ASERIESOF
LECTURESDELIVEREDBEFORETHE
UNIVERSITYOFCAMBRIDGE
1887
BYHENRYSUMNERMAINE，K。C。S。I。
LATEMASTEROFTRINITYHALL，CAMBRIDGE，AND
MEMBEROFTHEINDIANCOUNCIL
THEWHEWELLLECTURES
SECONDEDITION
NEWIMPRESSION
LONDON
JOHNMURRAY，ALBENARLESTREET，W。
1915
NOTICE。ThefollowingLecturesweredeliveredbeforetheUniversityofCambridge，
inMichaelmasTerm1887，bythelateSirHenryS。Maine，thenProfessorof
InternationalLawonthefoundationofDr。Whewell。Theyareprintedfrom
themanuscript，partlywritteninhisownhand，andthroughoutcorrected
byhimfordelivery，butnotpreparedforpublication。Thesheetshavebeen
passedthroughthepressbyMr。FredericHarrisonandMr。FrederickPollock，
bothofLincoln’sInn，whowereappointedtwoofSirH。Maine’sexecutors。
Theyhavenotthoughtittheirdutyinanywaytoalterthedraftofthe
Lectures，exceptsofaraswasneededtoclearthesenseofanoccasional
passage，whichinthecopyasitstoodwasobscureorplainlydefective。
TitlestotheLecturesandanIndexhavealsobeenadded。
LINCOLN’SINN：September。1888。
INTERNATIONALI。AW。
LECTUREI。
ITSORIGINANDSOURCES。TheeminentmanwhofoundedtheWhewellProfessorshipofInternational
Lawlaidanearnestandexpressinjunctionontheoccupantofthischair
thatheshouldmakeithisaim，inallpartsofhistreatmentofthesubject，
tolaydownsuchrulesandsuggestsuchmeasuresasmighttendtodiminishtheevilsofwarandfinallytoextinguishwaramongnations。ThesewordsofDr。Whewell，whichoccurinhisvillandinthestatute
regulatinghisprofessorship，undoubtedlycontainbothacondemnationand
adirection。InternationalLawinitsearlierstageswasdevelopedbyamethod
oftreatmentwhichhasbeenappliedtomanyimportantsubjectsofthought
whentheirgrowthhasreachedthepointatwhichtheyareincludedinbooks
totheology，tomorals，andeven，insomecases，topositiveprivatelaw。
Writersofauthoritywhohavegainedtheearofthelearnedandprofessional
classesfollowoneanotherinastring，eachcommentingonhispredecessor，
andcorrecting，addingto，ordevisingnewapplicationsfor，thepropositions
hehaslaiddown。ForaconsiderabletimeInternationalLaw，asthewords
arecommonlyunderstood，hadtobeexclusivelycollectedfromthedictaof
theseauthoritativewriters，who，however，differedfromoneanothermaterially
intheirqualitiesanddefects。Attheheadandatthefootofthelisttwo
namesareoftenconventionallyplaced，firstthatofGrotius，whowasborn
in1583，anddiedin1645，andlastthatofVattel，whowasbornin1714
anddiedin1767。Ofboththesewritersitmaybeconfidentlyassertedthat
therulesandpropositionswhichtheylaiddowndidtendtodiminishthe
evilsofwarandmaypossiblyhelptoextinguishsomedaywaramongnations。
Butoftheresidueofthisclassofpublicists，itmustbeconfessedthat
someweresuperficial，somelearnedandpedantic，somewerewantinginclearness
ofthoughtandexpression，somewerelittlesensitivetothemodifications
ofmoraljudgmentproducedbygrowinghumanity，andsomeweresimplyreactionary。
AstheselecturesproceedImaybeabletopointouttowhichclass，andforwhatreasons，thewriterimmediatelybeforeusbelongs。MeantimeImaybeallowedtopauseandsaythatatfirstsightitseems
hopelesstodischargeinourdaytheresponsibilitywhichDr。Whewellhas
laidonhisprofessor。WhatteacherofLaw，publicorPrivate，considering
whatweseearoundus，canhopetosuggestthemeansofcontrolling，and
stilllessofweakeninganddestroying，theprodigiousforceswhichseem
nowtomakeforwar？Thefactsandthefiguresalikeappeartopointtoan
