PartOne
ChapterOneOnWealthThelandisthesourceormatterfromwhenceallwealthisproduced。Thelabourofmanistheformwhichproducesit：andwealthinitselfisnothingbutthemaintenance，conveniencies，andsuperfluitiesoflife。
Landproducesherbage，roots，corn，flax，cotton，hemp，shrubsandtimberofseveralkinds，withdiverssortsoffruits，bark，andfoliagelikethatofthemulberry-treeforsilkworms；
itsuppliesminesandminerals。Toallthisthelabourofmangivestheformofwealth。
Riversandseassupplyfishforthefoodofman，andmanyotherthingsforhisenjoyment。Buttheseseasandriversbelongtotheadjacentlandsorarecommontoall，andthelabourofmanextractsfromthemthefishandotheradvantages。
ChapterTwoOfHumanSocietiesWhichwaysoeverasocietyofmenisformedtheownershipofthelandtheyinhabitwillnecessarilybelongtoasmallnumberamongthem。
InwanderingsocietieslikeHordesofTartarsandCampsofIndianswhogofromoneplacetoanotherwiththeiranimalsandfamilies，itisnecessarythatthecaptainorkingwhoistheirleadershouldfixtheboundariesofeachheadofafamilyandthequartersofanIndividualaroundthecamp。Otherwisetherewouldalwaysbedisputesoverthequartersorconveniencies，woods，herbage，water，etc。butwhenthequartersandboundariesofeachmanaresettleditisasgoodasownershipwhiletheystayinthatplace。
Inthemoresettledsocieties：ifaprinceattheheadofanarmyhasconqueredacountry，hewilldistributethelandsamonghisofficersorfavouritesaccordingtotheirmeritorhispleasure（aswasoriginallythecaseinFrance）：hewillthenestablishlawstovestthepropertyinthemandtheirdescendants：orhewillreservetohimselftheownershipofthelandandemployhisofficersorfavouritestocultivateit：orwillgrantthelandtothemonconditionthattheypayforitanannualquitrentordue：orhewillgrantittothemwhilereservinghisfreedomtotaxthemeveryyearaccordingtohisneedsandtheircapacity。Inallthesecasestheseofficersorfavourites，whetherabsoluteownersordependents，whetherstewardsorbailiffsoftheproduceoftheland，willbefewinnumberinproportiontoalltheinhabitants。
Eveniftheprincedistributethelandequallyamongalltheinhabitantsitwillultimatelybedividedamongasmallnumber。
Onemanwillhaveseveralchildrenandcannotleavetoeachofthemaportionoflandequaltohisown；anotherwilldiewithoutchildren，andwillleavehisportiontosomeonewhohaslandalreadyratherthantoonewhohasnone；athirdwillbelazy，prodigal，orsickly，andbeobligedtosellhisportiontoanotherwhoisfrugalandindustrious，whowillcontinuallyaddtohisestatebynewpurchasesandwillemployuponitthelabourofthosewhohavingnolandoftheirownarecompelledtoofferhimtheirlabourinordertolive。
AtthefirstsettlementofRomeeachcitizenhadtwojournauxoflandallottedtohim。YettherewassoonafterasgreataninequalityintheestatesasthatwhichweseetodayinallthecountriesofEurope。Thelandwasdividedamongafewowners。
Supposingthenthatthelandofanewcountrybelongstoasmallnumberofpersons，eachownerwillmanagehislandhimselforletittooneormorefarmers：inthiscaseitisessentialthatthefarmersandlabourersshouldhavealivingwhethertheycultivatethelandfortheownerorforthefarmer。Theoverplusofthelandisatthedispositionoftheowner：hepaypartofittotheprinceorthegovernment，orelsethefarmerdoessodirectlyattheowner’sexpense。
Asfortheusetowhichthelandshouldbeput，thefirstnecessityistoemploypartofitforthemaintenanceandfoodofthosewhoworkuponitandmakeitproductive：therestdependsprincipallyuponthehumourandfashionoflivingoftheprince，thelords，andtheowner：ifthesearefondofdrink，vinesmustbecultivated；iftheyarefondofsilks，mulberry-treesmustbeplantedandsilkwormsraised，andmoreoverpartofthelandmustbeemployedtosupportthoseneededfortheselabours；iftheydelightinhorses，pastureisneeded，andsoon。
Ifhoweverwesupposethatthelandbelongstonooneinparticular，itisnoteasytoconceivehowasocietyofmencanbeformedthere：wesee，forexample，inthevillagecommonsalimitedfixedtothenumberofanimalsthateachofthecommonersmayputuponthem；andifthelandwerelefttothefirstoccupierinanewconquestordiscoveryofacountryitwouldalwaysbenecessarytofallbackuponalawtosettleownershipinordertoestablishasociety，whetherthelawresteduponforceoruponpolicy。
ChapterThreeOfVillagesTowhatevercultivationlandisput，whetherpasture，corn，vines，etc。thefarmersorlabourerswhocarryontheworkmustlivenearathand；otherwisethetimetakeningoingtotheirfieldsandreturningtotheirhouseswouldtakeuptoomuchoftheday。Hencethenecessityforvillagesestablishedinallthecountryandcultivatedland，wheretheremustalsobeenoughfarriersandwheelwrightsfortheinstruments，ploughs，andcartswhichareneeded；especiallywhenthevillageisatadistancefromthetowns。Thesizeofavillageisnaturallyproportionedinnumberofinhabitantstowhatthelanddependentonitrequiresfordailywork，andtotheartisanswhofindenoughemploymentthereintheserviceofthefarmersandlabourers：buttheseartisansarenotquitesonecessaryintheneighbourhoodoftownstowhichthelabourerscanresortwithoutmuchlossoftime。
Ifoneormoreoftheownersofthelanddependentonthevillageresidetherethenumberofinhabitantswillbegreaterinproportiontothedomesticservantsandartisansdrawnthither，andtheinnswhichwillbeestablishedtherefortheconvenienceofthedomesticservantsandworkmenwhoaremaintainedbythelandlords。
Ifthelandsareonlyproperformaintainingsheep，asinthesandydistrictsandmoorlands，thevillageswillbefewerandsmallersinceonlyafewshepherdsarerequiredontheland。
Ifthelandsonlyproducewoodsinsandysoilswherethereisnograssforbeasts，andiftheyaredistantfromtownsandriverswhichmakesthetimberuselessforconsumptionasoneseesinmanycasesinGermany，therewillbeonlysomanyhousesandvillagesasareneededtogatheracornsandfeedpigsinseason：
butifthelandsarealtogetherbarrentherewillbeneithervillagesnorinhabitants。
ChapterFourOfMarketTownsTherearesomevillageswheremarketshavebeenestablishedbytheinterestofsomeproprietororgentlemanatcourt。Thesemarkets，heldonceortwiceaweek，encourageseverallittleundertakersandmerchantstosetthemselvesupthere。Theybuyinthemarkettheproductsbroughtfromthesurroundingvillagesinordertocarrythemtothelargetownsforsale。Inthelargetownstheyexchangethemforiron，salt，sugarandothermerchandisewhichtheysellonmarketdaystothevillagers。Manysmallartisansalso，likelocksmiths，cabinetmakersandothers，settledownfortheserviceofthevillagerswhohavenoneintheirvillages，andatlengththesevillagesbecomemarkettowns。
