanfollyandwickednesscompressthewholedevastationofafamineoraplague。Inthatmemorableconflict，theinfantryofAragon，theoldcompanionsofGonsalvo，desertedbyalltheirallies，hewedapassagethroughthethickestoftheimperialpikes，andeffectedanunbrokenretreat，inthefaceofthegendarmerieofDeFoix，andtherenownedartilleryofEste。
Fabrizio，orratherMachiavelli，proposestocombinethetwosystems，toarmtheforemostlineswiththepikeforthepurposeofrepulsingcavalry，andthoseintherearwiththesword，asbeingaweaponbetteradaptedforeveryotherpurpose。Throughoutthework，theauthorexpressesthehighestadmirationofthemilitaryscienceoftheancientRomans，andthegreatestcontemptforthemaximswhichhadbeeninvogueamongsttheItaliancommandersoftheprecedinggeneration。Heprefersinfantrytocavalry，andfortifiedcampstofortifiedtowns。Heisinclinedtosubstituterapidmovementsanddecisiveengagementsforthelanguidanddilatoryoperationsofhiscountrymen。
Heattachesverylittleimportancetotheinventionofgunpowder。Indeed，heseemstothinkthatitoughtscarcelytoproduceanychangeinthemodeofarmingorofdisposingtroops。Thegeneraltestimonyofhistorians，itmustbeallowed，seemstoprovethattheill-constructedandill-servedartilleryofthosetimes，thoughusefulinasiege，wasoflittlevalueonthefieldofbattle。
OnthetacticsofMachiavelliwewillnotventuretogiveanopinion，butwearecertainthathisbookismostableandinteresting。Asacommentaryonthehistoryofhistimes，itisinvaluable。Theingenuity，thegrace，andtheperspicuityofthestyle，andtheeloquenceandanimationofparticularpassages，mustgivepleasure，eventoreaderswhotakenointerestinthesubject。
\"ThePrince\"andthe\"DiscoursesonLivy\"werewrittenafterthefalloftherepublicangovernment。TheformerwasdedicatedtotheyoungLorenzode’
Medici。Thiscircumstanceseemstohavedisgustedthecontemporariesofthewriterfarmorethatthedoctrineswhichhaverenderedthenameoftheworkodiousinlattertimes。Itwasconsideredasanindicationofpoliticalapostasy。
Thefact，however，seemstohavebeen，thatMachiavelli，despairingofthelibertyofFlorence，wasinclinedtosupportanygovernmentwhichmightpreserveherindependence。TheintervalwhichseparatedademocracyandadespotismSoderiniandLorenzo，seemedtovanishwhencomparedwiththedifferencebetweentheformerandthepresentstateofItaly，betweenthesecurity，theopulence，andthereposewhichshehadenjoyedunderitsnativerulers，andthemiseryinwhichshehadbeenplungedsincethefatalyearinwhichthefirstforeigntyranthaddescendedfromtheAlps。Thenobleandpatheticexhortationwithwhich\"ThePrince\"concludesshowshowstronglythewriterfeltuponthissubject。
\"ThePrince\"tracestheprogressofanambitiousman，the\"Discourses\"
theprogressofanambitiouspeople。Thesameprinciplesonwhich，intheformerwork，theelevationofanindividualisexplained，areapplied，inthelatter，tothelongerdurationandmorecomplexinterestofasociety。Toamodernstatesmantheformofthe\"Discourses\"mayappeartobepuerile。Intruth，Livyisnotahistorianonwhomimplicitreliancecanbeplaced，evenincaseswherehemusthavepossessedconsiderablemeansofinformation。AndthefirstDecade，towhichMachiavellihasconfinedhimself，isscarcelyentitledtomorecreditthanourChronicleofBritishKingswhoreignedbeforetheRomaninvasion。ButthecommentatorisindebtedtoLivyforlittlemorethanafewtextswhichhemightaseasilyhaveextractedfromtheVulgateor\"TheDecameron。\"Thewholetrainofthoughtisoriginal。