enormousgrowthoftheseforcesinvolumeandstrength。Themiddleyearof
thiscenturywasthethirty—fifthofthelongpeacewhichbeganin1815——
apeacewhichwasnotquiteunbroken，forthereweresomeintervalsofpetty
localwar，butwhichwasaslongasanywhichexistedsinceModernEuropebegan，andapeacewhichwasfruitfulineverysortofremarkableresult。Thatgenerationmaybesaidtohavehadadreamofpeace。Itlookedforward
toatimewhen，inthewordsofthegreatpoetwhowasthenbeginningto
exerciseinfluenceoverit，’Thewardrumshouldbeatnolongerandthebattle
flagshouldbefurled。’Andin1851aneventoccurredwhichhassincethen
beensomewhatvulgarizedbyrepetition，theestablishmentofthefirstof
theExhibitionsofArtandIndustry。Itseriouslyaddedtothebeliefthat
warshadceased;strifeinarmswastobesupersededbycompetitioninthe
peacefularts，controversywastobeconductedbyliteraryagenciesandno
longerbyarms。Asapoetandprose—writerthenstilllivingputit，’CaptainPenhadvanquishedCaptainSword。’ButthebuildingsofthisTempleofPeacehadhardlybeenremovedwhen
warbrokeoutagain，moreterriblethanever。FirstcametheCrimeanWar
inwhichthiscountrywasaprincipalbelligerent;thenfollowedthefrightful
struggleoftheIndianMutinyinwhichEnglandwassolelyconcerned。Shortly
afterwardstheGovernmentofthenewFrenchEmpireattackedtheGovernments
establishedinItalybytheTreatyofVienna，andsoonthewholeoftheItalian
arrangementssetupbythatTreatyweredestroyed。Beforelong，theUnited
StatesofAmerica，supposedtobepreservedfromwarbyasortofhomely
commonsense，weretornasunderbythewarofsecession，which，proportionately
toitscontinuance，wasthecostliestandbloodiestofwars。Innolongtime
theGermanarrangementswhichwereestablishedatViennafellinpiecesthrough
aquarrelbetweenthechiefGermanpowers，Almosttheotherdaytherecame
theFrenchandGermanwarandthestrugglebetweentheRussiansandtheTurks
——contestswhichunveiledthebasesofquarrelsofwhichwehavenotseen
theend：namely，thehistoricalrivalrybetweentheFrenchandGermans，and
themosthopelessofalltheproblemswhichthecivilisedworldhastosolve，thecontestprovokedbytheinevitablebreak—upoftheTurkishEmpire。Theimmediatecausesofthesewarscanofcoursebetraced;buttobelievers
inthepermanentreturnofpeacetheywereabitterdeception。Evenmore
alarmingthanthereturnofwarwastheintrusionofwarintopeace。After
thedefeatofJena，thelimitationoftheirarmywhichtheEmperorNapoleon
forceduponthePrussiansproducedasystemofwhichtheeffectwastoteach
theWesternworldanewmethodofmilitaryorganization。Thewholepopulation
ofacountrywaspassedthroughtheranksofarmies。Asinthemostancient
days，theyoungmenprimarilyfought，afterthemcamethenextabovethem
inage，afterthesetheirelders;allofthemknew，andnowknow，theuse
ofarms，andnobodyescapesthenecessityforfightinginparticularcontingencies，
excepteithertheveryoldortheveryyoung。Thefiguresareexceedingly
astonishing。WhenRussiawasrisingtotheheightofmilitaryreputation
whichshegainedin1812and1813，shehadalwaysadifficultyinbringing
asmanyas100，000menintothefield;nowsheissaidtocontainsixmillions
ofarmedmen。ThemostenergeticeffortwhichwasevermadebyFranceto
armherpopulationwasin1813，aftertheretreatfromMoscowandbefore
Napoleon’ssurprisingcampaignswithinthelimitsofFranceherselfwere
commenced。ThenumberofmenwhichNapoleonwithallhislieutenantsled
tocombatfromFrance，Italy，andtheConfederationoftheRhine（towhich