Amarkettownbeingplacedinthecentreofthevillages，andatlengththesevillagesbecomemarkettowns。Amarkettownbeingplacedinthecentreofthevillageswhosepeoplecometomarket，itismorenaturalandeasythatthevillagersshouldbringtheirproductsthitherforsaleonmarketdaysandbuythearticlestheyneed，thanthatthemerchantsandfactorsshouldtransportthemtothevillagesinexchangefortheirproducts。（1）Forthemerchantstogoroundthevillageswouldunnecessarilyincreasethecostofcarriage。（2）Themerchantswouldperhapsbeobligedtogotoseveralvillagesbeforefindingthequalityandquantityofproducewhichtheywishedtobuy。（3）Thevillagerswouldgenerallybeintheirfieldswhenthemerchantsarrivedandnotknowingwhatproducetheseneededwouldhavenothingpreparedandfitforsale。（4）Itwouldbealmostimpossibletofixthepriceoftheproduceandthemerchandiseinthevillages，betweenthemerchantsandthevillagers。Inonevillagethemerchantwouldrefusethepriceaskedforproduce，hopingtofinditcheaperinanothervillage，andthevillagerwouldrefusethepriceofferedforhismerchandiseinthehopethatanothermerchantwouldcomealongandtakeitonbetterterms。
Allthesedifficultiesareavoidedwhenthevillagerscometotownonmarketdaystoselltheirproduceandtobuythethingstheyneed。Pricesarefixedbytheproportionbetweentheproduceexposedforsaleandthemoneyofferedforit；thistakesplaceinthesamespot，undertheeyesofallthevillagersofdifferentvillagesandofthemerchantsorundertakersofthetown。Whenthepricehasbeensettledbetweenafewtheothersfollowwithoutdifficultyandsothemarketplaceofthedayisdetermined。Thepeasantgoesbacktohisvillageandresumeshiswork。
Thesizeofthemarkettownisnaturallyproportionedtothenumberoffarmersandlabourersneededtocultivatethelandsdependentonit，andtothenumberofartisansandsmallmerchantsthatthevillagesborderingonthemarkettownemploywiththeirassistantsandhorses，andfinallytothenumberofpersonswhomthelandownersresidenttheresupport。
Whenthevillagesbelongingtoamarkettown（i。e。whosepeopleordinarilybringtheirproducetomarketthere）areconsiderableandhavealargeoutputthemarkettownwillbecomeconsiderableandlargeinproportion；butwhentheneighbouringvillageshavelittleproducethemarkettownalsoispoorandinsignificant。
ChapterFiveOfCitiesThelandlordswhohaveonlysmallestatesusuallyresideinmarkettownsandvillagesneartheirlandandfarmers。Thetransportoftheproducetheyderivefromthemintodistantcitieswouldnotenablethemtolivecomfortablythere。Butthelandlordswhohaveseverallargeestateshavethemeanstogoandliveatadistancefromthemtoenjoyagreeablesocietywithotherlandownersandgentlemenofthesamecondition。
Ifaprinceornoblemanwhohasreceivedlargegrantsoflandontheconquestordiscoveryofacountryfixeshisresidenceinsomepleasantspot，andseveralothernoblemencometolivetheretobewithinreachofseeingeachotherfrequentlyandenjoyingagreeablesociety，thisplacewillbecomeacity。
Greathouseswillbebuiltthereforthenoblemeninquestion，andaninfinityofothersforthemerchants，artisans，andpeopleofallsortsofprofessionswhomtheresidenceofthesenoblemenwillattractthither。Fortheserviceofthesenoblemen，bakers，butchers，brewers，winemerchants，manufacturersofallkinds，willbeneeded。Thesewillbuildhousesinthelocalityorwillrenthousesbuiltbyothers。Thereisnogreatnoblemanwhoseexpenseuponhishouse，hisretinueandservants，doesnotmaintainmerchantsandartisansofallkinds，asmaybeseenfromthedetailedcalculationswhichIhavecausedtobemadeinthesupplementofthisessay。
Asalltheseartisansandundertakersserveeachotheraswellasthenobilityitisoverlookedthattheupkeepofthemallfallsultimatelyonthenoblesandlandowners。Itisnotperceivedthatallthelittlehousesinacitysuchaswehavedescribeddependuponandsubsistattheexpenseofthegreathouses。Itwill，however，beshownlaterthatalltheclassesandinhabitantsofastateliveattheexpenseoftheproprietorsofland。Thecityinquestionwillincreasestillfurtherifthekingorthegovernmentestablishinitlawcourtstowhichthepeopleofthemarkettownsandvillagesoftheprovincemusthaverecourse。Anincreaseofundertakersandartisansofeverysortwillbeneededfortheserviceofthelegalofficialsandlawyers。
Ifinthissamecityworkshopsandmanufactoriesbesetupapartfromhomeconsumptionforexportandsaleabroad，thecitywillbelargeinproportiontotheworkmenandartisanswholivethereattheexpenseoftheforeigner。
Butifweputasidetheseconsiderationssoasnottocomplicateoursubject，wemaysaythattheassemblageofseveralrichlandownerslivingtogetherinthesameplacesufficestoformwhatiscalledacity，andthatmanycitiesinEurope，intheinteriorofthecountry，owethenumberoftheirinhabitantstothisassemblage：inwhichcasethesizeofacityisnaturallyproportionedtothenumberoflandlordswholivethere，orrathertotheproduceofthelandwhichbelongstothemafterdeductionofthecostofcarriagetothosewhoselandisthefurthestremoved，andthepartwhichtheyareobligedtofurnishtothekingorthegovernment，whichisusuallyconsumedinthecapital。
ChapterSixOfCapitalCitiesAcapitalcityisformedinthesamewayasaprovincialcitywiththisdifferencethatthelargestlandownersinallthestateresideinthecapital，thatthekingorsupremegovernmentisfixedinitandspendstherethegovernmentrevenue，thatthesupremecourtsofjusticearefixedthere，thatitisthecentreofthefashionswhichalltheprovincestakeforamodel，thatthelandownerswhoresideintheprovincesdonotfailtocomeoccasionallytopasssometimeinthecapitalandtosendtheirchildrenthithertobepolished。Thusallthelandsinthestatecontributemoreorlesstomaintainthosewhodwellinthecapital。
Ifasovereignquitsacitytotakeuphisabodeinanotherthenobilitywillnotfailtofollowhimandtomakeitsresidencewithhiminthenewcitywhichwillbecomegreatandimportantattheexpenseofthefirst。WehaveseenquitearecentexampleofthisinthecityofPetersburgtothedisadvantageofMoscow，andoneseesmanyoldcitieswhichwereimportantfallintoruinandothersspringfromtheirashes。
Greatcitiesareusuallybuiltontheseacoastoronthebanksoflargeriversfortheconvenienceoftransport；becausewatercarriageoftheproduceandmerchandisenecessaryforthesubsistenceandcomfortoftheinhabitantsismuchcheaperthancarriagesandlandtransport。
ChapterSevenTheLabouroftheHusbandmanisoflessValuethanthatoftheHandicraftsManAlabourer’ssonatsevenortwelveyearsofagebeginstohelphisfathereitherinkeepingtheflocks，diggingtheground，orinothersortsofcountrylabourwhichrequirenoartorskill。
