1748
Itisnotenoughforawisemantostudynatureandtruth；heshoulddarestatetruthforthebenefitofthefewwhoarewillingandabletothink。Asfortherest，whoarevoluntarilyslavesofprejudice，theycannomoreattaintruth，thanfrogscanfly。
Ireducetotwothesystemsofphilosophywhichdealwithman’ssoul。
Thefirstandoldersystemismaterialism；thesecondisspiritualism。
Themetaphysicianswhohavehintedthatmattermaywellbeendowedwiththefacultyofthoughthaveperhapsnotreasonedill。Forthereisinthiscaseacertainadvantageintheirinadequatewayofexpressingtheirmeaning。Intruth，toaskwhethermattercanthink，withoutconsideringitotherwisethaninitself，islikeaskingwhethermattercantelltime。ItmaybeforeseenthatweshallavoidthisreefuponwhichLockehadthebadlucktoshipwreck。
TheLeibnizianswiththeirmonadshavesetupanunintelligiblehypothesis。
Theyhaveratherspiritualizedmatterthanmaterializedthesoul。Howcanwedefineabeingwhosenatureisabsolutelyunknowntous？
DescartesandalltheCartesians，amongwhomthefollowersofMalebranchehavelongbeennumbered，havemadethesamemistake。Theyhavetakenforgrantedtwodistinctsubstancesinman，asiftheyhadseenthem，andpositivelycountedthem。
Thewisestmenhavedeclaredthatthesoulcannotknowitselfsavebythelightoffaith。However，asreasonablebeingstheyhavethoughtthattheycouldreserveforthemselvestherightofexaminingwhattheBiblemeansbytheword``spirit，’’whichitusesinspeakingofthehumansoul。Andifintheirinvestigation，theydonotagreewiththetheologiansonthispoint，arethetheologiansmoreinagreementamongthemselvesonallotherpoints？
Hereistheresultinafewwordsofalltheirreflections。IfthereisaGod，heistheAuthorofnaturewaswellasofrevelation。
Hehasgivenustheonetoexplaintheother，andreasontomakethemagree。
Todistrusttheknowledgethatcanbedrawnfromthestudyofanimatedbodies，istoregardnatureandrevelationastwocontrarieswhichdestroyeachother，andconsequentlytodareupholdtheabsurddoctrine，thatGodcontradictsHimselfinHisvariousworksanddeceivesus。
Ifthereisarevelation，itcannotthencontradictnature。BynatureonlycanweunderstandthemeaningofthewordsoftheGospel，ofwhichexperienceistheonlytrulyinterpreter。Infact，thecommentatorsbeforeourtimehaveonlyobscuredthetruth。WecanjudgedofthisbytheauthoroftheSpectacleofNature。
``Itisastonishing，’’hesaysconcerningLocke，``thatamanwhodegradesoursoulfarenoughtoconsideritasoulofclayshoulddaresetupreasonasjudgeandsovereignarbiterofthemysteriesoffaith，for，’’headds，``whatanastonishingideaofChristianityonewouldhave，ifoneweretofollowreason。’’
Notonlydothesereflectionsfailtoelucidatefaith，buttheyalsoconstitutesuchfrivolousobjectionstothemethodofthosewhoundertaketointerprettheScripture，thatIamalmostashamedtowastetimeinrefutingthem。
Theexcellenceofreasondoesnotdependonabigworddevoidofmeaning（immateriality），butontheforce，extent，andperspicuityofreasonitself。Thusa``soulofclay’’whichshoulddiscover，atoneglance，asitwere，therelationsandtheconsequencesofaninfinitenumberofideashardtounderstand，wouldevidentlybepreferabletoafoolishandstupidsoul，thoughthatwerecomposedofthemostpreciouselements。Amanisnotaphilosopherbecause，withPliny，heblushesoverthewretchednessofourorigin。Whatseemsvileisherethemostpreciousofthings，andseemstobetheobjectofnature’shighestartandmostelaboratecare。Butasman，eventhoughheshouldcomefromanapparentlystillmorelowlysource，wouldyetbethemostperfectofallbeings，sowhatevertheoriginofhissoul，ifitispure，noble，andlofty，itisabeautifulsoulwhichdignifiesthemanendowedwithit。
Pluche’ssecondwayofreasoningseemsvicioustome，eveninhissystem，whichsmacksalittleoffanaticism；for[onhisview]
ifwehaveanideaoffaithasbeingcontrarytotheclearestprinciples，tothemostincontestabletruths，wemustyetconclude，outofrespectforrevelationanditsauthor，thatthisconceptionisfalse，andthatwedonotyetunderstandthemeaningofthewordsoftheGospel。
Ofthetwoalternatives，onlyoneispossible：eithereverythingisillusion，natureaswellasrevelation，orexperiencealonecanexplainfaith。Butwhatcanbemoreridiculousthanthepositionofourauthor！CanoneimaginehearingaPeripateticsay，``WeoughtnottoaccepttheexperimentsofTorricelli，forifweshouldacceptthem，ifweshouldridourselvesofthehorrorofthevoid，whatanastonishingphilosophyweshouldhave！’’
IhaveshownhowviciousthereasoningofPlucheisinordertoprove，inthefirstplace，thatifthereisarevelation，itisnotsufficientlydemonstratedbythemereauthorityoftheChurch，andwithoutanyappealtoreason，asallthosewhofearreasonclaim：andinthesecondplace，toprotectagainstallassaultthemethodofthosewhowouldwishtofollowthepaththatIopentothem，ofinterpretingsupernaturalthings，incomprehensibleinthemselves，inthelightofthoseideaswithwhichnaturehasendowedus。Experienceandobservationshouldthereforebeouronlyguideshere。Botharetobefoundthroughouttherecordsofthephysicianswhowerephilosophers，andnotintheworksofthephilosopherswhowerenotphysicians。Theformerhavetraveledthroughandilluminatedthelabyrinthofman；
theyalonehavelaidbarethosesprings[oflife]hiddenundertheexternalintegumentwhichconcealssomanywondersfromoureyes。
Theyalone，tranquillycontemplatingoursoul，havesurprisedit，athousandtimes，bothinitswretchednessandinitsglory，andtheyhavenomoredespiseditinthefirstestate，thantheyhaveadmireditinthesecond。Thus，torepeat，onlythephysicianshavearighttospeakonthissubject。Whatcouldtheothers，especiallythetheologians，havetosay？Isitnotridiculoustohearthemshamelesslycomingtoconclusionsaboutasubjectconcerningwhichtheyhavehadnomeansofknowinganything，andfromwhichonthecontrarytheyhavebeencompletelyturnedasidebyobscurestudiesthathaveledthemtoathousandprejudicedopinions，-inaword，tofanaticism，whichaddsyetmoretotheirignoranceofthemechanismofthebody？