Onthepeculiarimmoralitywhichhasrendered\"ThePrince\"unpopular，andwhichisalmostequallydiscernibleinthe\"Discourses\"wehavealreadygivenouropinionatlength。Wehaveattemptedtoshowthatitbelongedrathertotheagethantotheman，thatitwasapartialtaint，andbynomeansimpliedgeneraldepravity。Wecannot，however，denythatitisagreatblemish，andthatitconsiderablydiminishesthepleasurewhich，inotherrespects，thoseworksmustaffordtoeveryintelligentmind。
Itis，indeed，impossibletoconceiveamorehealthfulandvigorousconstitutionoftheunderstandingthanthatwhichtheseworksindicate。Thequalitiesoftheactiveandthecontemplativestatesmanappeartohavebeenblendedinthemindofthewriterintoarareandexquisiteharmony。Hisskillinthedetailsofbusinesshadnotbeenacquiredattheexpenseofhisgeneralpowers。
Ithadnotrenderedhismindlesscomprehensive；butithadservedtocorrecthisspeculations，andtoimparttothemthatvividandpracticalcharacterwhichsowidelydistinguishesthemfromthevaguetheoriesofmostpoliticalphilosophers。
Everymanwhohasseentheworldknowsthatnothingissouselessasageneralmaxim。Ifitbeverymoralandverytrue，itmayserveforacopytoacharityboy。If，likethoseofRochefoucauld，itbesparklingandwhimsical，itmaymakeanexcellentmottoforanessay。Butfewindeedofthemanywiseapophthegmswhichhavebeenuttered，fromthetimeoftheSevenSagesofGreecetothatof\"PoorRichard，\"havepreventedasinglefoolishaction。
WegivethehighestandthemostpeculiarpraisetothepreceptsofMachiavelliwhenwesaythattheymayfrequentlybeofrealuseinregulatingconduct，notsomuchbecausetheyaremorejustormoreprofoundthanthosewhichmightbeculledfromotherauthors，asbecausetheycanbemorereadilyappliedtotheproblemsofreallife。
Thereareerrorsintheseworks。Buttheyareerrorswhichawriter，situatedlikeMachiavelli，couldscarcelyavoid。Theyarise，forthemostpart，fromasingledefectwhichappearstoustopervadehiswholesystem。Inhispoliticalscheme，themeanshadbeenmoredeeplyconsideredthantheends。Thegreatprinciple，thatsocietiesandlawsexistonlyforthepurposeofincreasingthesumofprivatehappiness，isnotrecognizedwithsufficientclearness。
Thegoodofthebody，distinctfromthegoodofthemembers，andsometimeshardlycompatiblewiththegoodofthemembers，seemstobetheobjectwhichheproposestohimself。Ofallpoliticalfallacies，thishasperhapshadthewidestandthemostmischievousoperation。ThestateofsocietyinthelittlecommonwealthsofGreece，thecloseconnectionandmutualdependenceofthecitizens，andtheseverityofthelawsofwar，tendedtoencourageanopinionwhich，undersuchcircumstances，couldhardlybecallederroneous。
TheinterestsofeveryindividualwereinseparablyboundupwiththoseoftheState。Aninvasiondestroyedhiscorn-fieldsandvineyards，drovehimfromhishome，andcompelledhimtoencounterallthehardshipsofamilitarylife。A