Ifhisfatherputshimtoatradeheloseshisassistanceduringthetimeofhisapprenticeshipandisnecessitatedtoclothehimandtopaytheexpensesofhisapprenticeshipforsomeyears。Thesonisthusanexpensetothisfatherandhislabourbringsinnoadvantagetilltheendofsomeyears。The[working]
lifeofmanisestimatedbutat10or12years，andasseveralarelostinlearningatrademostofwhichinEnglandrequiresevenyearsofapprenticeship，ahusbandmanwouldneverbewillingtohaveatradetaughttohissonifthemechanicsdidnotearnmorethanthehusbandmen。
Thosewhoemployartisansorcraftsmenmustneedsthereforepayfortheirlabouratahigherratethanforthatofahusbandmanorcommonlabourer；andtheirlabourwillnecessarilybedearinproportiontothetimelostinlearningthetradeandthecostandriskincurredinbecomingproficient。
Thecraftsmenthemselvesdonotmakealltheirchildrenlearntheirownmystery：therewouldbetoomanyofthemfortheneedsofacityorastate；manywouldnotfindenoughwork；thework，however，isnaturallybetterpaidthanthatofhusbandmen。
ChapterEightSomeHandicraftsMenearnmore，othersless，accordingtothedifferentCasesandCircumstancesSupposingtwotailorsmakealltheclothsofavillage，onemayhavemorecustomersthantheother，whetherfromhismodeofattractingbusiness，orbecauseheworksbetterormoredurablythantheother，orfollowsthefashionsbetterinthecutofthegarments。
Ifonedies，theotherfindinghimselfmorepressedwithworkwillbeabletoraisethepriceofhislabour，givingsomecustomersapreferenceinpointofexpeditiontoothers，tillthevillagersfindittotheiradvantagetohavetheirclothsmadeinanothervillage，townorcitylosingthetimespentingoingandreturning，ortillsomeothertailorcomestoliveintheirvillageandtoshareinthebusinessofit。
Thecraftswhichrequirethemosttimeintrainingormostingenuityandindustrymustnecessarilybethebestpaid。A
skillfulcabinetmakermustreceiveahigherpriceforhisworkthananordinarycarpenter，andagoodwatchmakermorethanafarrier。
Theartsandcraftswhichareaccompaniedbyrisksanddangerslikethoseoffounders，mariners，silverminers，etc。
oughttobepaidinproportiontotherisks。Whenoverandabovethedangersskillisneededtheyoughttobepaidstillmore，e。g。pilots，divers，engineers，etc。Whencapacityandtrustworthinessareneededthelabourispaidstillmorehighly，asinthecaseofjewellers，bookkeepers，cashiersandothers。
Bytheseexamplesandahundredothersdrawnfromordinaryexperienceitiseasilyseenthatthedifferenceofpricepaidfordailyworkisbaseduponnaturalandobviousreasons。
ChapterNineTheNumberofLabourers，Handicraftsmenandothers，whoworkinaStateisnaturallyproportionedtotheDemandforthemIfallthelabourersinavillagebreedupseveralsonstothesameworktherewillbetoomanylabourerstocultivatethelandsbelongingtothevillage，andthesurplusadultsmustgotoseekalivelihoodelsewhere，whichtheygenerallydoincities：
ifsomeremainwiththeirfathers，astheywillnotallfindsufficientemploymenttheywillliveingreatpovertyandwillnotmarryforlackofmeanstobringupchildren，oriftheymarry，thechildrenwhocomewillsoondieofstarvationwiththeirparents，asweseeeverydayinFrance。
Thereforeifthevillagecontinueinthesamesituationasregardsemployment，andderivesitslivingfromcultivatingthesameportionofland，itwillnotincreaseinpopulationinathousandyears。
Thewomenandgirlsofthisvillagecan，itistrue，whentheyarenotworkinginthefields，busythemselvesinspinning，knittingorotherworkwhichcanbesoldinthecities；butthisrarelysufficestobringuptheextrachildren，wholeavethevillagetoseektheirfortuneelsewhere。
Thesamemaybesaidofthetradesmenofavillage。Ifatailormakesalltheclothsthereandbreedsupthreesonstothesametrade，asthereisbutworkenoughforonesuccessortohimthetwoothersmustgotoseektheirlivelihoodelsewhere：iftheydonotfindenoughemploymentintheneighbouringtowntheymustgofurtherafieldorchangetheiroccupationstogetalivingandbecomelackeys，soldiers，sailors，etc。
Bythesameprocessofreasoningitiseasytoconceivethatthelabourers，handicraftsmenandotherswhogaintheirlivingbywork，mustproportionthemselvesinnumbertotheemploymentanddemandfortheminmarkettownsandcities。
Butiffourtailorsareenoughtomakealltheclothsforatownandafiftharriveshemayattractsomecustomattheexpenseoftheotherfour；soiftheworkisdividedbetweenthefivetailorsneitherofthemwillhaveenoughemployment，andeachonewilllivemorepoorly。
Itoftenhappensthatlabourersandhandicraftsmenhavenotenoughemploymentwhentherearetoomanyofthemtosharethebusiness。Ithappensalsothattheyaredeprivedofworkbyaccidentsandbyvariationsindemand，orthattheyareoverburdenedwithworkaccordingtocircumstances。Bethatasitmay，whentheyhavenoworktheyquitthevillages，townsorcitieswheretheyliveinsuchnumbersthatthosewhoremainarealwaysproportionedtotheemploymentwhichsufficestomaintainthem；whenthereisacontinuousincreaseofworkthereisgaintobemadeandenoughothersarrivetoshareinit。
FromthisitiseasytounderstandthattheCharitySchoolsinEnglandandtheproposalsinFrancetoincreasethenumberofhandicraftsmen，areuseless。IftheKingofFrancesent100，000
ofhissubjectsathisexpenseintoHollandtolearnseafaring，theywouldbeofnouseontheirreturnifnomorevesselsweresenttoseathanbefore。Itistruethatitwouldbeagreatadvantagetoastatetoteachitssubjectstoproducethemanufactureswhicharecustomarilydrawnfromabroad，andalltheotherarticlesboughtthere，butIamconsideringonlyatpresentastateinrelationtoitself。
Asthehandicraftsmenearnmorethanthelabourerstheyarebetterabletobringuptheirchildrentocrafts；andtherewillneverbealackofcraftsmeninastatewhenthereisenoughworkfortheirconstantemployment。
ChapterTenThePriceandInstrinsicValueofaThingingeneralisthemeasureoftheLandandLabourwhichenterintoitsProductionOneacreoflandproducesmorecornorfeedsmoresheepthananother。Theworkofonemanisdearerthanthatofanother，asI
havealreadyexplained，accordingtothesuperiorskillandoccurrencesofthetimes。Iftwoacresoflandareofequalgoodness，onewillfeedasmanysheepandproduceasmuchwoolastheother，supposingthelabourtobethesame，andthewoolproducedbyoneacrewillbethesame，andthewoolproducedbyoneacrewillsellatthesamepriceasthatproducedbytheother。
Ifthewooloftheoneacreismadeintoasuitofcoarseclothandthewooloftheotherintoasuitoffinecloth，asthelatterwillrequiremoreworkanddearerworkmanshipitwillbesometimestentimesdearer，thoughbothcontainthesamequantityandqualityofwool。Thequantityoftheproduceofthelandandthequantityaswellasthequalityofthelabour，willofnecessityenterintotheprice。