Buteventhoughwehavechosenthebestguides，weshallstillfindmanythornsandstumblingblocksintheway。
Manissocomplicatedamachinethatitisimpossibletogetaclearideaofthemachinebeforehand，andhenceimpossibletodefineit。Forthisreason，alltheinvestigationshavebeenvain，whichthegreatestphilosophershavemadeà；priori，thatistotosay，insofarastheyuse，asitwere，thewingsofthespirit。Thusitisonlyà；posterioriorbytryingtodisentanglethesoulfromtheorgansofthebody，sotospeak，thatonecanreachthehighestprobabilityconcerningman’sownnature，eventhoughonecannotdiscoverwithcertaintywhathisnatureis。
Letusthentakeinourhandsthestaffofexperience，payingnoheedtotheaccountsofalltheidletheoriesofthephilosophers。
TObeblindandtothinkonecandowithoutthisstaffiftheworstkindofblindness。Howtrulyacontemporarywritersaysthattheonlyvanityfailstogatherfromsecondarycausesthesamelessonsasfromprimarycauses！Onecanandoneevenoughttoadmireallthesefinegeniusesintheirmostuselessworks，suchmenasDescartes，Malebranche，Leibnitz，Wolffandtherest，butwhatprofit，Iask，hasanyonegainedfromtheirprofoundmeditations，andfromalltheirworks？Letusstartoutthentodiscovernotwhathasbeenthought，butwhatmustbethoughtforthesakeofreposeinlife。
Thereareasmanydifferentminds，differentcharacters，anddifferentcustoms，astherearedifferenttemperaments。EvenGalenknewthistruthwhichDescartescarriedsofarastoclaimthatmedicinealonecanchangemindsandmorals，alongwithbodies。
（BythewriteofL’historiedel’â；me，thisteachingisincorrectlyattributedtoHippocrates。）Itistruethatmelancholy，bile，phlegm，bloodetc。，-accordingtothenature，theabundance，andthedifferentcombinationofthesehumors-makeeachmandifferentfromanother。
Indiseasethesoulissometimeshidden，showingnosignoflife；sometimesitissoinflamedbyfurythatitseemstobedoubled；
sometimes，imbecilityvanishesandtheconvalescenceofanidiotproducesawiseman。Sometimes，again，thegreatestgeniusbecomesimbecileandloosesthesenseofself。Adieuthentoallthatfineknowledge，acquiredatsohighaprice，andwithsomuchtrouble！Hereisaparalyticwhoasksishislegisinbedwithhim；thereisasoldierwhothinksthathestillhasthearmwhichhasbeencutoff。Thememoryofhisoldsensations，andoftheplacetowhichtheywerereferredbyhissoul，isthecauseofthisillusion，andofthiskindofdelirium。Themerementionofthememberwhichhehaslostisenoughtorecallittohismind，andtomakehimfeelallitsmotions；andthiscauseshimanindefinableandinexpressiblekindofimaginarysuffering。Thismancrieslikeachildatdeath’sapproach，whilethisotherjests。WhatwasneededtochangethebraveryofCaiusJulius，Seneca，orPetroniusintocowardiceorfaintheartedness？Merelyanobstructioninthespleen，intheliver，animpedimentintheportalvein。
Why？Becausetheimaginationisobstructedalongwiththeviscera，andthisgivesrisetoallthesingularphenomenaofhysteriaandhypochondria。
WhatcanIaddtothestoriesalreadytoldofthosewhoimaginethemselvestransformedintowolf-men，cocksorvampires，orofthosewhothinkthatthedeadfeeduponthem？WhyshouldIstoptospeakofthemanwhoimaginesthathisnoseorsomeothermemberisofglass？Thewaytohelpthismantoregainhisfacultiesandhisownflesh-and-bloodnoseistoadvisehimtosleeponhay，lesthebeakthefragileorgan，andthentosetfiretothehaythathemaybeafraidofbeingburned-afarwhichhassometimescuredparalysis。ButImusttouchlightlyonfactswhicheverybodyknows。
NeithershallIdwelllongonthedetailsoftheeffectsofsleep。Hereatiredsoldiersnoresinatrench，inthemiddleofthethunderofhundredsofcannon。Hissoulhearsnothing；hissleepisasdeepasapoplexy。Abombisonthepointofcrushinghim。Hewillfeelthislessperhapsthanhefeelsaninsectwhichisunderhisfoot。
Ontheotherhand，thismanwhoisdevouredbyjealousy，hatred，avarice，orambition，canneverfindanyrest。Themostpeacefulspot，thefreshestandmostcalmingdrinksarealikeuselesstoonewhohasnotfreedhisheartfromthetormentofpassion。
Thesoulandthebodyfallasleeptogether。Asthemotionofthebloodiscalmed，asweetfeelingofpeaceandquietspreadsthroughthewholemechanism。Thesoulfeelsitselflittlebylittlegrowingheavyastheeyelidsdroop，andlosesitstenseness，asthefibresofthebrainrelax；thuslittlebylittleitbecomesasifparalyzedandwithitallthemusclesofthebody。Thesecannolongersustaintheweightofthehead，andthesoulcannolongerbeartheburdenofthought；itisinsleepasifitwerenot。
Isthecirculationtooquick？thesoulcannotsleep。Isthesoultoomuchexcited？thebloodcannotbequieted：itgallopsthroughtheveinswithanaudiblemurmur/Sucharethetwooppositecausesofinsomnia。Asinglefrightinthemidstofourdreamsmakestheheartbeatatdoublespeedandsnatchesusfromneededanddeliciousrepose，asarealgrieforanurgentneedwoulddo。Lastlyasthemerecessationofthefunctionsofthesoulproducessleep，thereare，evenwhenweareawake（oratleastwhenwearehalfawake），kindsofveryfrequentshortnapsofthemind，vergers’dreams，whichshowthatthesouldoesnotalwayswaitforthebodytosleep。Forifthesoulisnotfastasleep，itsurelyisnotfarfromsleep，sinceitcannotpointoutasingleobjecttowhichithasattended，amongtheuncountednumberofconfusedideaswhich，sotospeak，filltheatmosphereofourbrainslikeclouds。
Opiumistoocloselyrelatedtothesleepitproduces，tobeleftoutofconsiderationhere。Thisdrugintoxicates，likewine，coffee，etc。，eachinitsownmeasureandaccordingtothedose。Itmakesamanhappyinastatewhichwouldseeminglybethetomboffeeling，asitistheimageofdeath。Howsweetisthislethargy！
Thesoulwouldlongnevertoemergefromit。Forthesoulhasbeenapreytothemostintensesorrow，butnowfeelsonlythejoyofsufferingpast，andofsweetestpeace。Opiumalterseventhewill，forcingthesoulwhichwishedtowakeandtoenjoylife，tosleepinspiteofitself。Ishallomitanyreferencetotheeffectofpoisons。
Coffee，thewell-knownantidoteforwine，byscourgingtheimagination，curesourheadachesandscattersourcareswithoutlayingupforus，aswinedoes，otherheadachesforthemorrow。Butletuscontemplatethesoulinitsotherneeds。
