Lexiconsassigntoeachwordadefinitemeaningormeanings。Theybothtendtoobscurethefactthatthesentenceprecedesthewordandthatalllanguageisrelative。（1）Itisrelativetoitsowncontext。Itsmeaningismodifiedbywhathasbeensaidbeforeandafterinthesameorinsomeotherpassage：withoutcomparingthecontextwearenotsurewhetheritisusedinthesamesenseevenintwosuccessivesentences。（2）Itisrelativetofacts，totime，place，andoccasion：whentheyarealreadyknowntothehearerorreader，theymaybepresupposed；thereisnoneedtoalludetothemfurther。（3）Itisrelativetotheknowledgeofthewriterandreaderorofthespeakerandhearer。Exceptforthesakeoforderandconsecutivenessnothingoughttobeexpressedwhichisalreadycommonlyoruniversallyknown。Awordortwomaybesufficienttogiveanintimationtoafriend；alongorelaboratespeechorcompositionisrequiredtoexplainsomenewideatoapopularaudienceortotheordinaryreaderortoayoungpupil。Grammarsanddictionariesarenottobedespised；forinteachingweneedclearnessratherthansubtlety。Butwemustnotthereforeforgetthatthereisalsoahigheridealoflanguageinwhichallisrelative——soundstosounds，wordstowords，thepartstothewhole——inwhichbesidesthelessercontextofthebookorspeech，thereisalsothelargercontextofhistoryandcircumstances。
ThestudyofComparativePhilologyhasintroducedintotheworldanewsciencewhichmorethananyotherbindsupmanwithnature，anddistantagesandcountrieswithoneanother。Itmaybesaidtohavethrownalightuponallothersciencesanduponthenatureofthehumanminditself。Thetrueconceptionofitdispelsmanyerrors，notonlyofmetaphysicsandtheology，butalsoofnaturalknowledge。Yetitisfarfromcertainthatthisnewly-foundsciencewillcontinuetoprogressinthesamesurprisingmannerasheretofore；orthatevenifourmaterialsarelargelyincreased，weshallarriveatmuchmoredefiniteconclusionsthanatpresent。Likesomeotherbranchesofknowledge，itmaybeapproachingapointatwhichitcannolongerbeprofitablystudied。Butatanyrateithasbroughtbackthephilosophyoflanguagefromtheorytofact；ithaspassedoutoftheregionofguessesandhypotheses，andhasattainedthedignityofanInductiveScience。Anditisnotwithoutpracticalandpoliticalimportance。Itgivesanewinteresttodistantandsubjectcountries；itbringsbackthedawninglightfromoneendoftheearthtotheother。
Nations，likeindividuals，arebetterunderstoodbyuswhenweknowsomethingoftheirearlylife；andwhentheyarebetterunderstoodbyus，wefeelmorekindlytowardsthem。Lastly，wemayrememberthatallknowledgeisvaluableforitsownsake；andwemayalsohopethatadeeperinsightintothenatureofhumanspeechwillgiveusagreatercommandofitandenableustomakeanobleruseofit。（CompareagainW。Humboldt，’UeberdieVerschiedenheitdesmenschlichenSprachbaues；’M。Muller，’LecturesontheScienceofLanguage；’Steinthal，’EinleitungindiePsychologieundSprachwissenschaft：’andforthelatterpartoftheEssay，Delbruck，’StudyofLanguage；’Paul’s’PrinciplesoftheHistoryofLanguage：’tothelatterworktheauthorofthisEssayislargelyindebted。）
CRATYLUS
byPlatoTranslatedbyBenjaminJowettPERSONSOFTHEDIALOGUE：Socrates，Hermogenes，Cratylus。
HERMOGENES：SupposethatwemakeSocratesapartytotheargument？
CRATYLUS：Ifyouplease。
HERMOGENES：Ishouldexplaintoyou，Socrates，thatourfriendCratylushasbeenarguingaboutnames；hesaysthattheyarenaturalandnotconventional；notaportionofthehumanvoicewhichmenagreetouse；butthatthereisatruthorcorrectnessinthem，whichisthesameforHellenesasforbarbarians。WhereuponIaskhim，whetherhisownnameofCratylusisatruenameornot，andheanswers’Yes。’AndSocrates？
’Yes。’Theneveryman’sname，asItellhim，isthatwhichheiscalled。
Tothishereplies——’IfalltheworldweretocallyouHermogenes，thatwouldnotbeyourname。’AndwhenIamanxioustohaveafurtherexplanationheisironicalandmysterious，andseemstoimplythathehasanotionofhisownaboutthematter，ifhewouldonlytell，andcouldentirelyconvinceme，ifhechosetobeintelligible。Tellme，Socrates，whatthisoraclemeans；orrathertellme，ifyouwillbesogood，whatisyourownviewofthetruthorcorrectnessofnames，whichIwouldfarsoonerhear。
SOCRATES：SonofHipponicus，thereisanancientsaying，that’hardistheknowledgeofthegood。’Andtheknowledgeofnamesisagreatpartofknowledge。IfIhadnotbeenpoor，Imighthaveheardthefifty-drachmacourseofthegreatProdicus，whichisacompleteeducationingrammarandlanguage——thesearehisownwords——andthenIshouldhavebeenatonceabletoansweryourquestionaboutthecorrectnessofnames。But，indeed，I
haveonlyheardthesingle-drachmacourse，andtherefore，Idonotknowthetruthaboutsuchmatters；Iwill，however，gladlyassistyouandCratylusintheinvestigationofthem。WhenhedeclaresthatyournameisnotreallyHermogenes，Isuspectthatheisonlymakingfunofyou；——hemeanstosaythatyouarenotruesonofHermes，becauseyouarealwayslookingafterafortuneandneverinluck。But，asIwassaying，thereisagooddealofdifficultyinthissortofknowledge，andthereforewehadbetterleavethequestionopenuntilwehaveheardbothsides。