wereaddedthedisengagedgarrisonsofFrenchsoldiers）wasalmostexactly
equaltothenumberofmenwhichFranceatthismomentregardsasthatofherarmywhenonastrictlypeacefooting。’War，’saysGrotius，inaremarkablepassageinwhichheshowshisdissent
fromtheopinionsoftheprecedingage，’warisnotanart。’Nowadaysnot
onlyisitanartrequiringalongapprenticeshipandequippedwithamultitude
ofpreciserules，butbesidesthisitisthemotherofnewarts。Thewhole
scienceandartofexplosives，whichhasoccupiedtheinventivegeniusof
civilisedlandsforabouttwentyyears，isofwarlikeorigin;andanapparently
mostpeacefulart，hydraulicengineering，issaidtooweitsremarkablemodern
developmenttothestudyofthemeansofliftingandworkinggreatnaval
guns。GunsoflongrangewerefirsttriedinthefieldduringtheCrimean
war，whentheywereonthewholepronouncedtobeacostlyfailure。Butwe
havesomeveryremarkableevidenceatthismomentofwhattheyhavecome
to，suppliedpartlybyaCommitteeoftheHouseofCommonsappointedtoconsider
thearmyestimates，andpartlybythereportofaRoyalCommissionappointed
toinvestigatethesubjectofnavalpatterns，orinotherwords，themode
inwhichnewinventionsaredealtwithbythecivilandmilitaryofficers
ofourgovernment。TheDirector—GeneralofArtillerystatedtotheParliamentary
Committeethattheincreaseinarmyestimateswhichwasduetotheadvance
ofmilitaryscience，beganin1882—83，whenbreech—loadinggunswerefinally
adopted。Thecostofthesteelgunwasathirdmorethanthatoftheold
wrought—irontube，butthiscostincreasedtillinthecaseofthe100—ton
gunitexceeded19，000l。，whilethecostoftheprojectile，whichoncewas
ratherover7l。，nowreachesatleast150l。Allthetreasureandallthe
labourandalltheskillexpendednowadaysonshipsandfortificationsappear
toendinthis。Eachofthemostmoderngunsislikelytocost20，000l。
Itfiresachargeofpowderandshotweighingaboutatonandaquarter。
Eachchargecosts150l。Itthushappensthatoneofthelargegunsused
intheshipsinwhichthegreatnavalvictoriesofEnglandwerewonatthe
endofthelastcenturyandthebeginningofthepresentdidnotcostmuch
morethanafewchargesofpowderandshotfiredoffinagunofthepresent
day。Noristhisallthestory。Afteragunofthepresentdayhasfired
150shotsitissodamagedbythelabourandstrainithasundergonethat
itmustberepaired。Thisshorteffectiveexistenceistheresultofthe
extremedelicacywithwhichithasbeenendowedbymodernart。Irepeat，
then，myquestionwhentheforcesatworkaresoenormous，howshalltheybecontrolled，diminished，orreducedbyamereliteraryagency？Someconsolationmaybefoundinapositionwhichitisallthemorenecessary
toinsistuponbecauseitisnotquiteinharmonywiththeassumptionsmade
bysomefamouswriters，presentlytobediscussed，whoaremoreassociated
thananyotherswiththeoriginofInternationalLaw。Mostofthemthought
thatmankindhadstartedfromaconditionofinnocentpeace。Itwasman’s
depravitywhichhadinterruptedthisstateandhadproducedvirtuallyuniversal
andunceasingwar。Therecanbenoquestionthatthispropositionreverses
thetruth。Itisnotpeacewhichwasnaturalandprimitiveandold，butrather
war。Warappearstobeasoldasmankind，butpeaceisamoderninvention。
Ourintelligenceisonlyjustbeginningtoenableustopenetratetheclouds
whichrestonthefarthervergeofhistory，butwhatdoesseemcleartotrained
observationistheuniversalbelligerencyofprimitivemankind。Notonly
iswartobeseeneverywhere，butitiswarmoreatrociousthanwe。withourideas，caneasilyconceive。Takeoneexample，thepracticesconcernedwiththetreatmentofthewounded