Thehumanbodyisamachinewhichwindsitsownsprings。Itisthelivingimageofperpetualmovement。Nourishmentkeepsupthemovementwhichfeverexcites。Withoutfood，thesoulpinesaway，goesmad，anddiesexhausted。Thesoulisataperwhoselightflaresupthemomentbeforeitgoesout。Butnourishthebody，pourintoitsveinslife-givingjuicesandstrongliquors，andthenthesoulgrowsstronglikethem，asifarmingitselfwithaproudcourage，andthesoldierwhomwaterwouldhavemadetoflee，growsboldandrunsjoyouslytodeathtothesoundofdrums。Thusahotdrinksetsintostormymovementthebloodwhichacolddrinkwouldhavecalmed。
Whatpowerthereisinameal！Joyrevivesinasadheart，andinfectsthesoulsofcomrades，whoexpresstheirdelightinthefriendlysongsinwhichtheFrenchmanexcels。Themelancholymanaloneisdejected，andthestudiousmanisequallyoutofplace[insuchcompany]。
Rawmeatmakesanimalsfierce，anditwouldhavethesameeffectonman。ThisissotruethattheEnglishwhoeatmeatredandbloody，andnotaswelldoneasours，seemtosharemoreorlessinthesavageryduetothiskindoffood，andtoothercauseswhichcanberenderedineffectivebyeducationonly。Thissavagerycreatesinthesoul，pride，hatred，scornofothernations，indocilityandothersentimentswhichdegradethecharacter，justasheavyfoodmakesadullandheavymindwhoseusualtraitsarelazinessandindolence。
Popeunderstoodwellthefullpowerofgreedinesswhenhesaid：
Catiusisevermoral，evergraveThinkswhoenduresaknaveisnextaknave，Savejustatdinner-thenprefersnodoubtAroguewithven’sontoasaintwithout。
Elsewherehesays：
Seethesamemaninvigor，inthegout，Alone，incompany，inplaceorout，Earlyatbusinessandathazardlate，Madatafoxchase，wiseatadebate，Drunkataborough，civilataball，FriendlyatHackney，faithlessatWhiteHall。
InSwitzerlandwehadabailiffbythenameofM。SteignerdeWittghofen。
Whenhefastedhewasamostuprightandevenamostindulgentjudge，butwoetotheunfortunatemanwhomhefoundontheculprit’sbenchafterhehadhadalargedinner！Hewascapableofsendingtheinnocentliketheguiltytothegallows。
Wethinkweare，andinfactweare，goodmen，onlyaswearegayorbrave；everythingdependsonthewayourmachineisrunning。Oneissometimesinclinedtosaythatthesoulissituatedinthestomach，andthatVanHelmont，whosaidthattheseatofthesoulwasinthepylorus，madeonlythemistakeoftakingthepartforthewhole。
Towhatexcessescruelhungercanbringus！Wenolongerregardevenourownparentsandchildren。Wetearthemtopieceseagerlyandmakehorriblebanquetsofthem；andinthefurywithwhichwearecarriedaway，theweakestisalwaysthepreyofthestrongest。
Lagrossesse，cetteé；muledé；siré；edespâ；lescouleurs，nesecontentepasd’amenerleplussouventà；sasuiteslegoû；tsdé；pravé；squiaccompagnentcesdeuxé；tats：elleaquelquefoisfaitexé；cuterà；l’â；melesplusaffreuxcomplots；effetsd’unemainesubite，quié；touffejusqu’à；laloinaturelle。
Ce’stainsiquelecerveau，cettematricedel’esprit，sepervertità；samaniè；re，aveccelleducorps。
Quelleautrefureurd’hommeoudefemme，dansceuxquelacontinenceetlasanté；poursuivent！C’estpeupourcettefilletimideetmodested’avoirperdutoutehonteettoutepudeur；
elleneregardeplusl’inceste，quecommeunefemmegalanteregardel’adultè；re。Sisesbesoinsnetrouventpasdepromptssoulagements，ilsnesebornerontpointauxsimplesaccidentsd’unepassionuté；rine，à；lamanie，etc。；cettemalheureusemourrad’unmal，dontilyatantdemé；decins。
Oneneedsonlyeyestoseethenecessaryinfluenceofoldageonreason。
Thesoulfollowstheprogressofthebody，asitdoestheprogressofeducation。Intheweakersex，thesoulaccordsalsowithdelicacyoftemperament，andfromthisdelicacyfollowtenderness，affection，quickfeelingsduemoretopassionthantoreason，prejudices，andsuperstitions，whosestrongimpresscanhardlybeeffaced。Man，ontheotherhand，whosebrainandnervespartakeofthefirmnessofallsolids，hasnotonlystrongerfeaturesbutalsoamorevigorousmind。Education，whichwomenlack，strengthenshismindstillmore。Thuswithsuchhelpofnatureandart，whyshouldnotamanbemoregrateful，moregenerous，moreconstantinfriendship，strongerinadversity？But，tofollowalmostexactlythethoughtoftheauthoroftheLettressurlaPhysiognomie，thesexwhichunitesthecharmsofthemindandofthebodywithalmostallthetenderestandmostdelicatefeelingsoftheheart，shouldnotenvyusthetwocapacitieswhichseemtohavebeengiventoman，theonemerelytoenablehimbettertofathomtheallurementsofbeauty，andtheothermerelytoenablehimtoministerbettertoitspleasure。
Itisnomorenecessarytobejustasgreataphysiognomistasthisauthor，inordertoguessthequalityofthemindfromthecountenanceortheshapeofthefeatures，providedthesearesufficientlymarked，thanitisnecessarytobeagreatdoctortorecognizeadiseaseaccompaniedbyallitmarkedsymptoms。LookattheportraitsofLocke，ofSteele，ofBoerhaave，ofMaupertuis，andtherest，andyouwillnotbesurprisedtofindstrongfacesandeagleeyes。Lookoveramultitudeofothers，andyoucanalwaysdistinguishthemanoftalentfromthemanofgenius，andoftenevenanhonestmanfromascoundrel。Forexampleithasbeennoticedthatacelebratedpoetcombines（inhisportrait）thelookofapickpocketwiththefireofPrometheus。
Historyprovidesuswithanoteworthyexampleofthepoweroftemperature。
ThefamousDukeofGuisewassostronglyconvincedthatHenrytheThird，inwhosepowerhehadsooftenbeen，wouldneverdareassassinatehim，thathewenttoBlois。
WhentheChancellorChivernylearnedoftheduke’sdeparture，hecried，``Heislost。’’Afterthisfatalpredictionhadbeenfulfilledbytheevent，Chivernywasaskedwhyhemadeit。``Ihaveknownthekingfortwentyyears，’’saidhe；``heisnaturallykindandevenweaklyindulgent，butIhavenoticedthatwhenitiscold，ittakesnothingatalltoprovokehimandsendhimintoapassion。’’
Onenationisofheavyandstupidwit，andanotherquick，lightandpenetrating。Whencecomesthisdifference，ifnotinpartfromthedifferenceinfoods，anddifferenceininheritance，andinpartfromthemixtureofthediverseelementswhichfloataroundintheimmensityofthevoid？Themind，likethebody，hasitscontagiousdiseasesanditsscurvy。