HERMOGENES：Ihaveoftentalkedoverthismatter，bothwithCratylusandothers，andcannotconvincemyselfthatthereisanyprincipleofcorrectnessinnamesotherthanconventionandagreement；anynamewhichyougive，inmyopinion，istherightone，andifyouchangethatandgiveanother，thenewnameisascorrectastheold——wefrequentlychangethenamesofourslaves，andthenewly-imposednameisasgoodastheold：forthereisnonamegiventoanythingbynature；allisconventionandhabitoftheusers；——suchismyview。ButifIammistakenIshallbehappytohearandlearnofCratylus，orofanyoneelse。
SOCRATES：Idaresaythatyoumayberight，Hermogenes：letussee；——Yourmeaningis，thatthenameofeachthingisonlythatwhichanybodyagreestocallit？
HERMOGENES：Thatismynotion。
SOCRATES：Whetherthegiverofthenamebeanindividualoracity？
HERMOGENES：Yes。
SOCRATES：Well，now，letmetakeaninstance；——supposethatIcallamanahorseorahorseaman，youmeantosaythatamanwillberightlycalledahorsebymeindividually，andrightlycalledamanbytherestoftheworld；andahorseagainwouldberightlycalledamanbymeandahorsebytheworld：——thatisyourmeaning？
HERMOGENES：Hewould，accordingtomyview。
SOCRATES：Buthowabouttruth，then？youwouldacknowledgethatthereisinwordsatrueandafalse？
HERMOGENES：Certainly。
SOCRATES：Andtherearetrueandfalsepropositions？
HERMOGENES：Tobesure。
SOCRATES：Andatruepropositionsaysthatwhichis，andafalsepropositionsaysthatwhichisnot？
HERMOGENES：Yes；whatotheranswerispossible？
SOCRATES：Theninapropositionthereisatrueandfalse？
HERMOGENES：Certainly。
SOCRATES：Butisapropositiontrueasawholeonly，andarethepartsuntrue？
HERMOGENES：No；thepartsaretrueaswellasthewhole。
SOCRATES：Wouldyousaythelargepartsandnotthesmallerones，oreverypart？
HERMOGENES：Ishouldsaythateverypartistrue。
SOCRATES：Isapropositionresolvableintoanypartsmallerthananame？
HERMOGENES：No；thatisthesmallest。
SOCRATES：Thenthenameisapartofthetrueproposition？
HERMOGENES：Yes。
SOCRATES：Yes，andatruepart，asyousay。
HERMOGENES：Yes。
SOCRATES：Andisnotthepartofafalsehoodalsoafalsehood？
HERMOGENES：Yes。
SOCRATES：Then，ifpropositionsmaybetrueandfalse，namesmaybetrueandfalse？
HERMOGENES：Sowemustinfer。
SOCRATES：Andthenameofanythingisthatwhichanyoneaffirmstobethename？
HERMOGENES：Yes。
SOCRATES：Andwilltherebesomanynamesofeachthingaseverybodysaysthatthereare？andwilltheybetruenamesatthetimeofutteringthem？
HERMOGENES：Yes，Socrates，Icanconceivenocorrectnessofnamesotherthanthis；yougiveonename，andIanother；andindifferentcitiesandcountriestherearedifferentnamesforthesamethings；Hellenesdifferfrombarbariansintheiruseofnames，andtheseveralHellenictribesfromoneanother。
SOCRATES：Butwouldyousay，Hermogenes，thatthethingsdifferasthenamesdiffer？andaretheyrelativetoindividuals，asProtagorastellsus？
Forhesaysthatmanisthemeasureofallthings，andthatthingsaretomeastheyappeartome，andthattheyaretoyouastheyappeartoyou。
Doyouagreewithhim，orwouldyousaythatthingshaveapermanentessenceoftheirown？
HERMOGENES：Therehavebeentimes，Socrates，whenIhavebeendriveninmyperplexitytotakerefugewithProtagoras；notthatIagreewithhimatall。
SOCRATES：What！haveyoueverbeendriventoadmitthattherewasnosuchthingasabadman？
HERMOGENES：No，indeed；butIhaveoftenhadreasontothinkthatthereareverybadmen，andagoodmanyofthem。
SOCRATES：Well，andhaveyoueverfoundanyverygoodones？
HERMOGENES：Notmany。
SOCRATES：Stillyouhavefoundthem？
HERMOGENES：Yes。
SOCRATES：Andwouldyouholdthattheverygoodweretheverywise，andtheveryevilveryfoolish？Wouldthatbeyourview？
HERMOGENES：Itwould。
SOCRATES：ButifProtagorasisright，andthetruthisthatthingsareastheyappeartoanyone，howcansomeofusbewiseandsomeofusfoolish？
HERMOGENES：Impossible。
SOCRATES：Andif，ontheotherhand，wisdomandfollyarereallydistinguishable，youwillallow，Ithink，thattheassertionofProtagorascanhardlybecorrect。Forifwhatappearstoeachmanistruetohim，onemancannotinrealitybewiserthananother。
HERMOGENES：Hecannot。
SOCRATES：NorwillyoubedisposedtosaywithEuthydemus，thatallthingsequallybelongtoallmenatthesamemomentandalways；forneitheronhisviewcantherebesomegoodandothersbad，ifvirtueandvicearealwaysequallytobeattributedtoall。
HERMOGENES：Therecannot。
SOCRATES：Butifneitherisright，andthingsarenotrelativetoindividuals，andallthingsdonotequallybelongtoallatthesamemomentandalways，theymustbesupposedtohavetheirownproperandpermanentessence：theyarenotinrelationtous，orinfluencedbyus，fluctuatingaccordingtoourfancy，buttheyareindependent，andmaintaintotheirownessencetherelationprescribedbynature。
HERMOGENES：Ithink，Socrates，thatyouhavesaidthetruth。
SOCRATES：DoeswhatIamsayingapplyonlytothethingsthemselves，orequallytotheactionswhichproceedfromthem？Arenotactionsalsoaclassofbeing？
HERMOGENES：Yes，theactionsarerealaswellasthethings。
SOCRATES：Thentheactionsalsoaredoneaccordingtotheirpropernature，andnotaccordingtoouropinionofthem？Incutting，forexample，wedonotcutasweplease，andwithanychanceinstrument；butwecutwiththeproperinstrumentonly，andaccordingtothenaturalprocessofcutting；