ApoundofflaxwroughtintofineBrusselslacerequiresthelabourof14personsforayearorofonepersonfor14years，asmaybeseenfromacalculationofthedifferentprocessesinthesupplement，wherewealsoseethatthepriceobtainedforthelacesufficestopayforthemaintenanceofonepersonfor14
yearsaswellastheprofitsofalltheundertakersandmerchantsconcerned。
ThefinesteelspringwhichregulatesanEnglishwatchisgenerallysoldatapricewhichmakestheproportionofmaterialtolabour，orofsteeltospring，onetoonemillionsothatinthiscaselabourmakesupnearlyallthevalueofthespring。Seethecalculationinthesupplement。
Ontheotherhandthepriceofthehayinafield，onthespot，orawoodwhichitisproposedtocutdown，isfixedbythematterorproduceoftheland，accordingtoitsgoodness。
ThepriceofapitcherofSeinewaterisnothing，becausethereisanimmensesupplywhichdoesnotdryup；butinthestreetsofParispeoplegiveasolforit——thepriceormeasureofthelabourofthewatercarrier。
Bytheseexamplesandinductionsitwill，Ithink，beunderstoodthatthepriceorintrinsicvalueofathingisthemeasureofthequantityoflandandoflabourenteringintoitsproduction，havingregardtothefertilityorproduceofthelandandtothequalityofthelabour。
Butitoftenhappensthatmanythingswhichhaveactuallythisintrinsicvaluearenotsoldinthemarketaccordingtothatvalue：thatwilldependonthehumoursandfanciesofmenandontheirconsumption。
Ifagentlemancutscanalsanderectsterracesinhisgarden，theirintrinsicvaluewillbeproportionabletothelandandlabour；butthepriceinrealitywillnotalwaysfollowthisproportion。Ifheofferstosellthegardenpossiblynoonewillgivehimhalftheexpensehehasincurred。Itisalsopossiblethatifseveralpersonsdesireithemaybegivendoubletheintrinsicvalue，thatistwicethevalueofthelandandtheexpensehehasincurred。
Ifthefarmersinastatesowmorecornthanusual，muchmorethanisneededfortheyear’sconsumption，therealandintrinsicvalueofthecornwillcorrespondtothelandandlabourwhichenterintoitsproduction；butasthereistoogreatanabundanceofitandtherearemoresellersthanbuyersthemarketpriceofthecornwillnecessarilyfallbelowtheintrinsicpriceofvalue。Ifonthecontrarythefarmerssowlesscornthanisneededforconsumptiontherewillbemorebuyersthansellersandthemarketpriceofcornwillriseaboveitsintrinsicvalue。
Thereisneveravariationinintrinsicvalues，buttheimpossibilityofproportioningtheproductionofmerchandiseandproduceinastatetotheirconsumptioncausesadailyvariation，andaperpetualebbandflowinmarketprices。Howeverinwellorganizedsocietiesthemarketpricesofarticleswhoseconsumptionistolerablyconstantanduniformdonotvarymuchfromtheintrinsicvalue；andwhentherearenoyearsoftooscantyortooabundantproductionthemagistratesofthecityareabletofixthemarketpricesofmanythings，likebreadandmeat，withoutanyonhavingcausetocomplain。
Landisthematterandlabourtheformofallproduceandmerchandise，andasthosewholabourmustsubsistontheproduceofthelanditseemsthatsomerelationmightbefoundbetweenthevalueoflabourandthatoftheproduceoftheland：thiswillformthesubjectofthenextchapter。
ChapterElevenOftheParorRelationbetweentheValueofLandandLabourItdoesnotappearthatProvidencehasgiventherightofthepossessionoflandtoonemanpreferablytoanother：themostancienttitlesarefoundedonviolenceandconquest。ThelandsofMexiconowbelongtotheSpaniardsandthoseatJerusalemtotheTurks。Buthowsoeverpeoplecometothepropertyandpossessionoflandwehavealreadyobservedthatitalwaysfallsintothehandsofafewinproportiontothetotalinhabitants。
Iftheproprietorofagreatestatekeepsitinhisownhandshewillemployslavesorfreementoworkuponit。Ifhehasmanyslaveshemusthaveoverseerstokeepthematwork：hemustlikewisehaveslavecraftsmentosupplytheneedsandconvenienciesoflifeforhimselfandhisworkers，andmusthavetradestaughttoothersinordertocarryonthework。
Inthiseconomyhemustallowhislabouringslavestheirsubsistenceandwherewithaltobringuptheirchildren。Theoverseersmustallowadvantagesproportionabletotheconfidenceandauthoritywhichhegivesthem。Theslaveswhohavebeentaughtacraftmustbemaintainedwithoutanyreturnduringthetimeoftheirapprenticeshipandtheartisanslavesandtheiroverseerswhoshouldbecompetentinthecraftsmusthaveabettersubsistencethanthelabouringslaves，etc。sincethelossofanartisanwouldbegreaterthanthatofalabourerandmorecaremustbetakenofhimhavingregardtotheexpenseoftraininganothertotakehisplace。
Onthisassumptionthelabourofanadultslaveofthelowestclassisworthatleastasmuchasthequantityoflandwhichtheproprietorisobligedtoallotforhisfoodandnecessariesandalsotodoublethelandwhichservestobreedachilduptillheisofagefitforlabour，seeinghalfthechildrenthatareborndiebeforetheageof17，accordingtothecalculationsandobservationsofthecelebratedDr。Halley。Sothattwochildrenmustbereareduptokeeponeofthemtilworkingageanditwouldseemthateventhiswouldnotbeenoughtoensureacontinuanceoflaboursinceadultmendieatallages。
Itistruethattheonehalfofthechildrenwhodiebefore17diefasterinthefirstyearsafterbirththaninthefollowing，sinceagoodthirdofthosewhoareborndieintheirfirstyear。Thisseemstodiminishthecostofraisingachildtoworkingage，butasthemotherslosemuchtimeinnursingtheirchildreninillnessandinfancyandthedaughtersevenwhengrownuparenottheequalsofthemalesinworkandbarelyearntheirliving，itseemsthattokeeponeoftwochildrentomanhoodorworkingageasmuchlandmustbeemployedasforthesubsistenceofanadultsalve，whethertheproprietorraisesthemhimselfinhishouseorhasthechildrenraisedthereorthatthefatherbringsthemupinahouseorhamletapart。ThusIconcludethatthedailylabourofthemeanestslavecorrespondsinvaluetodoubletheproduceofthelandrequiredtomaintainhim，whethertheproprietorgiveithimforhissubsistenceandthatofhisfamilyorprovideshimandhisfamilysubsistenceinhisownhouse。Itdoesnotadmitofexactcalculation，andexactitudeisnotverynecessary；itsufficestobenearenoughtothetruth。
Iftheproprietoremploythelabourofvassalsorfreepeasantshewillprobablymaintainthemuponabetterfootthanslavesaccordingtothecustomoftheplacehelivesin，yetinthiscasealsothelabourofafreelaboureroughttocorrespondinvaluetodoubletheproduceoflandneededforhismaintenance。Butitwillalwaysbemoreprofitabletotheproprietortokeepslavesthantokeepfreepeasants，becausewhenhehasbroughtupanumbertoolargeforhisrequirementshecansellthesurplusslavesashedoeshiscattleandobtainforthemapriceproportionabletowhathehasspentinrearingthemtomanhoodorworkingage，exceptincasesofoldageorinfirmity。