Suchistheinfluenceofclimate，thatamanwhogoesfromoneclimatetoanother，feelsthechange，inspiteofhimself。Heisawalkingplantwhichhastransplanteditself；iftheclimateisnotthesame，itwillsurelyeitherdegenerateorimprove。
Furthermore，wecatcheverythingfromthosewithwhomwecomeincontact；
theirgestures，theiraccent，etc。；justastheeyelidisinstinctivelyloweredwhenablowisforeseen，or（asforthesamereason）thebodyofthespectatormechanicallyimitates，inspiteofhimself，allthemotionsofagoodmimic。
FromwhatIhavejustsaid，itfollowsthatabrilliantmanishisownbestcompany，unlesshecanfindothersofthesamesort。Inthesocietyoftheunintelligent，themindgrowsrustyforlackofexercise，asattennisaballthatisservedbadlyisbadlyreturned。Ishouldpreferanintelligentmanwithoutaneducation，ifhewerestillyoungenough，toamanbadlyeducated。A
badlytrainedmindislikeanactorwhomtheprovinceshavespoiled。
Thus，thediversestatesofthesoularealwayscorrelativewiththoseofthebody。Butthebettertoshowthisdependence，initscompletenessanditscauses，letusheremakeuseofcomparativeanatomy；
letuslaybaretheorgansofmanandofanimals。
Howcanhumannaturebeknown，ifwemaynotderiveanylightfromanexactcomparisonofthestructureofmanandofanimals？
Ingeneral，theformandthestructureofthebrainsofquadrupedsarealmostthesameasthoseofthebrainofman；thesameshape，thesamearrangementeverywhere，withthisessentialdifference，thatofalltheanimalsmanistheonewhosebrainislargest，and，inproportiontoitsmass，moreconvolutedthanthebrainofanyotheranimal；thencomethemonkey，thebeaver，theelephant，thedog，thefox，thecat。Theseanimalsaremostlikeman，foramongthem，too，onenotesthesameprogressiveanalogyinrelationtothecorpuscallosuminwhichLancisi-anticipatingthelateM。delaPeyronie-establishedtheseatofthesoul。Thelatter，however，illustratedthetheorybyinnumerableexperiments。
Nextafterallthequadrupeds，birdshavethelargestbrains。Fishhavelargeheads，butthesearevoidofsense，liketheheadsofmanymen。Fishhavenocorpuscallosum，andverylittlebrain，whileinsectsentirelylackbrain。
Ishallnotlaunchoutintoanymoredetailaboutthevarietiesofnature，norintoconjecturesconcerningthem，forthereisaninfinitenumberofboth，asanyonecanseebyreadingnofurtherthanthetreatisesofWillisDeCerebroandDeAnimaBrutorum。
Ishalldrawtheconclusionswhichfollowclearlyfromtheseincontestableobservations：1st，thatthefierceranimalsare，thelessbraintheyhave；2d，thatthisorganseemstoincreaseinsizeinproportiontothegentlenessoftheanimal；3d，thatnatureseemshereeternallytoimposeasingularcondition，thatthemoreonegainsinintelligencethemoreonelosesininstinct。Doesthisbringgainorloss？
Donotthink，however，thatIwishtoinferbythat，thatthesizealoneofthebrain，isenoughtoindicatethedegreeoftamenessinanimals：thequalitymustcorrespondtothequantity，andthesolidsandliquidsmustbeinthatdueequilibriumwhichconstituteshealth。
If，asisordinarilyobserved，theimbeciledoesnotlackbrain，hisbrainwillbedeficientinitsconsistency-forinstance，inbeingtoosoft。Thesamethingistrueoftheinsane，andthedefectsoftheirbrainsdonotalwaysescapeourinvestigation。Butifthecausesofimbecility，insanity，etc。，arenotobvious，whereshallwelookforthecausesofthediversityofallminds？Theywouldescapetheeyesofalynxandofanargus。Amerenothing，atinyfiber，somethingthatcouldneverbefoundbythemostdelicateanatomy，wouldhavemadeofErasmusandFontenelletwoidiots，andFontenellehimselfspeaksofthisveryfactinoneofhisbestdialogues。
Willishasnoticedinadditiontothesoftnessofthebrain-substanceinchildren，puppiesandbirds，thatthecorporastriataareobliteratedanddiscoloredinalltheseanimals，andthatthestriationsareasimperfectlyformedasinparalytics。Ilajoute，cequiestvrai，quel’hommealaprotubé；ranceannulairefortgrosse；
etensuitetoujoursdiminutivementpardé；gré；s，lesingeetlesautresanimauxnommé；sci-devant，tandisqueleveau，leboeuf，leloup，labrebis，lecochon，etc。quiontcettepartied’untè；spetitvolume，ontlesnattesettestesfortgros。
Howevercautiousandreservedonemaybeabouttheconsequencesthatcanbededucedfromtheseobservations，andfrommanyothersconcerningthekindofvariationintheorgans，nerves，etc。，[onemustadmitthat]somanydifferentvarietiescannotbethegratuitousplayofnature。Theyproveatleastthenecessityforagoodandvigorousphysicalorganization，sincethroughouttheanimalkingdomthesoulgainsforcewiththebodyandacquireskeenness，asthebodygainsstrength。
Letuspausetocontemplatethevaryingcapacitiesofanimalstolearn。
Doubtlesstheanalogybestframedleadsthemindtothinkthatthecauseswehavementionedproduceallthedifferencethatisfoundbetweenanimalsandmen，althoughwemustconfessthatourweakunderstanding，limitedtothecoarsestobservations，cannotseethebondsthatexistbetweencauseandeffect。Thisisakindofharmonythatphilosopherswillneverknow。
Amonganimals，somelearntospeakandsing；theyremembertunes，andstrikethenotesasexactlyasamusician。Others，forinstancetheape，showmoreintelligence，andyetcannotlearnmusic。
Whatisthereasonforthis，exceptsomedefectintheorgansofspeech？Butisthisdefectsoessentialtothestructurethatitcouldneverberemedied？Inaword，woulditbeabsolutelyimpossibletoteachtheapealanguage？Idonotthinkso。
Ishouldchoosealargeapeinpreferencetoanyother，untilbysomegoodfortuneanotherkindshouldbediscovered，morelikeus，fornothingpreventstherebeingsuchaoneinregionsunknowntous。Theaperesemblesussostronglythatnaturalistshavecalledit``wildman’’or``manofthewoods。’’IshouldtakeitintheconditionofthepupilsofAmman，thatistosay，I