andthenaturalprocessisrightandwillsucceed，butanyotherwillfailandbeofnouseatall。
HERMOGENES：Ishouldsaythatthenaturalwayistherightway。
SOCRATES：Again，inburning，noteverywayistherightway；buttherightwayisthenaturalway，andtherightinstrumentthenaturalinstrument。
HERMOGENES：True。
SOCRATES：Andthisholdsgoodofallactions？
HERMOGENES：Yes。
SOCRATES：Andspeechisakindofaction？
HERMOGENES：True。
SOCRATES：Andwillamanspeakcorrectlywhospeaksashepleases？Willnotthesuccessfulspeakerratherbehewhospeaksinthenaturalwayofspeaking，andasthingsoughttobespoken，andwiththenaturalinstrument？Anyothermodeofspeakingwillresultinerrorandfailure。
HERMOGENES：Iquiteagreewithyou。
SOCRATES：Andisnotnamingapartofspeaking？foringivingnamesmenspeak。
HERMOGENES：Thatistrue。
SOCRATES：Andifspeakingisasortofactionandhasarelationtoacts，isnotnamingalsoasortofaction？
HERMOGENES：True。
SOCRATES：Andwesawthatactionswerenotrelativetoourselves，buthadaspecialnatureoftheirown？
HERMOGENES：Precisely。
SOCRATES：Thentheargumentwouldleadustoinferthatnamesoughttobegivenaccordingtoanaturalprocess，andwithaproperinstrument，andnotatourpleasure：inthisandnootherwayshallwenamewithsuccess。
HERMOGENES：Iagree。
SOCRATES：Butagain，thatwhichhastobecuthastobecutwithsomething？
HERMOGENES：Yes。
SOCRATES：Andthatwhichhastobewovenorpiercedhastobewovenorpiercedwithsomething？
HERMOGENES：Certainly。
SOCRATES：Andthatwhichhastobenamedhastobenamedwithsomething？
HERMOGENES：True。
SOCRATES：Whatisthatwithwhichwepierce？
HERMOGENES：Anawl。
SOCRATES：Andwithwhichweweave？
HERMOGENES：Ashuttle。
SOCRATES：Andwithwhichwename？
HERMOGENES：Aname。
SOCRATES：Verygood：thenanameisaninstrument？
HERMOGENES：Certainly。
SOCRATES：SupposethatIask，’Whatsortofinstrumentisashuttle？’Andyouanswer，’Aweavinginstrument。’
HERMOGENES：Well。
SOCRATES：AndIaskagain，’Whatdowedowhenweweave？’——Theansweris，thatweseparateordisengagethewarpfromthewoof。
HERMOGENES：Verytrue。
SOCRATES：Andmaynotasimilardescriptionbegivenofanawl，andofinstrumentsingeneral？
HERMOGENES：Tobesure。
SOCRATES：AndnowsupposethatIaskasimilarquestionaboutnames：willyouanswerme？Regardingthenameasaninstrument，whatdowedowhenwename？
HERMOGENES：Icannotsay。
SOCRATES：Dowenotgiveinformationtooneanother，anddistinguishthingsaccordingtotheirnatures？
HERMOGENES：Certainlywedo。
SOCRATES：Thenanameisaninstrumentofteachingandofdistinguishingnatures，astheshuttleisofdistinguishingthethreadsoftheweb。
HERMOGENES：Yes。
SOCRATES：Andtheshuttleistheinstrumentoftheweaver？
HERMOGENES：Assuredly。
SOCRATES：Thentheweaverwillusetheshuttlewell——andwellmeanslikeaweaver？andtheteacherwillusethenamewell——andwellmeanslikeateacher？
HERMOGENES：Yes。
SOCRATES：Andwhentheweaverusestheshuttle，whoseworkwillhebeusingwell？
HERMOGENES：Thatofthecarpenter。
SOCRATES：Andiseverymanacarpenter，ortheskilledonly？
HERMOGENES：Onlytheskilled。
SOCRATES：Andwhenthepiercerusestheawl，whoseworkwillhebeusingwell？
HERMOGENES：Thatofthesmith。
SOCRATES：Andiseverymanasmith，oronlytheskilled？
HERMOGENES：Theskilledonly。
SOCRATES：Andwhentheteacherusesthename，whoseworkwillhebeusing？
HERMOGENES：ThereagainIampuzzled。
SOCRATES：Cannotyouatleastsaywhogivesusthenameswhichweuse？
HERMOGENES：IndeedIcannot。
SOCRATES：Doesnotthelawseemtoyoutogiveusthem？
HERMOGENES：Yes，Isupposeso。
SOCRATES：Thentheteacher，whenhegivesusaname，usestheworkofthelegislator？
HERMOGENES：Iagree。
SOCRATES：Andiseverymanalegislator，ortheskilledonly？
HERMOGENES：Theskilledonly。
SOCRATES：Then，Hermogenes，noteverymanisabletogiveaname，butonlyamakerofnames；andthisisthelegislator，whoofallskilledartisansintheworldistherarest。
HERMOGENES：True。
SOCRATES：Andhowdoesthelegislatormakenames？andtowhatdoeshelook？Considerthisinthelightofthepreviousinstances：towhatdoesthecarpenterlookinmakingtheshuttle？Doeshenotlooktothatwhichisnaturallyfittedtoactasashuttle？
HERMOGENES：Certainly。
SOCRATES：Andsupposetheshuttletobebrokeninmaking，willhemakeanother，lookingtothebrokenone？orwillhelooktotheformaccordingtowhichhemadetheother？
HERMOGENES：Tothelatter，Ishouldimagine。
SOCRATES：Mightnotthatbejustlycalledthetrueoridealshuttle？
HERMOGENES：Ithinkso。
SOCRATES：Andwhatevershuttlesarewanted，forthemanufactureofgarments，thinorthick，offlaxen，woollen，orothermaterial，oughtallofthemtohavethetrueformoftheshuttle；andwhateveristheshuttlebestadaptedtoeachkindofwork，thatoughttobetheformwhichthemakerproducesineachcase。
HERMOGENES：Yes。
SOCRATES：Andthesameholdsofotherinstruments：whenamanhasdiscoveredtheinstrumentwhichisnaturallyadaptedtoeachwork，hemustexpressthisnaturalform，andnototherswhichhefancies，inthematerial，whateveritmaybe，whichheemploys；forexample，heoughttoknowhowtoputintoirontheformsofawlsadaptedbynaturetotheirseveraluses？