treatyofpeacerestoredhimtosecurityandcomfort。Avictorydoubledthenumberofhisslaves。Adefeatperhapsmadehimaslavehimself。WhenPericles，inthePeloponnesianwar，toldtheAthenians，that，iftheircountrytriumphed，theirprivatelosseswouldspeedilyberepaired，butthat，iftheirarmsfailedofsuccess，everyindividualamongstthemwouldprobablyberuined，hespokenomorethanthetruth。Hespoketomenwhomthetributeofvanquishedcitiessuppliedwithfoodandclothing，withtheluxuryofthebathandtheamusementsofthetheatre，onwhomthegreatnessoftheircountryconferredrank，andbeforewhomthemembersoflessprosperouscommunitiestrembled；tomenwho，incaseofachangeinthepublicfortunes，would，atleast，bedeprivedofeverycomfortandeverydistinctionwhichtheyenjoyed。Tobebutcheredonthesmokingruinsoftheircity，tobedraggedinchainstoaslave-market，toseeonechildtornfromthemtodiginthequarriesofSicily，andanothertoguardtheharemsofPersepolis，thesewerethefrequentandprobableconsequencesofnationalcalamities。Hence，amongtheGreeks，patriotismbecameagoverningprinciple，orratheranungovernablepassion。Theirlegislatorsandtheirphilosopherstookitforgranted，that，inprovidingforthestrengthandgreatnessoftheState，theysufficientlyprovidedforthehappinessofthepeople。ThewritersoftheRomanEmpirelivedunderdespots，intowhosedominionahundrednationsweremelteddown，andwhosegardenswouldhavecoveredthelittlecommonwealthsofPhliusandPlataea。Yettheycontinuedtoemploythesamelanguage，andtocantaboutthedutyofsacrificingeverythingtoacountrytowhichtheyowednothing。
CausessimilartothosewhichhadinfluencedthedispositionoftheGreeksoperatedpowerfullyonthelessvigorousanddaringcharacteroftheItalians。
TheItalians，liketheGreeks，weremembersofsmallcommunities。Everymanwasdeeplyinterestedinthewelfareofthesocietytowhichhebelonged，apartakerinitswealthanditspoverty，initsgloryanditsshame。
IntheageofMachiavellithiswaspeculiarlythecase。Publiceventshadproducedanimmensesumofmiserytoprivatecitizens。TheNortherninvadershadbroughtwanttotheirboards，infamytotheirbeds，firetotheirroofs，andtheknifetotheirthroats。Itwasnaturalthatamanwholivedintimesliketheseshouldoverratetheimportanceofthosemeasuresbywhichanationisrenderedformidabletoitsneighbors，andundervaluethosewhichmakeitprosperouswithinitself。
NothingismoreremarkableinthepoliticaltreatisesofMachiavellithanthefairnessofmindwhichtheyindicate。Itappearswheretheauthorisinthewrong，almostasstronglyaswhereheisintheright。Heneveradvancesafalseopinionbecauseitisneworsplendid，becausehecanclotheitinahappyphrase，ordefenditbyaningenioussophism。Hiserrorsareatonceexplainedbyareferencetothecircumstancesinwhichhewasplaced。
Theyevidentlywerenotsoughtout：theylayinhisway，andcouldscarcelybeavoided。Suchmistakesmustnecessarilybecommittedbyearlyspeculatorsineveryscience。
ThepoliticalworksofMachiavellideriveapeculiarinterestfromthemournfulearnestnesswhichhemanifestswheneverhetouchesontopicsconnectedwiththecalamitiesofhisnativeland。Itisdifficulttoconceiveanysituationmorepainfulthatofagreatman，condemnedtowatchthelingeringagonyofanexhaustedcountry，totenditduringthealternatefitsofstupefactionandravingwhichprecedeitsdissolution，andtoseethesymptomsofvitalitydisappearonebyone，tillnothingisleftbutcoldness，darkness，andcorruption。TothisjoylessandthanklessdutywasMachiavellicalled。