shouldnotwantittobetooyoungortooold；forapesthatarebroughttoEuropeareusuallytooold。Iwouldchoosetheonewiththemostintelligentface，andtheonewhich，inathousandlittleways，bestliveduptoitslookofintelligence。Finallynotconsideringmyselfworthytobehismaster，IshouldputhimintheschoolofthatexcellentteacherwhomIhavejustnamed，orwithanotherteacherequallyskillful，ifthereisone。
YouknowbyAmman’swork，andbyallthosewhohaveinterpretedhismethod，allthewondershehasbeenabletoaccomplishforthoseborndeaf。Intheireyeshediscoveredears，ashehimselfexplained，andinhowshortatime！Inshorthetaughtthemtohear，speak，read，andwrite。Igrantthatadeafperson’seyesseemoreclearlyandarekeenerthanifhewerenotdeaf，forthelossofonememberorsensecanincreasethestrengthoracutenessofanother，butapesseeandhear，theyunderstandwhattheyhearandsee，andgraspsoperfectlythesignsthataremadetothem，thatIdoubtnotthattheywouldsurpassthepupilsofAmmaninanyothergameorexercise。Whythenshouldtheeducationofmonkeysbeimpossible？Whymightnotthemonkey，bydintofgreatpains，atlastimitateafterthemannerofdeafmutes，themotionsnecessaryforpronunciation。Idonotdaredecidewhetherthemonkey’sorgansofspeech，howevertrained，wouldbeincapableofarticulation。But，becauseofthegreatanalogybetweenapeandmanandbecausethereisnoknownanimalwhoseexternalandinternalorganssostrikinglyresembleman’s，itwouldsurprisemeifspeechwereabsolutelyimpossibletotheape。Locke，whowascertainlyneversuspectedofcredulity，foundnodifficultyinbelievingthestorytoldbySirWilliamTempleinhismemoirs，aboutaparrotwhichcouldanswerrationally，andwhichhadlearnedtocarryonakindofconnectedconversation，aswedo。I
knowthatpeoplehaveridiculedthisgreatmetaphysician；butsupposesomeoneshouldhaveannouncedthatreproductionsometimestakeplacewithouteggsorafemale，wouldhehavefoundmanypartisans？YetM。Trembleyhasfoundcaseswherereproductiontakesplacewithoutcopulationandbyfission。WouldnotAmmantoohavepassedformadifhehadboastedthathecouldinstructscholarslikehisinsoshortatime，beforehehadhappilyaccomplishedthefeat？Hissuccesses，have，however，astonishedtheworld；andhe，liketheauthorofTheHistoryofthePolyps，hasrisentoimmortalityatonebound。
Whoeverowesthemiraclesthatheworkstohisowngeniussurpasses，inmyopinion，themanwhooweshistochance。Hewhohasdiscoveredtheartofadorningthemostbeautifulofkingdoms[ofnature]，andofgivingitperfectionsthatitdidnothave，shouldberankedaboveanidlecreatoroffrivoloussystems，orapainstakingauthorofsterilediscoveries。Amman’sdiscoveriesarecertainlyofamuchgreatervalue；hehasfreedmenfromtheinstincttowhichtheyseemedtobecondemned，andhasgiventhemideas，intelligence，orinaword，asoulwhichtheywouldneverhavehad。Whatgreaterpowerthanthis！
Letusnotlimittheresourcesofnature；theyareinfinite，especiallywhenreinforcedbygreatart。
CouldnotthedevicewhichopenstheEustachiancanalofthedeaf，openthatofapes？Mightnotahappydesiretoimitatethemaster’spronunciation，liberatetheorgansofspeechinanimalsthatimitatesomanyothersignswithsuchskillandintelligence？
NotonlydoIdefyanyonetonameanyreallyconclusiveexperimentwhichprovesmyviewimpossibleandabsurd；butsuchisthelikenessofthestructureandfunctionsoftheapetooursthatIhaveverylittledoubtthatifthisanimalwereproperlytrainedhemightatlastbetaughttopronounce，andconsequentlytoknow，alanguage。Thenhewouldnolongerbeawildman，noradefectiveman，buthewouldbeaperfectman，alittlegentleman，withasmuchmatterormuscleaswehave，forthinkingandprofitingbyhiseducation。
Thetransitionfromanimalstomanisnotviolent，astruephilosopherswilladmit。Whatwasmanbeforetheinventionofwordsandtheknowledgeoflanguage？Ananimalofhisownspecieswithmuchlessinstinctthantheothers。Inthosedays，hedidnotconsiderhimselfkingovertheotheranimals，norwashedistinguishedfromtheape，andfromtherest，exceptastheapeitselfdiffersfromtheotheranimals，i。e。，byamoreintelligentface。ReducedtothebareintuitiveknowledgeoftheLeibnizianshesawonlyshapesandcolors，withoutbeingabletodistinguishbetweenthem：
thesame，oldasyoung，childatallages，helispedouthissensationsandhisneeds，asagodthatishungryortiredofsleeping，asksforsomethingtoeat，orforawalk。
Words，languages，laws，sciences，andthefineartshavecome，andbythemfinallytheroughdiamondofourmindhasbeenpolished。Manhasbeentrainedinthesamewayasanimals。Hehasbecomeanauthor，astheyhavebecomebeastsofburden。
Ageometricianhaslearnedtoperformthemostdifficultdemonstrationsandcalculations，asamonkeyhaslearnedtotakehislittlehatoffandon，andtomounthistamedog。Allhasbeenaccomplishedthroughsigns，everyspecieshaslearnedwhatitcouldunderstand，andinthiswaymenhaveacquiredsymbolicknowledge，stillsocalledbyourGermanphilosophers。
Nothing，asanyonecansee，issosimpleasthemechanismofoureducation。
Everythingmaybereducedtosoundsorwordsthatpassfromthemouthofonethroughtheearsofanotherintohisbrain。Atthesamemoment，heperceivesthroughhiseyestheshapeofthebodiesofwhichthesewordsarethearbitrarysigns。
Butwhowasthefirsttospeak？Whowasthefirstteacherofthehumanrace？Whoinventedthemeansofutilizingtheplasticityofourorganism？Icannotanswer：thenamesofthesefirstsplendidgeniuseshavebeenlostinthenightoftime。Butartisthechildofnature，sonaturemusthavelongprecededit。
Wemustthinkthatthemenwhowerethemosthighlyorganized，thoseonwhomnaturehaslavishedherrichestgifts，taughttheothers。Theycouldnothaveheardanewsoundforinstance，norexperiencednewsensations，norbeenstruckbyallthevariedandbeautifulobjectsthatcomposetheravishingspectacleofnaturewithoutfindingthemselvesinthestateofmindofthedeafmanofChartres，whoseexperiencewasfirstrelatedbythegreatFontenelle，when，atfortyyears，heheardforthefirsttime，theastonishingsoundofbells。