HERMOGENES：Certainly。
SOCRATES：Andhowtoputintowoodformsofshuttlesadaptedbynaturetotheiruses？
HERMOGENES：True。
SOCRATES：Fortheseveralformsofshuttlesnaturallyanswertotheseveralkindsofwebs；andthisistrueofinstrumentsingeneral。
HERMOGENES：Yes。
SOCRATES：Then，astonames：oughtnotourlegislatoralsotoknowhowtoputthetruenaturalnameofeachthingintosoundsandsyllables，andtomakeandgiveallnameswithaviewtotheidealname，ifheistobeanamerinanytruesense？Andwemustrememberthatdifferentlegislatorswillnotusethesamesyllables。Forneitherdoeseverysmith，althoughhemaybemakingthesameinstrumentforthesamepurpose，makethemallofthesameiron。Theformmustbethesame，butthematerialmayvary，andstilltheinstrumentmaybeequallygoodofwhateverironmade，whetherinHellasorinaforeigncountry；——thereisnodifference。
HERMOGENES：Verytrue。
SOCRATES：Andthelegislator，whetherhebeHelleneorbarbarian，isnotthereforetobedeemedbyyouaworselegislator，providedhegivesthetrueandproperformofthenameinwhateversyllables；thisorthatcountrymakesnomatter。
HERMOGENES：Quitetrue。
SOCRATES：Butwhothenistodeterminewhethertheproperformisgiventotheshuttle，whateversortofwoodmaybeused？thecarpenterwhomakes，ortheweaverwhoistousethem？
HERMOGENES：Ishouldsay，hewhoistousethem，Socrates。
SOCRATES：Andwhousestheworkofthelyre-maker？Willnothebethemanwhoknowshowtodirectwhatisbeingdone，andwhowillknowalsowhethertheworkisbeingwelldoneornot？
HERMOGENES：Certainly。
SOCRATES：Andwhoishe？
HERMOGENES：Theplayerofthelyre。
SOCRATES：Andwhowilldirecttheshipwright？
HERMOGENES：Thepilot。
SOCRATES：Andwhowillbebestabletodirectthelegislatorinhiswork，andwillknowwhethertheworkiswelldone，inthisoranyothercountry？
Willnottheuserbetheman？
HERMOGENES：Yes。
SOCRATES：Andthisishewhoknowshowtoaskquestions？
HERMOGENES：Yes。
SOCRATES：Andhowtoanswerthem？
HERMOGENES：Yes。
SOCRATES：Andhimwhoknowshowtoaskandansweryouwouldcalladialectician？
HERMOGENES：Yes；thatwouldbehisname。
SOCRATES：Thentheworkofthecarpenteristomakearudder，andthepilothastodirecthim，iftherudderistobewellmade。
HERMOGENES：True。
SOCRATES：Andtheworkofthelegislatoristogivenames，andthedialecticianmustbehisdirectorifthenamesaretoberightlygiven？
HERMOGENES：Thatistrue。
SOCRATES：Then，Hermogenes，Ishouldsaythatthisgivingofnamescanbenosuchlightmatterasyoufancy，ortheworkoflightorchancepersons；
andCratylusisrightinsayingthatthingshavenamesbynature，andthatnoteverymanisanartificerofnames，butheonlywholookstothenamewhicheachthingbynaturehas，andisabletoexpressthetrueformsofthingsinlettersandsyllables。
HERMOGENES：Icannotansweryou，Socrates；butIfindadifficultyinchangingmyopinionallinamoment，andIthinkthatIshouldbemorereadilypersuaded，ifyouwouldshowmewhatthisiswhichyoutermthenaturalfitnessofnames。
SOCRATES：MygoodHermogenes，Ihavenonetoshow。WasInottellingyoujustnow（butyouhaveforgotten），thatIknewnothing，andproposingtosharetheenquirywithyou？ButnowthatyouandIhavetalkedoverthematter，astephasbeengained；forwehavediscoveredthatnameshavebynatureatruth，andthatnoteverymanknowshowtogiveathinganame。
HERMOGENES：Verygood。
SOCRATES：Andwhatisthenatureofthistruthorcorrectnessofnames？
That，ifyoucaretoknow，isthenextquestion。
HERMOGENES：Certainly，Icaretoknow。
SOCRATES：Thenreflect。
HERMOGENES：HowshallIreflect？
SOCRATES：Thetruewayistohavetheassistanceofthosewhoknow，andyoumustpaythemwellbothinmoneyandinthanks；thesearetheSophists，ofwhomyourbrother，Callias，has——ratherdearly——boughtthereputationofwisdom。Butyouhavenotyetcomeintoyourinheritance，andthereforeyouhadbettergotohim，andbegandentreathimtotellyouwhathehaslearntfromProtagorasaboutthefitnessofnames。
HERMOGENES：ButhowinconsistentshouldIbe，if，whilstrepudiatingProtagorasandhistruth（’Truth’wasthetitleofthebookofProtagoras；
compareTheaet。），Iweretoattachanyvaluetowhatheandhisbookaffirm！
SOCRATES：Thenifyoudespisehim，youmustlearnofHomerandthepoets。
HERMOGENES：AndwheredoesHomersayanythingaboutnames，andwhatdoeshesay？
SOCRATES：Heoftenspeaksofthem；notablyandnoblyintheplaceswherehedistinguishesthedifferentnameswhichGodsandmengivetothesamethings。Doeshenotinthesepassagesmakearemarkablestatementaboutthecorrectnessofnames？FortheGodsmustclearlybesupposedtocallthingsbytheirrightandnaturalnames；doyounotthinkso？
HERMOGENES：Why，ofcoursetheycallthemrightly，iftheycallthematall。Buttowhatareyoureferring？
SOCRATES：DoyounotknowwhathesaysabouttheriverinTroywhohadasinglecombatwithHephaestus？
’Whom，’ashesays，’theGodscallXanthus，andmencallScamander。’
HERMOGENES：Iremember。
SOCRATES：Well，andaboutthisriver——toknowthatheoughttobecalledXanthusandnotScamander——isnotthatasolemnlesson？Oraboutthebirdwhich，ashesays，’TheGodscallChalcis，andmenCymindis：’
tobetaughthowmuchmorecorrectthenameChalcisisthanthenameCymindis——doyoudeemthatalightmatter？OraboutBatieiaandMyrina？