andofprisoners。Atfirsttherearesignswhichcannotbemistakenthat
theprisonerandthewoundedmanarenotonlykilledbuttorturedbefore
beingputtodeath。Thestillsavageracesfromwhommosthasbeenlearned
astotheoriginalusagesandconditionsofmenaretheNorthAmericanIndians
andtheaboriginesofAustralia。ThattheNorthAmericanIndianstortured
theirprisonersbeforeputtingthemtodeathisoneofanumberoffacts
veryfamiliartouswhichhavemadetheirwayintoliterature。Onebranch
ofthisrace，theMexicans，attainedtoacertaindegreeofcivilization，
butitisalsomatteroffamiliarknowledgethattheMexicansputtheirprisoners
todeathwiththegreatestcrueltyalmostinhecatombs，andthatthepractice
withthemhadacquiredareligioussanction。AstotheAustralians，ithas
beenobservedthattheyhaveinheritedtheanimalinstinctwhichleadsthem
eventotorturetheirgameafteritiscapturedandbeforeitiskilled。
TheEnglishschool—boyhasoftenbeenshockedbytheconcludingpassagein
aRomantriumphwhenthegallantenemy，whohadbeenledintheprocession，
wasnotonlykilledbutflogged。Whenwecometomedievalwarthesecruelties
havedisappeared，and，thoughthesufferingofthewoundedandofprisoners
wasgreat，itseemstohavebeenduerathertoignoranceandcarelessness
thantocruelty。ItissaidthatatthebattleofAgincourtonlyoneman
whohadanyknowledgeofmedicineorsurgerywaspresent，thefunctionarywhowasthepredecessoroftheofficialnowknownastheKing’sStaffSurgeon。Theonlyinfluenceswhichatthebeginningofhistoryseemtoputanend
towaronalargescaleareinfluenceswhichhavebeenmuchmalignedand
towhichsomeinjusticehasbeendone。Theconventionallyrevisedhistory
oftheworldbeginswiththeformationofcertaingreatempires，theEgyptian，
theAssyrian，theMedian，andthePersian。Nodoubttheywerearesultrather
ofman’srapacitythanofhishumanity。Theobjectoftheirfounderswas
togratifyambitiousdisplayonagreatscaleandtoincreasetheareafrom
whichtheycouldtaketheirtaxes;butneverthelessnoonecouldsayhow
muchwartheyextinguishedbytheProhibition，whichtheyundoubtedlycarried
out，ofhostilitiesamongthevarioussub—divisionsoftheirsubjects。The
latestoftheseEmpireswhichconferredsimilarbenefitsonmankindinthe
WestwastheRomanEmpire。DuringthelongRomanpeacenotonlydidbloodshed
practicallycease，buttheequalityofthesexes，themitigationofslavery，andtheorganizationofChristianitymadetheirappearanceintheworld。When，however，oneoftheseempiresbreaksup，theoldsufferingrevives。
’Givepeaceinourtime，OLord，’isaversicleintheAnglicanLiturgywhich
issaidtodatefromtheruptureoftheEmpire，thatisfromthetimewhen
theEmpirewasbreakingupintokingdomsoccupiedbybarbarianraces。It
isobviouslyaprayerforanunusualandunhoped—forblessing。IntheEast
theamountofbloodshedpreventedbytheChineseEmpireisincalculable。
Independentlyofanyotherbenefits，whichtheIndianEmpiremayconferon
thecollectionofcountrieswhichitincludes，thereisnoquestionthat
wereittobedissolved，ortofallintothehandsofmastersunabletogovern
it，theterritorieswhichmakeitupwouldbedelugedwithbloodfromend
toend。AsthehistoryofmodernEuropeproceedstherearemomentswhenold
controversiesseemtohavebeenexhaustedandfightingistoacertainextent
relaxed，butthensomegreatdifferencearisesbetweenmen——thewarsofreligion，forexample，commence——andEuropeisagainfullofbloodshed。Thereareotherfactsatfirstsightofsmallerapparentimportancewhich