Inthesamewayonmayappraisethelabourofslavecraftsmenattwicetheproduceofthelandwhichtheyconsume。
Overseerslikewise，allowingforthefavoursandprivilegesgiventothemabovethosewhoworkunderthem。
Whentheartisansorlabourershavetheirdoubleportionattheirowndisposaltheyemployonepartofitfortheirownupkeepiftheyaremarriedandtheotherfortheirchildren。Iftheyareunmarriedtheysetasidealittleoftheirdoubleportiontoenablethemtomarryandtomakealittlestoreforhousekeeping；butmostofthemwillconsumethedoubleportionfortheirownmaintenance。
Forexamplethemarriedlabourerwillcontenthimselfwithbread，cheese，vegetables，etc。，willrarelyeatmeat，willdrinklittlewinorbeer，andwillhaveonlyoldandshabbyclotheswhichhewillwearaslongashecan。Thesurplusofhisdoubleportionhewillemployinraisingandkeepinghischildren，whiletheunmarriedlabourerwilleatmeatasoftenashecan，willtreathimselftonewclothes，etc。andemployhisdoubleportiononhisownrequirements。Thushewillconsumetwiceasmuchpersonallyoftheproduceofthelandasthemarriedman。
Idonotheretakeintoaccounttheexpenseofthewife。I
supposethatherlabourbarelysufficestopayforherownliving，andwhenoneseesalargenumberoflittlechildreninoneofthesepoorfamiliesIsupposethatcharitablepersonscontributesomewhattotheirmaintenance，otherwisetheparentsmustdeprivethemselvesofsomeoftheirnecessariestoprovidealivingfortheirchildren。
Forthebetterunderstandingofthisitistobeobservedthatapoorlabourermaymaintainhimself，atthelowestcomputation，upontheproduceofanacreandahalfoflandifhelivesonbreadandvegetables，wearshempengarments，woodenshoes，etc。，whileifhecanallowhimselfwine，meat，woollenclothes，etc。hemaywithoutdrunkennessorgluttonyorexcessofanykindconsumetheproduceoffourtotenacresoflandofordinarygoodness，suchasmostofthelandinEuropetakingpartwithanother。Ihavecausedsomefigurestobedrawnupwhichwillbefoundinthesupplement，todeterminetheamountoflandofwhichonemancanconsumetheproduceundereachheadoffood，clothing，andothernecessariesoflifeinasingleyear，accordingtothemodeoflivinginEuropewherethepeasantsofdiverscountriesareoftennourishedandmaintainedverydifferently。
ForthisreasonIhavenotdeterminedtohowmuchlandthelabourofthemeanestpeasantcorrespondsinvaluewhenIlaiddownthatitisworthdoubletheproduceofthelandwhichservestomaintainhim：becausethisvariesaccordingtothemodeoflivingindifferentcountries。InsomeprovincesofFrancethepeasantkeepshimselfontheproduceofoneacreandahalfoflandandthevalueofhislabourmaybereckonedequaltotheproductofthreeacres。ButinthecountyofMiddlesexthepeasantusuallyspendstheproduceof5to8acresoflandandhislabourmaybevaluedattwiceasmuchasthis。
InthecountryoftheIroquoiswheretheinhabitantsdonotploughthelandandliveentirelybyhunting，themeanesthuntermayconsumetheproduceof50acresoflandsinceitprobablyrequiressomuchtosupporttheanimalsheeatsinoneyear，especiallyasthesesavageshavenottheindustrytogrowgrassbycuttingdownthetreesbutleaveeverythingtonature。Thelabourofthishuntermaythenbereckonedequalinvaluetotheproductof100acresofland。InthesouthernprovincesofChinathelandyieldsriceuptothreecropsinoneyearandahundredtimesasmuchasissown，owingtothegreatcarewhichtheyhaveofagricultureandthefertilityofthesoilwhichisneverfallow。Thepeasantswhoworktherealmostnakedliveonlyonriceanddrinkonlyricewater，anditappearsthatoneacrewillsupporttheremorethantenpeasants。Itisnotsurprising，therefore，thatthepopulationisprodigiousinnumber。Inanycaseitseemsfromtheseexamplesthatnatureisaltogetherindifferentwhetherthatearthproducegrass，trees，orgrain，ormaintainsalargeorsmallnumberofvegetables，animals，ormen。
FarmersinEuropeseemtocorrespondtooverseersoflabouringslavesinothercountries，andthemastertradesmenwhoemployseveraljourneymentotheoverseersofartisanslaves。
Thesemastersknowprettywellhowmuchworkajouneymanartisancandoinadayineachcraft，andoftenpaytheminproportiontotheworktheydo，sothatthejourneymenworkfortheirowninterestashardastheycanwithoutfurtherinspection。
AsthefarmersandmastersofcraftsinEuropeareallundertakersworkingatarisk，somegetrichandgainmorethanadoublesubsistence，othersareruinedandbecomebankrupt，aswillbeexplainedmoreindetailintreatingofundertakers；butthemajoritysupportthemselvesandtheirfamiliesfromdaytoday，andtheirlabourorsuperintendencemaybevaluedataboutthricetheproduceofthelandwhichservesfortheirmaintenance。
Evidentlythesefarmersandmastercraftsmen，iftheysuperintendthelabouroftenlabourersorjourneymen，wouldbeequallycapableofsuperintendingthelabouroftwenty，accordingtothesizeoftheirfarmsorthenumberoftheircustomers，andthisrendersuncertainthevalueoftheirlabourorsuperintendence。
Bytheseexamplesandotherswhichmightbeaddedinthesamesense，itisseenthatthevalueoftheday’sworkhasarelationtotheproduceofthesoil，andthattheintrinsicvalueofanythingmaybemeasuredbythequantityoflandusedinitsproductionandthequantityoflabourwhichentersintoit，inotherwordsbythequantityoflandofwhichtheproduceisallottedtothosewhohaveworkeduponit；andasallthelandbelongstotheprinceandthelandownersallthingswhichhavethisintrinsicvaluehaveitonlyattheirexpense。
Themoneyorcoinwhichfindstheproportionofvaluesinexchangeisthemostcertainmeasureforjudgingoftheparbetweenlandandlabourandtherelationofonetotheotherindifferentcountrieswherethisparvariesaccordingtothegreaterorlessproduceofthelandallottedtothosewholabour。
If，forexample，onemanearnanounceofsilvereverydaybyhiswork，andanotherinthesameplaceearnonlyhalfanounce，onecanconcludethatthefirsthasasmuchagainoftheproduceofthelandtodisposeofasthesecond。
SirWilliamPetty，inalittlemanuscriptoftheyear1685，considersthispar，orequationbetweenlandandlabour，asthemostimportantconsiderationinpoliticalarithmetic，buttheresearchwhichhehasmadeintoitinpassingisfancifulandremotefromnaturallaws，becausehehasattachedhimselfnottocausesandprinciplesbutonlytoeffects，asMrLocke，MrDavenantandalltheotherEnglishauthorswhohavewrittenonthissubjecthavedoneafterhim。