（CompareIl。’ThehillwhichmencallBatieiaandtheimmortalsthetombofthesportiveMyrina。’）AndtherearemanyotherobservationsofthesamekindinHomerandotherpoets。Now，Ithinkthatthisisbeyondtheunderstandingofyouandme；butthenamesofScamandriusandAstyanax，whichheaffirmstohavebeenthenamesofHector’sson，aremorewithintherangeofhumanfaculties，asIamdisposedtothink；andwhatthepoetmeansbycorrectnessmaybemorereadilyapprehendedinthatinstance：youwillrememberIdaresaythelinestowhichIrefer？（Il。）
HERMOGENES：Ido。
SOCRATES：Letmeaskyou，then，whichdidHomerthinkthemorecorrectofthenamesgiventoHector’sson——AstyanaxorScamandrius？
HERMOGENES：Idonotknow。
SOCRATES：Howwouldyouanswer，ifyouwereaskedwhetherthewiseortheunwisearemorelikelytogivecorrectnames？
HERMOGENES：Ishouldsaythewise，ofcourse。
SOCRATES：Andarethemenorthewomenofacity，takenasaclass，thewiser？
HERMOGENES：Ishouldsay，themen。
SOCRATES：AndHomer，asyouknow，saysthattheTrojanmencalledhimAstyanax（kingofthecity）；butifthemencalledhimAstyanax，theothernameofScamandriuscouldonlyhavebeengiventohimbythewomen。
HERMOGENES：Thatmaybeinferred。
SOCRATES：AndmustnotHomerhaveimaginedtheTrojanstobewiserthantheirwives？
HERMOGENES：Tobesure。
SOCRATES：ThenhemusthavethoughtAstyanaxtobeamorecorrectnamefortheboythanScamandrius？
HERMOGENES：Clearly。
SOCRATES：Andwhatisthereasonofthis？Letusconsider：——doeshenothimselfsuggestaverygoodreason，whenhesays，’Forhealonedefendedtheircityandlongwalls’？
Thisappearstobeagoodreasonforcallingthesonofthesaviourkingofthecitywhichhisfatherwassaving，asHomerobserves。
HERMOGENES：Isee。
SOCRATES：Why，Hermogenes，Idonotasyetseemyself；anddoyou？
HERMOGENES：No，indeed；notI。
SOCRATES：Buttellme，friend，didnotHomerhimselfalsogiveHectorhisname？
HERMOGENES：Whatofthat？
SOCRATES：ThenameappearstometobeverynearlythesameasthenameofAstyanax——bothareHellenic；andaking（anax）andaholder（ektor）havenearlythesamemeaning，andarebothdescriptiveofaking；foramanisclearlytheholderofthatofwhichheisking；herules，andowns，andholdsit。But，perhaps，youmaythinkthatIamtalkingnonsense；andindeedIbelievethatImyselfdidnotknowwhatImeantwhenIimaginedthatIhadfoundsomeindicationoftheopinionofHomeraboutthecorrectnessofnames。
HERMOGENES：IassureyouthatIthinkotherwise，andIbelieveyoutobeontherighttrack。
SOCRATES：Thereisreason，Ithink，incallingthelion’swhelpalion，andthefoalofahorseahorse；Iamspeakingonlyoftheordinarycourseofnature，whenananimalproducesafterhiskind，andnotofextraordinarybirths；——ifcontrarytonatureahorsehaveacalf，thenIshouldnotcallthatafoalbutacalf；nordoIcallanyinhumanbirthaman，butonlyanaturalbirth。Andthesamemaybesaidoftreesandotherthings。Doyouagreewithme？
HERMOGENES：Yes，Iagree。
SOCRATES：Verygood。ButyouhadbetterwatchmeandseethatIdonotplaytrickswithyou。Foronthesameprinciplethesonofakingistobecalledaking。Andwhetherthesyllablesofthenamearethesameornotthesame，makesnodifference，providedthemeaningisretained；nordoestheadditionorsubtractionofalettermakeanydifferencesolongastheessenceofthethingremainsinpossessionofthenameandappearsinit。
HERMOGENES：Whatdoyoumean？
SOCRATES：Averysimplematter。Imayillustratemymeaningbythenamesofletters，whichyouknowarenotthesameasthelettersthemselveswiththeexceptionofthefourepsilon，upsilon，omicron，omega；thenamesoftherest，whethervowelsorconsonants，aremadeupofotherletterswhichweaddtothem；butsolongasweintroducethemeaning，andtherecanbenomistake，thenameoftheletterisquitecorrect。Take，forexample，theletterbeta——theadditionofeta，tau，alpha，givesnooffence，anddoesnotpreventthewholenamefromhavingthevaluewhichthelegislatorintended——sowelldidheknowhowtogivethelettersnames。
HERMOGENES：Ibelieveyouareright。
SOCRATES：Andmaynotthesamebesaidofaking？akingwilloftenbethesonofaking，thegoodsonorthenoblesonofagoodornoblesire；andsimilarlytheoffspringofeverykind，intheregularcourseofnature，isliketheparent，andthereforehasthesamename。Yetthesyllablesmaybedisguiseduntiltheyappeardifferenttotheignorantperson，andhemaynotrecognizethem，althoughtheyarethesame，justasanyoneofuswouldnotrecognizethesamedrugsunderdifferentdisguisesofcolourandsmell，althoughtothephysician，whoregardsthepowerofthem，theyarethesame，andheisnotputoutbytheaddition；andinlikemannertheetymologistisnotputoutbytheadditionortranspositionorsubtractionofaletterortwo，orindeedbythechangeofalltheletters，forthisneednotinterferewiththemeaning。Aswasjustnowsaid，thenamesofHectorandAstyanaxhaveonlyoneletteralike，whichistau，andyettheyhavethesamemeaning。AndhowlittleincommonwiththelettersoftheirnameshasArchepolis（rulerofthecity）——andyetthemeaningisthesame。
Andtherearemanyothernameswhichjustmean’king。’Again，thereareseveralnamesforageneral，as，forexample，Agis（leader）andPolemarchus（chiefinwar）andEupolemus（goodwarrior）；andotherswhichdenoteaphysician，asIatrocles（famoushealer）andAcesimbrotus（curerofmortals）；andtherearemanyotherswhichmightbecited，differingintheirsyllablesandletters，buthavingthesamemeaning。Wouldyounotsayso？