Intheenergeticlanguageoftheprophet，hewas\"madforthesightofhiseyeswhichhesaw\"-disunionintheCouncil，effeminacyinthecamp，libertyextinguished，commercedecaying，nationalhonorsullied，anenlightenedandflourishingpeoplegivenovertotheferocityofignorantsavages。Thoughhisopinionshadnotescapedthecontagionofthatpoliticalimmoralitywhichwascommonamonghiscountrymen，hisnaturaldispositionseemstohavebeenrathersternandimpetuousthanpliantandartful。WhenthemiseryanddegradationofFlorence，andthefouloutragewhichhehadhimselfsustained，recurtohismind，thesmoothcraftofhisprofessionandhisnationisexchangedforthehonestbitternessofscornandanger。Hespeakslikeonesickofthecalamitoustimesandabjectpeopleamongwhomhislotiscast。HepinesforthestrengthandgloryofancientRome，forthefascesofBrutusandtheswordofScipio，thegravityofthecurulechair，andthebloodypompofthetriumphalsacrifice。Heseemstobetransportedbacktothedayswhen800，000ItalianwarriorssprungtoarmsattherumorofaGallicinvasion。
HebreathesallthespiritofthoseintrepidandhaughtySenatorswhoforgotthedearesttiesofnatureintheclaimsofpublicduty，wholookedwithdisdainontheelephantsandonthegoldofPyrrhus，andlistenedwithunalteredcomposuretothetremendoustidingsofCannae。Likeanancienttempledeformedbythebarbarousarchitectureofalaterage，hischaracteracquiresaninterestfromtheverycircumstanceswhichdebaseit。Theoriginalproportionsarerenderedmorestrikingbythecontrastwhichtheypresenttothemeanandincongruousadditions。
Theinfluenceofthesentimentswhichwehavedescribedwasnotapparentinhiswritingsalone。Hisenthusiasm，barredfromthecareerwhichitwouldhaveselectedforitself，seemstohavefoundaventindesperatelevity。
Heenjoyedavindictivepleasureinoutragingtheopinionsofasocietywhichhedespised。
Hebecamecarelessofthedecencieswhichwereexpectedfromamansohighlydistinguishedintheliteraryandpoliticalworld。Thesarcasticbitternessofhisconversationdisgustedthosewhoweremoreinclinedtoaccusehislicentiousnessthantheirowndegeneracy，andwhowereunabletoconceivethestrengthofthoseemotionswhichareconcealedbythejestsofthewretched，andbythefolliesofthewise。
ThehistoricalworksofMachiavellistillremaintobeconsidered。ThelifeofCastruccioCastracaniwilloccupyusforaveryshorttime，andwouldscarcelyhavedemandedournoticehaditnotattractedamuchgreatershareofpublicattentionthanitdeserves。Fewbooks，indeed，couldbemoreinterestingthanacarefulandjudiciousaccount，fromsuchapen，oftheillustriousPrinceofLucca，themosteminentofthoseItalianchiefs，who，likePisistratusandGelon，acquiredapowerfeltratherthanseen，andresting，notonlaworonprescription，butonthepublicfavorandontheirgreatpersonalqualities。Suchaworkwouldexhibittoustherealnatureofthatspeciesofsovereignty，sosingularandsooftenmisunderstood，whichtheGreeksdenominatedtyranny，andwhich，modifiedinsomedegreebythefeudalsystem，reappearedinthecommonwealthsofLombardyandTuscany。ButthislittlecompositionofMachiavelliisinnosenseahistory。Ithasnopretensionstofidelity。Itistrifle，andnotaverysuccessfultrifle。
Itisscarcelymoreauthenticthanthenovelof\"Belphegor，\"andisverymuchduller。
Thelastgreatworkofthisillustriousmanwasthehistoryofhisnativecity。ItwaswrittenbycommandofthePope，who，aschiefofthehouseofMedici，wasatthattimesovereignofFlorence。ThecharactersofCosimo，ofPiero，andofLorenzo，are，however，treatedwithafreedomandimpartialityequallyhonorabletothewriterandtothepatron。Themiseriesandhumiliationsofdependence，thebreadwhichismorebitterthaneveryotherfood，thestairswhicharemorepainfulthaneveryotherascent，hasnotbrokenthespiritofMachiavelli。ThemostcorruptingpostinacorruptingprofessionhadnotdepravedthegenerousheartofClement。