ChapterTwelveAllClassesandIndividualsinaStatesubsistorareenrichedattheExpenseoftheProprietorsofLandTherearenonebuttheprinceandtheproprietorsoflandwholiveindependent；allotherclassesandinhabitantsarehiredorareundertakers。Theproofanddetailofthiswillbedevelopedinthenextchapter。
Iftheprinceandproprietorsoflandclosetheirestatesandwillnotsufferthemtobecultivateditisclearthattherewouldbeneitherfoodnorraymentforanyoftheinhabitants；
consequentlyalltheindividualsaresupportednotonlybytheproduceofthelandwhichiscultivatedforthebenefitoftheownersbutalsoattheexpenseofthesesameownersfromwhosepropertytheyderiveallthattheyhave。
Thefarmershavegenerallytwothirdsoftheproduceoftheland，onefortheircostsandthesupportoftheirassistants，theotherfortheprofitoftheirundertaking：onthesetwothirdsthefarmerprovidesgenerallydirectlyorindirectlysubsistenceforallthosewholiveinthecountry，andalsomechanicsorundertakersinthecityinrespectofthemerchandiseofthecityconsumedinthecountry。
Theproprietorhasusuallyonethirdoftheproduceofhislandandonthisthirdhemaintainsallthemechanicsandotherswhomheemploysinthecityaswell，frequently，asthecarrierswhobringtheproduceofthecountrytothecity。
Itisgenerallycalculatedthatonehalfoftheinhabitantsofakingdomsubsistandmaketheirabodeincities，andtheotherhalfliveinthecountry；onthissuppositionthefarmerwhohastwothirdsorfoursixthoftheproduceoftheland，payseitherdirectlyorindirectlyonesixthtothecitizensinexchangeforthemerchandisewhichhetakesfromthem。Thissixthwiththeonethirdortwosixthswhichtheproprietorspendsinthecitymakesthreesixthsoronehalfoftheproduceoftheland。Thiscalculationisonlytoconveyageneralideaoftheproportion；butinfact，ifhalfoftheinhabitantsliveinthecitiestheyconsumemorethanhalfoftheland’sproduce，astheylivebetterthanthosewhoresideinthecountryandspendmoreoftheproduceofthelandbeingallmechanicsordependentsoftheproprietorsandconsequentlybettermaintainedthantheassistantsanddependentsofthefarmers。
Butletthismatterbehowitwill，ifweexaminethemeansbywhichaninhabitantissupporteditwillalwaysappearinreturningbacktothefountainhead，thatthesemeansarisefromthelandoftheproprietoreitherinthetwothirdsreservedbythefarmer，ortheonethirdwhichremainstothelandlord。
Ifaproprietorhadonlytheamountoflandwhichheletsouttoonefarmerthefarmerwouldgetabetterlivingoutofitthanhimself；butthenoblesandlargelandownersinthecitieshavesometimesseveralhundredsoffarmersandarethemselvesveryfewinnumberinproportiontoalltheinhabitantsofastate。
Truethereareofteninthecitiesseveralundertakersandmechanicswholivebyforeigntrade，andthereforeattheexpenseofforeignlandowners：butatpresentIamconsideringonlyastateinregardtoitsownproduceandindustry，nottocomplicatemyargumentbyaccidentalcircumstances。
Thelandbelongstotheproprietorsbutwouldbeuselesstothemifitwerenotcultivated。Themorelabourisexpendedonit，otherthingsbeingequal，themoreitproduces；andthemoreitsproductsareworkedup，otherthingsbeingequal，themorevaluetheyhaveasmerchandise。Hencetheproprietorshaveneedoftheinhabitantsasthesehaveoftheproprietors；butinthiseconomyitisfortheproprietors，whohavethedispositionandthedirectionofthelandedcapital，togivethemostadvantageousturnandmovementtothewhole。Alsoeverythinginastatedependsonthefancy，methods，andfashionsoflifeoftheproprietorsoflandinespecial，asIwillendeavourtomakeclearlaterinthisessay。
Itisneedandnecessitywhichenablefarmers，mechanicsofeverykind，merchants，officers，soldiers，sailors，domesticservantsandalltheotherclasseswhoworkorareemployedinthestate，toexist。Alltheseworkingpeopleservenotonlytheprinceandthelandownersbuteachother，sothattherearemanyofthemwhodonotworkdirectlyforthelandowners，andsoitisnotseenthattheysubsistonthecapitaloftheseproprietorsandliveattheirexpense。Asforthosewhoexerciseprofessionswhicharenotessential，likedancers，actors，painters，musicians，etc。theyareonlysupportedinthestateforpleasureorforornament，andtheirnumberisalwaysverysmallinproportiontotheotherinhabitants。
ChapterThirteenThecirculationandexchangeofgoodsandmerchandiseaswellastheirproductionarecarriedoninEuropebyUndertakers，andatariskThefarmerisanundertakerwhopromisestopaytothelandowner，forhisfarmorland，afixedsumofmoney（generallysupposedtobeequalinvaluetothethirdoftheproduce）
withoutassuranceoftheprofithewillderivefromthisenterprise。Heemployspartofthelandtofeedflocks，producecorn，wine，hay，etc。accordingtohisjudgmentwithoutbeingabletoforeseewhichofthesewillpaybest。Thepriceoftheseproductswilldependpartlyontheweather，partlyonthedemand；
ifcornisabundantrelativelytoconsumptionitwillbedirtcheap，ifthereisscarcityitwillbedear。Whocanforeseetheincreaseorreductionofexpensewhichmaycomeaboutinthefamilies？Andyetthepriceofthefarmer’sproducedependsnaturallyupontheseunforeseencircumstances，andconsequentlyheconductstheenterpriseofhisfarmatanuncertainty。
Thecityconsumesmorethanhalfthefarmer’sproduce。Hecarriesittomarketthereorsellsitinthemarketofthenearesttown，orperhapsafewindividualssetupascarriersthemselves。Thesebindthemselvestopaythefarmerafixedpriceforhisproduce，thatofthemarketpriceoftheday，togetinthecityanuncertainpricewhichshouldhoweverdefraythecostofcarriageandleavethemaprofit。Butthedailyvariationinthepriceofproduceinthecity，thoughnotconsiderable，makestheirprofituncertain。
Theundertakerormerchantwhocarriestheproductsofthecountrytothecitycannotstaytheretosellretailastheyareconsumed。Nocityfamilywillburdenitselfwiththepurchaseallatonceoftheproduceitmayneed，eachfamilybeingsusceptibleofincreaseordecreaseinnumberandinconsumptionoratleastvaryinginthechoiceofproduceitwillconsume。Wineisalmosttheonlyarticleofconsumptionstockedinafamily。Inanycasethemajorityofcitizenswholivefromdaytodayandyetarethelargestconsumerscannotlayinastockofcountryproduce。
Forthisreasonmanypeoplesetupinacityasmerchantsorundertakers，tobuythecountryproducefromthosewhobringitortoorderittobebroughtontheiraccount。Theypayacertainpricefollowingthatoftheplacewheretheypurchaseit，toresellwholesaleorretailatanuncertainprice。
Suchundertakersarethewholesalersinwooandcorn，bakers，butchers，manufacturersandmerchantsofallkindswhobuycountryproduceandmaterialstoworkthemupandresellthemgraduallyastheinhabitantsrequirethem。