Woulditbeabsurdtoconcludefromthisthatthefirstmortalstriedafterthemannerofthisdeafman，orlikeanimalsandlikemutes（anotherkindofanimals），toexpresstheirnewfeelingbymotionsdependingonthenatureoftheirimagination，andthereforeafterwardsbyspontaneoussounds，distinctiveofeachanimal，asthenaturalexpressionoftheirsurprise，theirjoy，theirecstasiesandtheirneeds？Fordoubtlessthosewhomnatureendowedwithfinerfeelinghadalsogreaterfacilityinexpression。
Thatisthewayinwhich，Ithink，menhaveusedtheirfeelingandtheirinstincttogainintelligenceandthenhaveemployedtheirintelligencetogainknowledge。Thosearetheways，sofarasIcanunderstandthem，inwhichmenhavefilledthebrainwiththeideas，forthereceptionofwhichnaturemadeit。Natureandmanhavehelpedeachother；andthesmallestbeginningshave，littlebylittle，increased，untileverythingintheuniversecouldbeaseasilydescribedasacircle。
Asaviolinstringoraharpsichordkeyvibratesandgivesforthsound，sothecerebralfibers，struckbywavesofsound，arestimulatedtorenderorrepeatthewordsthatstrikethem。Andasthestructureofthebrainissuchthatwheneyeswellformedforseeing，haveonceperceivedtheimageofobjects，thebraincannothelpseeingtheirimagesandtheirdifferences，sowhenthesignsofthesedifferenceshavebeentracedorimprintedinthebrain，thesoulnecessarilyexaminestheirrelations-anexaminationthatwouldhavebeenimpossiblewithoutthediscoveryofsignsortheinventionoflanguage。Atthetimewhentheuniversewasalmostdumb，thesoul’sattitudetowardallobjectswasthatofamanwithoutanyideaofproportiontowardapictureorapieceofsculpture，inwhichhecoulddistinguishnothing；
orthesoulwaslikealittlechild（forthesoulwastheninitsinfancy）who，holdinginhishandsmallbitsofstraworwood，seestheminavagueandsuperficialwaywithoutbeingabletocountordistinguishthem。Butletsomeoneattachakindofbanner，orstandard，tothisbitofwood（whichperhapsiscalledamast），andanotherbannertoanothersimilarobject；letthefirstbeknownbythesymbol1，andthesecondbythesymbolornumber2，thenthechildwillbeabletocounttheobjects，andinthiswayhewilllearnallofarithmetic。Assoonasonefigureseemsequaltoanotherinitsnumericalsing，hewilldecidewithoutdifficultythattheyaretwodifferentbodies，that1+1make2，and2+2make4，etc。
Thisrealorapparentlikenessoffiguresisthefundamentalbasisofalltruthsandofallweknow。Amongthesesciences，evidentlythosewhosesignsarelesssimpleandlesssensiblearehardertounderstandthantheothers，becausemoretalentisrequiredtocomprehendandcombinetheimmensenumberofwordsbywhichsuchsciencesexpressthetruthsintheirprovince。Ontheotherhand，thesciencesthatareexpressedbythenumbersorbyothersmallsigns，areeasilylearned；andwithoutdoubtthisfacilityratherthanitsdemonstrabilityiswhathasmadethefortuneofalgebra。
Allthisknowledge，withwhichvanityfillstheballoon-likebrainsofourproudpedants，isthereforebutahugemassofwordsandfigures，whichforminthebrainallthemarksbywhichwedistinguishandrecallobjects。Allourideasareawakenedafterthefashioninwhichthegardenerwhoknowsplantsrecallsallstagesoftheirgrowthatsightofthem。Thesewordsandtheobjectsdesignatedbythemaresoconnectedinthebrainthatitiscomparativelyraretoimagineathingwithoutthenameorsignthatisattachedtoit。
Ialwaysusetheword``imagine，’’becauseIthinkthateverythingistheworkofimagination，andthatallthefacultiesofthesoulcanbecorrectlyreducedtopureimaginationinwhichtheyallconsist。
Thusjudgment，reason，andmemoryarenotabsolutepartsofthesoul，butmerelymodificationsofthiskindofmedullaryscreenuponwhichimagesoftheobjectspaintedintheeyeareprojectedasbyamagiclantern。
Butifsuchisthemarvelousandincomprehensibleresultofthestructureofthebrain，ifeverythingisperceivedandexplainedbyimagination，whyshouldwedividethesensitiveprinciplewhichthinksinman？Isnotthisaclearinconsistencyinthepartisansofthesimplicityofthemind？Forathingthatisdividedcannolongerwithoutabsurdityberegardedasindivisible。Seetowhatoneisbroughtbytheabuseoflanguageandbythosefinewords（spirituality，immateriality，etc。）usedhaphazardandnotunderstoodevenbythemostbrilliant。
Nothingiseasierthantoproveasystembased，asthisoneis，ontheintimatefeelingandpersonalexperienceofeachindividual。Iftheimagination，orletussay，thatfantasticpartofthebrainwhosenatureisasunknowntousasitswayofacting，benaturallysmallorweak，itwillhardlybeabletocomparetheanalogyortheresemblanceofitsideas，itwillbeabletoseeonlywhatisfacetofacewithit，orwhataffectsitverystrongly；
andhowwillitseeallthis！Yetitisalwaysimaginationwhichapperceives，andimaginationwhichrepresentstoitselfallobjectsalongwiththeirnamesandsymbols；andthus，onceagain，imaginationisthesoul，sinceitplaysalltherolesofthesoul。
Bytheimagination，byitsflatteringbrush，thecoldskeletonofreasontakesonlivingandruddyflesh，bytheimaginationthesciencesflourish，theartsareadorned，thewoodspeaks，theechoessigh，therocksweep，marblebreathes，andallinanimateobjectsgainlife。Itisimaginationagainwhichaddsthepiquantcharmofvoluptuousnesstothetendernessofanamorousheart；whichmakestendernessbudinthestudyofthephilosopherandofthedustypedant，which，inaword，createsscholarsaswellasoratorsandpoets。Foolishlydecriedbysome，vainlypraisedbyothers，andmisunderstoodbyall；itfollowsnotonlyinthetrainofthegracesandofthefinearts，itnotonlydescribesbutcanalsomeasurenature。Itreasons，judges，analyzes，compares，andinvestigates。Coulditfeelsokeenlythebeautiesofthepicturesdrawnforit，unlessitdiscoveredtheirrelations？
No，justasitcannotturnitsthoughtsonthepleasuresofthesenses，withoutenjoyingtheirperfectionortheirvoluptuousness，itcannotreflectonwhatithasmechanicallyconceived，withoutthusbeingjudgmentitself。
Themoretheimaginationorthepooresttalentisexercised，themoreitgainsinembonpoint，sotospeak，andthelargeritgrows。Itbecomessensitive，robust，broad，andcapableofthinking。
Thebestoforganismshasneedofthisexercise。