aretoolittlenoticed。Atalltimes，amidtruculentwarseverreviving，
therearesignsofaconsciousefforttopreventwarortomitigateit。Man
hasneverbeensoferocious，orsostupid，astosubmittosuchanevilas
warwithoutsomekindofefforttopreventit。Itisnotalwayseasytoread
thetokensofhisdesireandendeavourtoobviatewarortodiminishits
cruelties;ittakessometimetointerpretthesesigns;butwhenattention
isdirectedtothemtheyarequiteunmistakable。Thenumberofancientinstitutions
whichbearthemarksofadesigntostandinthewayofwar，andtoprovide
analternativetoit，isexceedinglygreat。Therearenumerousoldforms
oftrialdiscoverableinagreatnumberofcountriesandinagreatnumber
ofracesinwhich，amongtheceremonialactsoftheparties，youcansee
evidenceofamimiccombat。TheRomansacramentumisthebestandmostfamiliar
instanceofthis。Whatwecallajudicialproceedingisobviouslytaking
theplaceofafight。Anotherexpedient，whichisagooddealmisunderstood，
isthepecuniaryfinewhichwasimposedsometimesontheindividualauthor
ofahomicide，sometimesonhistribe，theWehrGeldoftheGermans，the
EricfineoftheancientIrish。Ihaveseenitrepresentedasevidenceof
theslightvalueattachedbytheseracestohumanlife。Here（itissaid）
isameremoneycompensationforkillinganenemy。Butthisisamisapprehension
oftheamountofthepunishmentinflicted。Ifwehadlearnedthatamanwho
toolsthelifeofanotherwasdeprivedofthewholeofhislandweshould，
Isuppose，havebeenofopinionthatthepunishmentwasatalleventsnot
trivial。ButoneofthenewideaswhichweowetotheancientIrishlaw，
theBrehonlaw，isanadequateconceptionwhichweforthefirsttimegain
oftheimportancetomankindofmoveableproperty。Capitale，cattle，capital，
alongdescendedterm，wastheimperativelyrequiredimplementforthecultivation
ofland，atatimewhenlandwasplentifulandperhapscommonandundivided。
Thenecessityimposedonthefamilyortribeofamanwhohadtakenalife
ofpayingaportionofthisjealouslyguardedsubjectofownershiptoanotheroftheancientgroupswasnotaslightbutanexceedinglyheavypenalty。Itisremarkablefurtherthat，amongthetribalgroupsofwhichsociety
wasprimitivelyorancientlymadeup，theobservanceofgoodfaithseems
tohavebeenmorestrictthanamongindividuals。Thereissomeevidenceof
wantofrespectforsanctityofagreementamongindividuals，butnotsoamid
tribes。Theancientmonumentswhichareopentousnodoubtgenerallyrecount
victoriesanddefeats，buttheyalsorecordtreaties。Treatiesofgreatcomplexity
andantiquityarefoundamongthesurvivingsavages。Alsowehaveaglimpse
ofsystemsofwhatwouldnowbecalledInternationalLaw;thatistosay
ofrulesenforcedwitharegularceremonialbytrainedofficialagents。Such
wasthejusfetialeoftheRomans。Anditistobenotedthattherearecertain
departmentsofthislawinwhichstricterprovisionteenytohavebeenmade
thanwereattheoutsetfoundinmoderndaysinwhatistechnicallycalled
theLawofNations;forexample，theextremelyexpressandsevereruleswhichregulatedeclarationsofwar。InmoderndaysthenameofInternationalLawhasbeenverymuchconfined
toruleslaiddownbyoneparticularclassofwriters。Theymayberoughly
saidtobegininthefirsthalfoftheseventeenthcentury，andtorunthree
partsthroughtheeighteenthcentury。Thenameswhichmostofusknoware
firstofallthatofthegreatHugoGrotius，followedbyPuffendorf，Leibnitz，
Zouch，Selden，Wolf，Bynkershoek，andVattel。Thelistdoesnotabsolutely