Theseundertakerscanneverknowhowgreatwillbethedemandintheircity，norhowlongtheircustomerswillbuyofthemsincetheirrivalswilltryallsortsofmeanstoattractcustomersfromthem。Allthiscausessomuchuncertaintyamongtheseundertakersthateverydayoneseessomeofthembecomebankrupt。
Themanufacturerwhohasboughtwoolfromthemerchantordirectfromthefarmercannotforetelltheprofithewillmakeinsellinghisclothsandstuffstothemerchanttailor。Ifthelatterhavenotareasonablesalehewillnotloadhimselfwiththeclothsandstuffsofthemanufacturer，especiallyifthosestuffsceasetobeinthefashion。
Thedraperisanundertakerwhobuysclothsandstuffsfromthemanufactureratacertainpricetosellthemagainatanuncertainprice，becausehecannotforeseetheextentofthedemand。Hecanofcoursefixapriceandstandoutagainstsellingunlesshegetsit，butifhiscustomersleavehimtobuycheaperfromanother，hewillbeeatenupbyexpenseswhilewaitingtosellatthepricehedemands，andthatwillruinhimassoonasorsoonerthanifhesoldwithoutprofit。
Shopkeepersandretailersofeverykindareundertakerswhobuyatacertainpriceandsellintheirshopsorthemarketsatanuncertainprice。Whatencouragesandmaintainstheseundertakersinastateisthattheconsumerswhoaretheircustomerspreferpayingalittlemoretogetwhattheywantreadytohandinsmallquantitiesratherthanlayinastockandthatmostofthemhavenotthemeanstolayinsuchastockbybuyingatfirsthand。
Alltheseundertakersbecomeconsumersandcustomersoneinregardtotheother，thedraperofthewinemerchantandviceversa。Theyproportionthemselvesinastatetothecustomersorconsumption。Iftherearetoomanyhattersinacityorinastreetforthenumberofpeoplewhobuyhatsthere，somewhoareleastpatronisedmustbecomebankrupt：iftheybetoofewitwillbeaprofitableundertakingwhichwillencouragenewhatterstoopenshopsthereandsoitisthattheundertakersofallkindsadjustthemselvestorisksinastate。
Alltheotherundertakerslikethosewhotakechargeofmines，theatres，building，etc。，themerchantsbyseaandland，etc。，cook-shopkeepers，pastrycooks，innkeepers，etc。aswellastheundertakersoftheirownlabourwhoneednocapitaltoestablishthemselves，likejourneymenartisans，coppersmiths，needlewomen，chimneysweeps，watercarriers，liveatuncertaintyandproportionthemselvestotheircustomers。Mastercraftsmenlikeshoemakers，tailors，carpenters，wigmakers，etc。whoemployjourneymenaccordingtotheworktheyhave，liveatthesameuncertaintysincetheircustomersmayforesakethemfromonedaytoanother：theundertakersoftheirownlabourinartandscience，likepainters，physicians，lawyers，etc。liveinthelikeuncertainty。Ifoneattorneyorbarristersearn5000poundssterlingyearlyintheserviceofhisclientsorinhispracticeandanotherearnonly500theymaybeconsideredashavingsomuchuncertainwagesfromthosewhoemploythem。
Itmayperhapsbeurgedthatundertakersseektosnatchalltheycanintheircallingandtogetthebetteroftheircustomers，butthisisoutsidemysubject。
Byalltheseinductionsandmanyotherswhichmightbemadeinatopicrelatingtoalltheinhabitantsofastate，itmaybelaiddownthatexpecttheprinceandtheproprietorsofland，alltheinhabitantsofastatearedependent；thattheycanbedividedintotwoclasses，undertakersandhiredpeople；andthatalltheundertakersareasitwereonunfixedwagesandtheothersonwagesfixedsolongastheyreceivethemthoughtheirfunctionsandranksmaybeveryunequal。Thegeneralwhohashispay，thecourtierhispensionandthedomesticservantwhohaswagesallfallintothislastclass。Alltherestareundertakers，whethertheysetupwithacapitaltoconducttheirenterprise，orareundertakersoftheirownlabourwithoutcapital，andtheymayberegardedaslivingatuncertainty；thebeggarsevenandtherobbersareundertakersofthisclass。
Finallyalltheinhabitantsofastatederivetheirlivingandtheiradvantagesfromthepropertyofthelandownersandaredependent。
Itistrue，however，thatifsomepersononhighwagesorsomelargeundertakerhassavedcapitalorwealth，thatisifhehavestoresofcorn，wool，copper，gold，silverorsomeproduceormerchandiseinconstantuseorventinastate，havinganintrinsicorarealvalue，hemaybejustlyconsideredindependentsofarasthiscapitalgoes。Hemaydisposeofittoacquireamortgage，andinterestfromlandandfrompublicloanssecureduponland：hemaylivestillbetterthanthesmalllandownersandevenbuythepropertyofsomeofthem。
Butproduceandmerchandise，evengoldandsilver，aremuchmoresubjecttoaccidentandlossthantheownershipofland；andhoweveronemayhavegainedorsavedthemtheyarealwaysderivedfromthelandofactualproprietorseitherbygainorbysavingofthewagesdestinedforone’ssubsistence。
Thenumberofproprietorsofmoneyinalargestateisoftenconsiderableenough；andthoughthevalueofallthemoneywhichcirculatesinthestatebarelyexceedstheninthortenthpartofthevalueoftheproducedrawnfromthesoilyet，astheproprietorsofmoneylendconsiderableamountsforwhichtheyreceiveinteresteitherbymortgageortheproduceandmerchandiseofthestate，thesumsduetothemusuallyexceedallthemoneyinthestate，andtheyoftenbecomesopowerfulabodythattheycouldincertaincasesrivaltheproprietorsoflandsiftheselastwerenotoftenequallyproprietorsofmoney，andiftheownersoflargesumsofmoneydidnotalwaysseektobecomelandownersthemselves。
Itisneverthelessalwaystruethatallthesumsgainedorsavedhavebeendrawnfromthelandoftheactualproprietors；
butasmanyoftheseruinthemselvesdailyinastateandtheotherswhoacquirethepropertyoftheirlandtaketheirplace，theindependencegivenbytheownershipoflandappliesonlytothosewhokeepthepossessionofit；andasalllandhasalwaysthatitisfromtheirpropertythatalltheinhabitantsofthestatederivetheirlivingandalltheirwealth。Iftheseproprietorsconfinedthemselvestolivingontheirrentsitwouldbebeyondquestion，andinthatcaseitwouldbemuchmoredifficultfortheotherinhabitantstoenrichthemselvesattheirexpense。
Iwillthenlayitdownasaprinciplethattheproprietorsoflandalonearenaturallyindependentinastate：thatalltheotherclassesaredependentwhetherundertakersorhired，andthatalltheexchangeandcirculationofthestateisconductedbythemediumoftheseundertakers。
ChapterFourteenTheFancies，theFashions，andtheModesofLivingofthePrince，andespeciallyoftheLandowners，determinetheusetowhichLandisputinaStateandcausethevariationsintheMarketpriceofallthingsIftheownerofalargeestate（whichIwishtoconsiderhereasiftherewerenootherintheworld）hasitcultivatedhimselfhewillfollowhisfancyintheuseofwhichhewillputit。（1）Hewillnecessarilyusepartofitforcorntofeedthelabourers，mechanicsandoverseerswhoworkforhim，anotherparttofeedthecattle，sheepandotheranimalsnecessaryfortheirclothingandfoodorothercommoditiesaccordingtothewayinwhichhewishestomaintainthem。（2）Hewillturnpartofthelandintoparks，gardens，fruittreesorvinesashefeelsinclinedandintomeadowsforthehorseshewilluseforhispleasure，etc。