Man’spreeminentadvantageishisorganism。Invainallwritersofbooksonmoralsfailtoregardaspraiseworthythosequalitiesthatcomebynature，esteemingonlythetalentsgainedbydintofreflectionandindustry。Forwhencecome，Iask，skill，learning，andvirtue，ifnotfromadispositionthatmakesusfittobecomeskillful，wise，andvirtuous？Andwhenceagain，comesthisdisposition，ifnotfromnature？Onlythoughnaturedowehaveanygoodqualities；toherweoweallthatweare。WhythenshouldInotesteemmenwithgoodnaturalqualitiesasmuchasmenwhoshinebyacquiredandasitwereborrowedvirtues？
Whateverthevirtuemaybe，fromwhateversourceitmaycome，itisworthyofesteem；theonlyquestionis，howtoestimateit。
Mind，beauty，wealth，nobility，althoughthechildrenofchance，allhavetheirownvalue，asskill，learningandvirtueallhavetheirs。Thoseuponwhomnaturehasheapedhermostcostlygiftsshouldpitythosetowhomthesegiftshavebeenrefused；but，intheircharacterofexperts，theymayfeeltheirsuperioritywithoutpride。Abeautifulwomanwouldbeasfoolishtothinkherselfugly，asanintelligentmantothinkhimselfafool。Anexaggeratedmodesty（ararefault，tobesure）isakindofingratitudetowardsnature。Anhonestpride，onthecontrary，isthemarkofastrongandbeautifulsoul，revealedbymanlyfeaturesmouldedbyfeeling。
Ifone’sorganismisanadvantage，andthepreeminentadvantage，andthesourceofallothers，educationisthesecond。Thebestmadebrainwouldbeatotallosswithoutit，justasthebestconstitutedmanwouldbebutacommonpeasant，withoutknowledgeofthewaysoftheworld。But，ontheotherhand，whatwouldbetheuseofthemostexcellentschool，withoutamatrixperfectlyopentotheentranceandconceptionofideas？Ilestaussiimpossiblededonneruneseuleidé；eà；unhommeprivé；detouslessens，quedefaireunenfantà；
unefemmeà；laquellelanatureauraitpoussé；ladistractionjusqu’à；oublierdefaireunevulve，commejel’aivudansune，quin’avaitnifente，nivagin，nimatrice，etquipourcetteraisonfutdé；marié；eaprè；sdixansdemariage。
Butifthebrainisatthesametimewellorganizedandwelleducated，itisafertilesoil，wellsown，thatbringsforthahundredfoldwhatithasreceived：or（toleavethefiguresofspeechoftenneededtoexpresswhatonemeans，andtoaddgracetotruthitself）theimagination，raisedbyarttotherareandbeautifuldignityofgenius，apprehendsexactlyalltherelationsoftheideasithasconceived，andtakesineasilyanastoundingnumberofobjects，inordertodeducefromthemalongchainofconsequences，whichareagainbutnewrelations，producedbyacomparisonwiththefirst，towhichthesoulfindsaperfectresemblance。Suchis，Ithink，thegenerationofintelligence。Isay``finds’’asIbeforegavetheepithet``apparent’’tothelikenessofobjects，notbecauseIthinkthatoursensesarealwaysdeceivers，asFatherMalebranchehasclaimed，orthatoureyes，naturallyalittleunsteady，failtoseeobjectsastheyareinthemselves（thoughmicroscopesprovethistouseveryday）butinordertoavoidanydisputewiththePyrrhonians，amongwhomBayleiswellknown。
IsayoftruthingeneralwhatM。deFontenellesaysofcertaintruthsinparticular，thatwemustsacrificeitinordertoremainongoodtermswithsociety。Anditaccordswiththegentlenessofmycharacter，toavoidalldisputesunlesstowhatconversation[！]。TheCartesianswouldhereinvainmakeanonsetuponmewiththeirinnateideas。IcertainlywouldnotgivemyselfaquarterofthetroublethatM。Locketook，toattacksuchchimeras。
Intruth，whatistheuseofwritingaponderousvolumetoproveadoctrinewhichbecameanaxiomthreethousandyearsago？
Accordingtotheprincipleswhichwehavelaiddown，andwhichweconsidertrue；hewhohasthemostimaginationshouldberegardedashavingthemostintelligenceorgenius，forallthesewordsaresynonymous；andagain，onlybyashamefulabuse[ofterms]dowethinkthatwearesayingdifferentthings，whenwearemerelyusingdifferentwords，differentsounds，towhichnoideaorrealdistinctionisattached。
Thefinest，greatestorstrongestimaginationisthentheonemostsuitedtothesciencesaswellastothearts。IdonotpretendtosaywhethermoreintellectisnecessarytoexcelintheartofAristotleorofDescartesthantoexcelinthatofEuripidesorofSophocles，andwhethernaturehastakenmoretroubletomakeNewtonthantomakeCorneille，thoughIdoubtthis。Butitiscertainthatimaginationalone，differentlyapplied，hasproducedtheirdiversetriumphsandtheirimmortalglory。
Ifoneisknownashavinglittlejudgmentandmuchimagination，thismeansthattheimaginationhasbeenlefttoomuchalone，has，asitwere，occupiedmostofthetimeinlookingatitselfinthemirrorofitssensations，hasnotsufficientlyformedthehabitofexaminingthesensationsthemselvesattentively。[Itmeansthattheimagination]hasbeenmoreimpressedbyimagesthanbytheirtruthorthelikeness。
Truly，soquickaretheresponsesoftheimaginationthatifattention，thatkeyormotherofthesciences，doesnotdoitspart，imaginationcandolittlemorethanrunoverandskimitsobjects。
Seethatbirdonthebough：itseemsalwaysreadytoflyaway。Imaginationislikethebird，alwayscarriedonwardbytheturmoilofthebloodandtheanimalspirits。Onewaveleavesamark，effacedbytheonethatfollows；thesoulpursuesit，ofteninvain：itmustexpecttoregretthelossofthatwhichithasnotquicklyenoughseizedandfixed。Thus，imagination，thetrueimageoftime，isbeingceaselesslydestroyedandrenewed。
Suchisthechaosandthecontinuousquicksuccessionofourideas：
theydriveeachotherawayevenasonewaveyieldstoanother。Therefore，ifimaginationdoesnot，asitwere，useonesetofitsmusclestomaintainakindofequilibriumwiththefibersofthebrain，tokeepitsattentionforawhileuponanobjectthatisonthepointofdisappearing，andtopreventitselffromcontemplatingprematurelyanotherobject-[unlesstheimaginationdoesallthis]，itwillneverbeworthyofthefinenameofjudgment。Itwillexpressvividlywhatithasperceivedinthesamefashion：itwillcreateorators，musicians，painters，poets，butneverasinglephilosopher。Onthecontrary，iftheimaginationbetrainedfromchildhoodtobridleitselfandtokeepfrombeingcarriedawaybyitsownimpetuosity-animpetuositywhichcreatesonlybrilliantenthusiasts-andtocheck，torestrain，itsideas，toexaminetheminalltheiraspectsinordertoseeallsidesofanobject，thentheimagination，readyinjudgment，willcomprehendthegreatestpossiblesphereofobjects，throughreasoning；