HERMOGENES：Yes。
SOCRATES：Thesamenames，then，oughttobeassignedtothosewhofollowinthecourseofnature？
HERMOGENES：Yes。
SOCRATES：Andwhatofthosewhofollowoutofthecourseofnature，andareprodigies？forexample，whenagoodandreligiousmanhasanirreligiousson，heoughttobearthenamenotofhisfather，butoftheclasstowhichhebelongs，justasinthecasewhichwasbeforesupposedofahorsefoalingacalf。
HERMOGENES：Quitetrue。
SOCRATES：Thentheirreligioussonofareligiousfathershouldbecalledirreligious？
HERMOGENES：Certainly。
SOCRATES：HeshouldnotbecalledTheophilus（belovedofGod）orMnesitheus（mindfulofGod），oranyofthesenames：ifnamesarecorrectlygiven，hisshouldhaveanoppositemeaning。
HERMOGENES：Certainly，Socrates。
SOCRATES：Again，Hermogenes，thereisOrestes（themanofthemountains）
whoappearstoberightlycalled；whetherchancegavethename，orperhapssomepoetwhomeanttoexpressthebrutalityandfiercenessandmountainwildnessofhishero’snature。
HERMOGENES：Thatisverylikely，Socrates。
SOCRATES：Andhisfather’snameisalsoaccordingtonature。
HERMOGENES：Clearly。
SOCRATES：Yes，forashisname，soalsoishisnature；Agamemnon（admirableforremaining）isonewhoispatientandperseveringintheaccomplishmentofhisresolves，andbyhisvirtuecrownsthem；andhiscontinuanceatTroywithallthevastarmyisaproofofthatadmirableenduranceinhimwhichissignifiedbythenameAgamemnon。IalsothinkthatAtreusisrightlycalled；forhismurderofChrysippusandhisexceedingcrueltytoThyestesaredamaginganddestructivetohisreputation——thenameisalittlealteredanddisguisedsoasnottobeintelligibletoeveryone，buttotheetymologistthereisnodifficultyinseeingthemeaning，forwhetheryouthinkofhimasateiresthestubborn，orasatrestosthefearless，orasaterosthedestructiveone，thenameisperfectlycorrectineverypointofview。AndIthinkthatPelopsisalsonamedappropriately；for，asthenameimplies，heisrightlycalledPelopswhoseeswhatisnearonly（otapelasoron）。
HERMOGENES：Howso？
SOCRATES：Because，accordingtothetradition，hehadnoforethoughtorforesightofalltheevilwhichthemurderofMyrtiluswouldentailuponhiswholeraceinremoteages；hesawonlywhatwasathandandimmediate，——orinotherwords，pelas（near），inhiseagernesstowinHippodamiabyallmeansforhisbride。EveryonewouldagreethatthenameofTantalusisrightlygivenandinaccordancewithnature，ifthetraditionsabouthimaretrue。
HERMOGENES：Andwhatarethetraditions？
SOCRATES：Manyterriblemisfortunesaresaidtohavehappenedtohiminhislife——lastofall，cametheutterruinofhiscountry；andafterhisdeathhehadthestonesuspended（talanteia）overhisheadintheworldbelow——allthisagreeswonderfullywellwithhisname。YoumightimaginethatsomepersonwhowantedtocallhimTalantatos（themostweighteddownbymisfortune），disguisedthenamebyalteringitintoTantalus；andintothisform，bysomeaccidentoftradition，ithasactuallybeentransmuted。
ThenameofZeus，whoishisallegedfather，hasalsoanexcellentmeaning，althoughhardtobeunderstood，becausereallylikeasentence，whichisdividedintotwoparts，forsomecallhimZena，andusetheonehalf，andotherswhousetheotherhalfcallhimDia；thetwotogethersignifythenatureoftheGod，andthebusinessofaname，asweweresaying，istoexpressthenature。Forthereisnonewhoismoretheauthoroflifetousandtoall，thanthelordandkingofall。WhereforewearerightincallinghimZenaandDia，whichareonename，althoughdivided，meaningtheGodthroughwhomallcreaturesalwayshavelife（dionzenaeipasitoiszosinuparchei）。Thereisanirreverence，atfirstsight，incallinghimsonofCronos（whoisaproverbforstupidity），andwemightratherexpectZeustobethechildofamightyintellect。Whichisthefact；forthisisthemeaningofhisfather’sname：KronosquasiKoros（Choreo，tosweep），notinthesenseofayouth，butsignifyingtochatharonchaiacheratontounou，thepureandgarnishedmind（sc。apotouchorein）。He，asweareinformedbytradition，wasbegottenofUranus，rightlysocalled（apotouorantaano）fromlookingupwards；which，asphilosopherstellus，isthewaytohaveapuremind，andthenameUranusisthereforecorrect。IfI
couldrememberthegenealogyofHesiod，IwouldhavegoneonandtriedmoreconclusionsofthesamesortontheremoterancestorsoftheGods，——thenI
mighthaveseenwhetherthiswisdom，whichhascometomeallinaninstant，Iknownotwhence，willorwillnotholdgoodtotheend。
HERMOGENES：Youseemtome，Socrates，tobequitelikeaprophetnewlyinspired，andtobeutteringoracles。
SOCRATES：Yes，Hermogenes，andIbelievethatIcaughttheinspirationfromthegreatEuthyphrooftheProspaltiandeme，whogavemealonglecturewhichcommencedatdawn：hetalkedandIlistened，andhiswisdomandenchantingravishmenthasnotonlyfilledmyearsbuttakenpossessionofmysoul，andto-dayIshalllethissuperhumanpowerworkandfinishtheinvestigationofnames——thatwillbetheway；butto-morrow，ifyouaresodisposed，wewillconjurehimaway，andmakeapurgationofhim，ifwecanonlyfindsomepriestorsophistwhoisskilledinpurificationsofthissort。