Letusnowsupposethattoavoidsomuchcareandtroublehemakesabargainwiththeoverseersofthelabourers，givesthemfarmsorpiecesoflandandleavestothemtheresponsibilityformaintainingintheusualmannerallthelabourerstheysupervise，sothattheoverseers，nowbecomefarmersorundertakers，givethelabourersforworkingonthelandorfarmanotherthirdoftheproducefortheirfood，clothingandotherrequirements，suchastheyhadwhentheowneremployedthem；supposefurtherthattheownermakesabargainwiththeoverseersofthemechanicsforthefoodandotherthingsthathegavethem，thathemakestheoverseersbecomemastercraftsmen，fixesacommonmeasure，likesilver，tosettlethepriceatwhichthefarmerswillsupplythemwithwoodandtheywillsupplyhimwithcloth，andthatthepricesaresuchastogivethemastercraftsmenthesameadvantagesandenjoymentsastheyhadwhenoverseers，andthejourneymenmechanicswillbesettledbythedayorbythepiece：
themerchandisewhichtheyhavemade，hats，stockings，shoes，clothes，etc。willbesoldtothelandowner，thefarmers，thelabourers，andtheothermechanicsreciprocallyatapricewhichleavestoallofthemthesameadvantagesasbefore；andthefarmerswillsell，ataproportionateprice，theirproduceandrawmaterial。
Itwillthencometopassthattheoverseersbecomeundertakers，willbetheabsolutemastersofthosewhoworkunderthem，andwillhavemorecareandsatisfactioninworkingontheirownaccount。Wesupposethanthatafterthischangeallthepeopleonthislargeestatelivejustastheydidbefore，andsoalltheportionsandfarmsofthisgreatestatewillbeputtothesameuseasitformerlywas。
Forifsomeofthefarmerssowedmorecornthanusualtheymustfeedfewersheep，andhavelesswoolandmuttontosell。
Thentherewillbetoomuchcornandtoolittlewoolfortheconsumptionoftheinhabitants。Woolwillthereforebedear，whichwillforcetheinhabitantstoweartheirclotheslongerthanusual，andtherewillbetoomuchcornandasurplusforthenextyear。Aswesupposethatthelandownerhasstipulatedforthepaymentinsilverofthethirdoftheproduceofthefarmtobepaidtohim，thefarmerswhohavetoomuchcornandtoolittlewool，willnotbeabletopayhimhisrent。Ifheexcusesthemtheywilltakecarethenextyeartohavelesscornandmorewool，forfarmersalwaystakecaretousetheirlandfortheproductionofthosethingswhichtheythinkwillfetchthebestpriceatmarket。If，however，nextyeartheyhavetoomuchwoolandtoolittlecornforthedemand，theywillnotfailtochangefromyeartoyeartheuseofthelandtilltheyarriveatproportioningtheirproductionprettywelltotheconsumptionoftheinhabitants。Soafarmerwhohasarrivedatabouttheproportionofconsumptionwillhavepartofhisfarmingrass，forhay，anotherforcorn，woolandsoon，andhewillnotchangehisplanunlessheseessomeconsiderablechangeinthedemand；
butinthisexamplewehavesupposedthatallthepeopleliveinthesamewayaswhenthelandownercultivatedthelandforhimself，andconsequentlythefarmerswillemploythelandforthesamepurposesasbefore。
Theowner，whohasathisdisposalthethirdoftheproduceoftheland，istheprincipalagentinthechangeswhichmayoccurindemand。Labourersandmechanicswholivefromdaytodaychangetheirmodeoflivingonlyfromnecessity。Ifafewfarmers，mastercraftsmenorotherundertakersineasycircumstancesvarytheirexpenseandcompensationtheyalwaystakeastheirmodelthelordsandownersoftheland。Theyimitatethemintheirclothing，meals，andmodeoflife。Ifthelandownerspleasetowearfinelinen，silk，orlace，thedemandforthesemerchandiseswillbegreaterthanthatoftheproprietorsforthemselves。
Ifalordorownerwhohasletoutallhislandstofarm，takethefancytochangeconsiderablyhismodeofliving；ifforinstancehedecreasesthenumberofhisdomesticservantsandincreasesthenumberofhishorses：notonlywillhisservantsbeforcedtoleavetheestateinquestionbutalsoaproportionatenumberofartisansandoflabourerswhoworkedtomaintainthem。
Theportionoflandwhichwasusedtomaintaintheseinhabitantswillbelaiddowntograssforthenewhorses，andifalllandownersinthestatedidtheliketheywouldsoonincreasethenumberofhorsesanddiminishthenumberofmen。
Whenalandownerhasdismissedagreatnumberofdomesticservants，andincreasedthenumberofhishorses，therewillbetoomuchcornfortheneedsoftheinhabitants，andsothecornwillbecheapandthehaydear。Inconsequencethefarmerswillincreasetheirgrasslandanddiminishtheircorntoproportionittothedemand。Inthiswaythefanciesorfashionsoflandownersdeterminetheuseofthelandandbringaboutthevariationsofdemandwhichcausethevariationsofmarketprices。
Ifallthelandownersofastatecultivatedtheirownestatestheywouldusethemtoproducewhattheywant；andasthevariationsofdemandarechieflycausedbytheirmodeoflivingthepriceswhichtheyofferinthemarketdecidethefarmerstoallthechangeswhichtheymakeintheemploymentanduseoftheland。
Idonotconsiderherethevariationsinmarketpriceswhichmayarisefromthegoodorbadharvestoftheyear，ortheextraordinaryconsumptionwhichmayoccurfromforeigntroopsorotheraccidents，soasnottocomplicatemysubject，consideringonlyastateinitsnaturalanduniformcondition。
ChapterFifteenTheIncreaseandDecreaseoftheNumberofPeopleinaStatechieflydependonthetaste，thefashions，andthemodesoflivingoftheproprietorsoflandExperienceshowsthattrees，plantsandothervegetablescanbeincreasedtoanyquantitywhichtheextentofgroundlaidoutforthemcansupport。
Thesameexperienceshowsthatallkindsoftheanimalcreationaretobemultipliedtoanyquantitywhichthelandallottedtothemcansupport。Horses，cattle，sheepcaneasilybemultiplieduptothenumberthatthelandwillsupport。ThefieldswhichserveforthissupportmaybeimprovedbyirrigationasinMilan。Haymaybesavedandcattlefedinshedsandraisedinlargernumbersthaniftheywereleftinthefields。Sheepmaybefedonturnips，asinEngland，bywhichmeansanacreoflandwillgofurtherfortheirnourishmentthanifitwerepasture。Inaword，wecanmultiplyallsortsofanimalsinsuchnumbersaswewishtomaintaineventoinfinityifwecouldfindlandstoinfinitytotonourishthem；andthemultiplicationofanimalshasnootherboundsthanthegreaterorlessmeansallottedfortheirsubsistence。Itisnottobedoubtedthatifalllandweredevotedtothesimplesustenanceofmantheracewouldincreaseuptothenumberthatthelandwouldsupportinthemannertobeexplained。