anditsvivacity（alwayssogoodasigninchildren，andonlyneedingtoberegulatedbystudyandtraining）willbeonlyafar-seeinginsightwithoutwhichlittleprogresscanbemadeinthesciences。
Sucharethesimplefoundationsuponwhichtheedificeoflogichasbeenreared。Naturehasbuiltthesefoundationsforthewholehumanrace，butsomehaveusedthem，whileothershaveabusedthem。
Inspiteofalltheseadvantagesofmanoveranimals，itisdoinghimhonortoplacehiminthesameclass。For，truly，uptoacertainage，heismoreofananimalthanthey，sinceatbirthhehaslessinstinct。Whatanimalwoulddieofhungerinthemidstofariverofmilk？Manalone。Likethatchildofoldentimewhomamodernwriterrefers，followingArnobius，heknowsneitherthefoodssuitableforhim，northewaterthatcandrownhim，northefirethatcanreducehimtoashes。Lightawaxcandleforthefirsttimeunderachild’seyes，andhewillmechanicallyputhisfingersintheflameasiftofindoutwhatisthenewthingthathesees。Itisathisowncostthathewilllearnofthedanger，buthewillnotbecaughtagain。Or，putthechildwithananimalonaprecipice，thechildalonefallsoff；hedrownswheretheanimalwouldsaveitselfbyswimming。Atfourteenorfifteenyearsthechildknowshardlyanythingofthegreatpleasuresinstoreforhim，inthereproductionofhisspecies；whenheisayouth，hedoesnotknowexactlyhowtobehaveinagamewhichnatureteachesanimalssoquickly。Hehideshimselfasifhewereashamedoftakingpleasure，andofhavingbeenmadetobehappy，whileanimalsfranklygloryinbeingCynics。Withouteducation，theyarewithoutprejudices。Foronemoreexample，letusobserveadogandachildwhohavelosttheirmasteronahighway：thechildcriesanddoesnotknowtowhatsainttopray，whilethedog，betterhelpedbyhissenseofsmellthanthechildbyhisreason，soonfindshismaster。
Thusnaturemadeustobelowerthananimalsoratleasttoexhibitallthemore，becauseofthatnativeinferiority，thewonderfulefficacyofeducationwhichaloneraisesusfromtheleveloftheanimalsandliftsusabovethem。Butshallwegrantthissamedistinctiontothedeafandtotheblind，toimbeciles，madmen，orsavages，ortothosewhohavebeenbroughtupinthewoodswithanimals；tothosewhohavelosttheirimaginationthroughmelancholia，orinshorttoallthoseanimalsinhumanformwhogiveevidenceofonlytherudestinstinct？No，allthese，menofbodybutnotofmind，donotdeservetobeclassedbythemselves。
Wedonotintendtohidefromourselvestheargumentsthatcanbebroughtforwardagainstourbeliefandinfavorofaprimitivedistinctionbetweenmenandanimals。Somesaythatthereisinmananaturallaw，aknowledgeofgoodandevil，whichhasneverbeenimprintedontheheartofanimals。
Butisthisobjection，orratherthisassertion，basedonobservation？
Anassertionunfoundedonobservationmayberejectedbyaphilosopher。Haveweeverhadasingleexperiencewhichconvincesusthatmanalonehasbeenenlightenedbyaraydeniedallotheranimals？Ifthereisnosuchexperience，wecannomoreknowwhatgoesoninanimals’mindsoreveninthemindsofothermen，thanwecanhelpfeelingwhataffectstheinnerpartofourownbeing。Weknowthatwethink，andwefeelremorse-anintimatefeelingforcesustorecognizethisonlytoowell；butthisfeelinginusisinsufficienttoenableustojudgetheremorseofothers。Thatiswhywehavetotakeothersattheirwords，orjudgethembythesensibleandexternalsignswehavenoticedinourselveswhenweexperiencedthesameaccusationsofconscienceandthesametorments。
Inordertodecidewhetheranimalswhichdonottalkhavereceivedthenaturallaw，wemust，therefore，haverecoursetothosesignstowhichIhavejustreferred，ifanysuchexist。Thefactsseemtoproveit。Adogthatbitthemasterwhowasteasingit，seemedtorepentaminuteafterwards；itlookedsad，ashamed，afraidtoshowitself，andseemedtoconfessitsguiltbyacrouchinganddowncastair。Historyoffersusafamousexampleofalionwhichwouldnotdevouramanabandonedtoitsfury，becauseitrecognizedhimasitsbenefactor。Howmuchmightitbewishedthatmanhimselfalwaysshowedthesamegratitudeforkindnesses，andthesamerespectforhumanity！Thenweshouldnolongerfeareitherungratefulwretches，orwarswhicharetheplagueofthehumanraceandtherealexecutionersofthenaturallaw。
Butabeingtowhichnaturehasgivensuchaprecociousandenlightenedinstinct，whichjudges，combines，reasons，anddeliberatesasfarasthesphereofitsactivityextendsandpermits，abeingwhichfeelsattachmentbecauseofbenefitsreceived，andwhichleavingamasterwhotreatsitbadlygoestoseekabetterone，abeingwithastructurelikeours，whichperformsthesameacts，hasthesamepassions，thesamegriefs，thesamepleasures，moreorlessintenseaccordingtotheswayoftheimaginationandthedelicacyofthenervousorganization-doesnotsuchabeingshowclearlythatitknowsitsfaultsandours，understandsgoodandevil，andinaword，hasconsciousnessofwhatitdoes？Woulditssoul，whichfeelsthesamejoys，thesamemortificationandthesamediscomfiturewhichwefeel，remainutterlyunmovedbydisgustwhenitsawafellow-creaturetorntobits，orwhenithaditselfpitilesslydismemberedthisfellow-creature？
Ifthisbegranted，itfollowsthatthepreciousgiftnowinquestionwouldnothavebeendeniedtoanimals：forsincetheyshowussuresignsofrepentance，aswellasofintelligence，whatisthereabsurdinthinkingthatbeings，almostasperfectmachinesasourselves，are，likeus，madetounderstandandtofeelnature？
Letnooneobjectthatanimals，forthemostpart，aresavagebeasts，incapableofrealizingtheevilthattheydo；fordoallmendiscriminatebetterbetweenviceandvirtue？Thereisferocityinourspeciesaswellasintheirs。Menwhoareinthebarbaroushabitofbreakingthenaturallawarenottormentedasmuchbyit，asthosewhotransgressforthefirsttime，andwhohavenotbeenhardenedbytheforceofhabit。Thesamethingistrueofanimalsasofmen-bothmaybemoreorlessferociousintemperament，andbothbecomemoresobylivingwithotherslikethemselves。