HERMOGENES：Withallmyheart；foramverycurioustoheartherestoftheenquiryaboutnames。
SOCRATES：Thenletusproceed；andwherewouldyouhaveusbegin，nowthatwehavegotasortofoutlineoftheenquiry？Arethereanynameswhichwitnessofthemselvesthattheyarenotgivenarbitrarily，buthaveanaturalfitness？Thenamesofheroesandofmeningeneralareapttobedeceptivebecausetheyareoftencalledafterancestorswithwhosenames，asweweresaying，theymayhavenobusiness；ortheyaretheexpressionofawishlikeEutychides（thesonofgoodfortune），orSosias（theSaviour），orTheophilus（thebelovedofGod），andothers。ButIthinkthatwehadbetterleavethese，fortherewillbemorechanceoffindingcorrectnessinthenamesofimmutableessences；——thereoughttohavebeenmorecaretakenaboutthemwhentheywerenamed，andperhapstheremayhavebeensomemorethanhumanpoweratworkoccasionallyingivingthemnames。
HERMOGENES：Ithinkso，Socrates。
SOCRATES：OughtwenottobeginwiththeconsiderationoftheGods，andshowthattheyarerightlynamedGods？
HERMOGENES：Yes，thatwillbewell。
SOCRATES：Mynotionwouldbesomethingofthissort：——Isuspectthatthesun，moon，earth，stars，andheaven，whicharestilltheGodsofmanybarbarians，weretheonlyGodsknowntotheaboriginalHellenes。Seeingthattheywerealwaysmovingandrunning，fromtheirrunningnaturetheywerecalledGodsorrunners（Theous，Theontas）；andwhenmenbecameacquaintedwiththeotherGods，theyproceededtoapplythesamenametothemall。Doyouthinkthatlikely？
HERMOGENES：Ithinkitverylikelyindeed。
SOCRATES：WhatshallfollowtheGods？
HERMOGENES：Mustnotdemonsandheroesandmencomenext？
SOCRATES：Demons！Andwhatdoyouconsidertobethemeaningofthisword？Tellmeifmyviewisright。
HERMOGENES：Letmehear。
SOCRATES：YouknowhowHesiodusestheword？
HERMOGENES：Idonot。
SOCRATES：Doyounotrememberthathespeaksofagoldenraceofmenwhocamefirst？
HERMOGENES：Yes，Ido。
SOCRATES：Hesaysofthem——
’ButnowthatfatehasclosedoverthisraceTheyareholydemonsupontheearth，Beneficent，avertersofills，guardiansofmortalmen。’（Hesiod，WorksandDays。）
HERMOGENES：Whatistheinference？
SOCRATES：Whatistheinference！Why，Isupposethathemeansbythegoldenmen，notmenliterallymadeofgold，butgoodandnoble；andIamconvincedofthis，becausehefurthersaysthatwearetheironrace。
HERMOGENES：Thatistrue。
SOCRATES：Anddoyounotsupposethatgoodmenofourowndaywouldbyhimbesaidtobeofgoldenrace？
HERMOGENES：Verylikely。
SOCRATES：Andarenotthegoodwise？
HERMOGENES：Yes，theyarewise。
SOCRATES：AndthereforeIhavethemostentireconvictionthathecalledthemdemons，becausetheyweredaemones（knowingorwise），andinourolderAtticdialecttheworditselfoccurs。Nowheandotherpoetssaytruly，thatwhenagoodmandieshehashonourandamightyportionamongthedead，andbecomesademon；whichisanamegiventohimsignifyingwisdom。
AndIsaytoo，thateverywisemanwhohappenstobeagoodmanismorethanhuman（daimonion）bothinlifeanddeath，andisrightlycalledademon。
HERMOGENES：ThenIratherthinkthatIamofonemindwithyou；butwhatisthemeaningoftheword’hero’？（Eroswithaneta，intheoldwritingeroswithanepsilon。）
SOCRATES：Ithinkthatthereisnodifficultyinexplaining，forthenameisnotmuchaltered，andsignifiesthattheywerebornoflove。
HERMOGENES：Whatdoyoumean？
SOCRATES：Doyounotknowthattheheroesaredemigods？
HERMOGENES：Whatthen？
SOCRATES：AllofthemsprangeitherfromtheloveofaGodforamortalwoman，orofamortalmanforaGoddess；thinkofthewordintheoldAttic，andyouwillseebetterthatthenameherosisonlyaslightalterationofEros，fromwhomtheheroessprang：eitherthisisthemeaning，or，ifnotthis，thentheymusthavebeenskilfulasrhetoriciansanddialecticians，andabletoputthequestion（erotan），foreireinisequivalenttolegein。Andtherefore，asIwassaying，intheAtticdialecttheheroesturnouttoberhetoriciansandquestioners。Allthisiseasyenough；thenoblebreedofheroesareatribeofsophistsandrhetors。Butcanyoutellmewhymenarecalledanthropoi？——thatismoredifficult。
HERMOGENES：No，Icannot；andIwouldnottryevenifIcould，becauseI
thinkthatyouarethemorelikelytosucceed。
SOCRATES：Thatistosay，youtrusttotheinspirationofEuthyphro。
HERMOGENES：Ofcourse。
SOCRATES：Yourfaithisnotvain；foratthisverymomentanewandingeniousthoughtstrikesme，and，ifIamnotcareful，beforeto-morrow’sdawnIshallbewiserthanIoughttobe。Now，attendtome；andfirst，rememberthatweoftenputinandpulloutlettersinwords，andgivenamesaswepleaseandchangetheaccents。Take，forexample，thewordDiiPhilos；inordertoconvertthisfromasentenceintoanoun，weomitoneoftheiotasandsoundthemiddlesyllablegraveinsteadofacute；as，ontheotherhand，lettersaresometimesinsertedinwordsinsteadofbeingomitted，andtheacutetakestheplaceofthegrave。
HERMOGENES：Thatistrue。
SOCRATES：Thenameanthropos，whichwasonceasentence，andisnowanoun，appearstobeacasejustofthissort，foroneletter，whichisthealpha，hasbeenomitted，andtheacuteonthelastsyllablehasbeenchangedtoagrave。
HERMOGENES：Whatdoyoumean？