beginwithGrotius，nordoesitexactlyendwithVattel，andindeedasregards
thehitherendofthisseriestheassumptionisstillmade，andIthinknot
quitefortunately，thattheraceoflaw—creatingjuristsstillexists。It
isfurthertobenotedthatbeforeinternationallawfellintothehands
ofthesewritersithadlikemostothersubjectsofthoughtattractedthe
attentionoftheChurch。Thereisawholechapterofthelawofnationswhich
istreatedofbyRomanCatholictheologicalwriters，andaslightdifference
whichdistinguishestheiruseoftechnicalexpressions，suchforexample
as’lawofnature’and’naturallaw，’occasionallyperplexesthestudentofthesystembeforeus。Therules，however，laiddownbythewritersIhavenamedandafewothers，
thenatureoftheirsystem，andthedegreeinwhichitissettled，willoccupy
muchofourtimeinthepresentorfuturecoursesoflectures。Inthefirst
placetheirsystemisthatconventionallyknownasInternationalLaw;and
secondlyinthemwefind，notonlythewritersatwhomDr。Whewell’simplied
condemnationisaimed，butthewriterswhoseworksactedonthespiritof
belligerencylikeacharm，whodidpreventwarsandmitigatethem，anddid
somethingtoprepareatimewhenwarshouldbedomore。Isaidsomething
afewminutesagooftheerectofgreatagglomerationsofcountriesinterritorial
empiresinproducingpeace。WhentheRomanEmpirehadbrokenup，aftera
whilethenewEuropeanworldwaslongprotectedagainstincessantwarby
itssurvivingauthority。Itsveryshadowgaveasmuchpeaceaswastobe
had。Thepopeortheemperor，eachacontinuationoftheCaesars，served
asacourtofarbitrationanddidcomposedisputesandpreventwars。Too
muchinfluencemustnot，Ihavetowarnyou，beattributedtotheirinfluence。
TheirspherewasmoreparticularlyItaly;butFerrari，anhistorianwhohas
writtenbothinItalianandFrench，andwhohasconceivedtheexpedientof
mappingoutItalianhistoryintoperiodsaccordingtothenatureoftherevolutions
whichoccurredintheItalianStates，hascountedamongthesestatesnoless
than7，000revolutions，eachwithawarofitsown，smallorgreat。Still
theemperorandthepope，andyetmorethepopethantheemperor，wereunquestionably，
onthewhole，makersofpeace;andsometimestheplaceofthepopewastaken
byaprinceofacknowledgedsanctity，likeSt。LouisofFrance。Buttheoutbreak
ofthegreatwarsofreligion，thewarsbetween（CatholicandProtestant，
putanendtothesepacificinfluences。Thepope，ofcourse，wasnecessarily
ononesideamongthecombatants，andonthewholetheemperorwasonthe
sameside。Henceitcameaboutthatthegreatinternationaljuristsbelonged
tothesmallerstatesandwerewhollyProtestants。TheInternationalLaw
oftheRomanCatholicdoctorshadfallenintosuspicionandfinallyinto
disrepute。Alawwithanewsanctionwasrequiredifstatesweretoobey
it，andthisiswhatthenewjuristsproduced。Theeffectwasarapidmitigationofwarsandarapiddecreaseintheirfrequency。Itisveryimportantthatweshouldaskourselveswhatisthetrueplace
inlegalhistoryofthesetofrulescalledInternationalLaw。Itwillbe
foundthattheproperanswertothisquestioninvolvesrepliestoseveral
lessgeneralquestionswhicharenowadaysputbycriticalwriters，orwhich
spontaneouslysuggestthemselvestothemindofthestudent，astothenature
andauthorityofthefamoussystembeforeus。What，then，isitsplacein
thegeneraldevelopmentofEuropeanjurisprudence？Wemayanswerprettyconfidently
thatitsrapidadvancetoacceptancebycivilisednationswasastage，though
averylatestage，inthediffusionofRomanLawoverEurope。Thoseofyou
whohavepaidanyattentiontothehistoryoflawareawarethatIhavenow