Thehistorydoesnotappeartobethefruitofmuchindustryorresearch。
Itisunquestionablyinaccurate。Butitiselegant，lively，andpicturesque，beyondanyotherintheItalianlanguage。Thereader，webelieve，carriesawayfromitamorevividandamorefaithfulimpressionofthenationalcharacterandmannersthanfrommorecorrectaccounts。Thetruthis，thatthebookbelongsrathertoancientthantomodernliterature。Itisinthestyle，notofDavilaandClarendon，butofHerodotusandTacitus。Theclassicalhistoriesmayalmostbecalledromancesfoundedinfact。Therelationis，nodoubt，inallitsprincipelpoints，strictlytrue。Butthenumerouslittleincidentswhichheightentheinterest，thewords，thegestures，thelooks，areevidentlyfurnishedbytheimaginationoftheauthor。Thefashionoflatertimesisdifferent。
Amoreexactnarrativeisgivenbythewriter。
Itmaybedoubtedwhethermoreexactnotionsareconveyedtothereader。
Thebestportraitsareperhapsthoseinwhichthereisaslightmixtureofcaricature，andwearenotcertainthatthebesthistoriesarenotthoseinwhichalittleoftheexaggerationoffictitiousnarrativeisjudiciouslyemployed。
Somethingislostinaccuracy，butmuchisgainedineffect。Thefainterlinesareneglected，butthegreatcharacteristicfeaturesareimprintedonthemindforever。
ThehistoryterminateswiththedeathofLorenzode’Medici。Machiavellihad，itseems，intendedtocontinuehisnarrativetoalaterperiod。Buthisdeathpreventedtheexecutionofhisdesign，andthemelancholytaskofrecordingthedesolationandshameofItalydevolvedonGuicciardini。
MachiavellilivedlongenoughtoseethecommencementofthelaststruggleforFlorentineliberty。Soonafterhisdeathmonarchywasfinallyestablished，notsuchamonarchyasthatofwhichCosimohadlaidthefoundationsdeepintheinstitutionsandfeelingsofhiscountrymen，andwhichLorenzohadembellishedwiththetrophiesofeveryscienceandeveryart，butaloathsometyranny，proudandmean，cruelandfeeble，bigotedandlascivious。
ThecharacterofMachiavelliwashatefultothenewmastersofItaly，andthosepartsofhistheorywhichwereinstrictaccordancewiththeirowndailypracticeaffordedapretextforblackeninghismemory。Hisworksweremisrepresentedbythelearned，misconstruedbytheignorant，censuredbytheChurch，abusedwithalltherancorofsimulatedvirtuebythetoolsofabasegovernmentandthepriestsofabasersuperstition。Thenameofthemanwhosegeniushadilluminatedallthedarkplacesofpolicy，andtowhosepatrioticwisdomanoppressedpeoplehadowedtheirlastchanceofemancipationandrevenge，passedintoaproverbofinfamy。Formorethantwohundredyearshisboneslayundistinguished。AtlengthanEnglishnoblemanpaidthelasthonorstothegreateststatesmanofFlorence。
IntheChurchofSantaCroceamonumentwaserectedtohismemory，whichiscontemplatedwithreverencebyallwhocandistinguishthevirtuesofagreatmindthroughthecorruptionsofadegenerateage，andwhichwillbeapproachedwithstilldeeperhomagewhentheobjecttowhichhispubliclifewasdevotedshallbeattained，whentheforeignyokeshallbebroken，whenasecondProcidashallavengethewrongsofNaples，whenahappierRienzishallrestorethegoodestateofRome，whenthestreetsofFlorenceandBolognashallagainresoundwiththeirancientwarcry，\"Popolo；popolo；
muoianoitiranni！\"10
[Footnote10：\"Thepeople！thepeople！Deathtothetyrants！\"-
Machiavelli’s\"HistoryofFlorence，\"BookIII。]