SOCRATES：Imeantosaythattheword’man’impliesthatotheranimalsneverexamine，orconsider，orlookupatwhattheysee，butthatmannotonlysees（opope）butconsidersandlooksupatthatwhichhesees，andhencehealoneofallanimalsisrightlyanthropos，meaninganathronaopopen。
HERMOGENES：MayIaskyoutoexamineanotherwordaboutwhichIamcurious？
SOCRATES：Certainly。
HERMOGENES：Iwilltakethatwhichappearstometofollownextinorder。
Youknowthedistinctionofsoulandbody？
SOCRATES：Ofcourse。
HERMOGENES：Letusendeavourtoanalyzethemlikethepreviouswords。
SOCRATES：Youwantmefirstofalltoexaminethenaturalfitnessofthewordpsuche（soul），andthenofthewordsoma（body）？
HERMOGENES：Yes。
SOCRATES：IfIamtosaywhatoccurstomeatthemoment，Ishouldimaginethatthosewhofirstusedthenamepsuchemeanttoexpressthatthesoulwheninthebodyisthesourceoflife，andgivesthepowerofbreathandrevival（anapsuchon），andwhenthisrevivingpowerfailsthenthebodyperishesanddies，andthis，ifIamnotmistaken，theycalledpsyche。Butpleasestayamoment；IfancythatIcandiscoversomethingwhichwillbemoreacceptabletothedisciplesofEuthyphro，forIamafraidthattheywillscornthisexplanation。Whatdoyousaytoanother？
HERMOGENES：Letmehear。
SOCRATES：Whatisthatwhichholdsandcarriesandgiveslifeandmotiontotheentirenatureofthebody？Whatelsebutthesoul？
HERMOGENES：Justthat。
SOCRATES：AnddoyounotbelievewithAnaxagoras，thatmindorsoulistheorderingandcontainingprincipleofallthings？
HERMOGENES：Yes；Ido。
SOCRATES：Thenyoumaywellcallthatpowerphusechewhichcarriesandholdsnature（ephusinokei，kaiekei），andthismayberefinedawayintopsuche。
HERMOGENES：Certainly；andthisderivationis，Ithink，morescientificthantheother。
SOCRATES：Itisso；butIcannothelplaughing，ifIamtosupposethatthiswasthetruemeaningofthename。
HERMOGENES：Butwhatshallwesayofthenextword？
SOCRATES：Youmeansoma（thebody）。
HERMOGENES：Yes。
SOCRATES：Thatmaybevariouslyinterpreted；andyetmorevariouslyifalittlepermutationisallowed。Forsomesaythatthebodyisthegrave（sema）ofthesoulwhichmaybethoughttobeburiedinourpresentlife；
oragaintheindexofthesoul，becausethesoulgivesindicationsto（semainei）thebody；probablytheOrphicpoetsweretheinventorsofthename，andtheywereundertheimpressionthatthesoulissufferingthepunishmentofsin，andthatthebodyisanenclosureorprisoninwhichthesoulisincarcerated，keptsafe（soma，sozetai），asthenamesomaimplies，untilthepenaltyispaid；accordingtothisview，notevenaletterofthewordneedbechanged。
HERMOGENES：Ithink，Socrates，thatwehavesaidenoughofthisclassofwords。ButhaveweanymoreexplanationsofthenamesoftheGods，likethatwhichyouweregivingofZeus？Ishouldliketoknowwhetheranysimilarprincipleofcorrectnessistobeappliedtothem。
SOCRATES：Yes，indeed，Hermogenes；andthereisoneexcellentprinciplewhich，asmenofsense，wemustacknowledge，——thatoftheGodsweknownothing，eitheroftheirnaturesorofthenameswhichtheygivethemselves；butwearesurethatthenamesbywhichtheycallthemselves，whatevertheymaybe，aretrue。Andthisisthebestofallprinciples；
andthenextbestistosay，asinprayers，thatwewillcallthembyanysortorkindofnamesorpatronymicswhichtheylike，becausewedonotknowofanyother。Thatalso，Ithink，isaverygoodcustom，andonewhichIshouldmuchwishtoobserve。Letus，then，ifyouplease，inthefirstplaceannouncetothemthatwearenotenquiringaboutthem；wedonotpresumethatweareabletodoso；butweareenquiringaboutthemeaningofmeningivingthemthesenames，——inthistherecanbesmallblame。
HERMOGENES：Ithink，Socrates，thatyouarequiteright，andIwouldliketodoasyousay。
SOCRATES：Shallwebegin，then，withHestia，accordingtocustom？
HERMOGENES：Yes，thatwillbeveryproper。
SOCRATES：WhatmaywesupposehimtohavemeantwhogavethenameHestia？
HERMOGENES：Thatisanotherandcertainlyamostdifficultquestion。
SOCRATES：MydearHermogenes，thefirstimposersofnamesmustsurelyhavebeenconsiderablepersons；theywerephilosophers，andhadagooddealtosay。
HERMOGENES：Well，andwhatofthem？
SOCRATES：TheyarethementowhomIshouldattributetheimpositionofnames。Eveninforeignnames，ifyouanalyzethem，ameaningisstilldiscernible。Forexample，thatwhichwetermousiaisbysomecalledesia，andbyothersagainosia。Nowthattheessenceofthingsshouldbecalledestia，whichisakintothefirstofthese（esia=estia），isrationalenough。AndthereisreasonintheAthenianscallingthatestiawhichparticipatesinousia。Forinancienttimeswetooseemtohavesaidesiaforousia，andthisyoumaynotetohavebeentheideaofthosewhoappointedthatsacrificesshouldbefirstofferedtoestia，whichwasnaturalenoughiftheymeantthatestiawastheessenceofthings。ThoseagainwhoreadosiaseemtohaveinclinedtotheopinionofHeracleitus，thatallthingsflowandnothingstands；withthemthepushingprinciple（othoun）isthecauseandrulingpowerofallthings，andisthereforerightlycalledosia。Enoughofthis，whichisallthatwewhoknownothingcanaffirm。NextinorderafterHestiaweoughttoconsiderRheaandCronos，althoughthenameofCronoshasbeenalreadydiscussed。ButIdaresaythatIamtalkinggreatnonsense。