toucheduponasubjectofmuchinterest，andofsomedifficulty。Inconsiderably
lessthanacentury，alltheideasoflearnedmenonthehistoryofRoman
Lawinthewesternworldhaveundergonechange。Ahundredyearsago，the
virtuallyuniversalassumptionofJuridicalwriterswasthat，whenthepressure
ofinvadingbarbarousraceshadbrokenuptheterritoriesoftheRomanEmpire
intoseparatekingdoms，theRomanLawwaslost，astheEmpireitselfwas
supposedtohavebeenlost。Itwasindeedplainthat，ifthiswereso，the
RomanLawmustinsomewayorother，andatsometimeorother，haveundergone
arevival，andthiswasexplainedbyfables，likethestoryofthediscoveryofacopyofJustinian’sPandectsatthesiegeofAmalfi。Morerecentlearning，learningwhichonsomepointsisextremelyrecent，
hastaughtusthatmanyoftheseassumptionsaredoubtfulandmanyothers
arecertainlyfalse。TheRomanEmpirewasneverwhollylost，northeRoman
Laweither。TheEmpire，withCaesarattheheadofit，andwithsomeinstitutions
associatedwithitwhichevenpointedbacktotheRepublicanRomanperiod，
survivedtobedestroyedbyNapoleonBonaparte，thoughnodoubtitwasever
decayingandsinkingintoaheapofceremonies，names，andforms。TheRoman
Law，ontheotherhand，waspracticallyeverywhere，anditstendencywas，
nottodecay，buttoextenditsareaandenlargeitsauthority。Thesystems
oflocalcustomwhichfirstestablishedthemselvesinthenewEuropebetray
alargeingredientofRomanLawitmanyportionsoftheirstructure。Ata
laterdate，writersoftreatisesprofessingtosetforththewhole，ora
definitepart，oftheinstitutionsofparticularcountries，arefoundto
haveborrowedconsiderablefragmentsofbookswhichtheRomansregardedas
ofauthority。AndthenweseemtoseeawholefloodofRomanjurisprudencespreadingtotheendsofcivilisedEurope。Nooneexplanationcanbeofferedofthesefacts。Insomecountries，the
RomanLawprobablyneverceasedtobeobeyed，andtheforeignelementin
itsinstitutionswasthebarbaroususage。Inothersthereverseofthisoccurred;
thebasis，atleastthetheoreticalbasis，oftheinstitutionswasbarbarous，
buttheRomanLaw，stillknowntosomeclasses，wasrapidlyabsorbed。Abarbarous
systemoflawisalwaysscanty，andifitbecontiguoustoalargerandsnore
extensivesystem，thetemptationinpractitionerstoborrowfromthisis
irresistible。Onlytheotherday，thisprocesswasfullinviewinBritish
India。ThebulkoftheNativeIndianlawwasextremelynarrow。Inwholedepartments
ofaffairs，noruleswerefoundtosettlecontroversieswhichnaturallyrose
up。AndtheresultwasthatthebulkofNativeIndianlawwasgraduallybecoming
Englishthroughthefiltrationofrulesintoitfromthemoreextensivesystem
byitsside。Andthiswenton，untilboththeEnglishandthepurelyNative
lawweregraduallysupersededbythenewIndianCodes。Wearenot，however，
tosupposethattheRomanLawcametobereceivedbyEuropeancommunities
throughanyprocessresemblinglegislation。Inthehistoryoflaw，itis
alwaysessentialtokeepinmindthefactthatlegislaturesareofveryrecent
appearanceinmodernEurope。Theearliestattempttodistinguishclearly
betweenlegislativeandexecutivepower，betweenlegislativeandexecutive
action，hasbeentracedtoanItalianwriterofthefourteenthcentury。The
powerfulbodiesfromwhichmanyofthelegislaturesaredescended，assemblies
ofgreatmenadvisingandcontrollingkings，werenottruelegislaturesthemselves。
Theyassistedoccasionallyinthemakingoflaws，butthatwasbecauselaw—making
wasrecognizedasimportantbusiness，andthedutyoftheseCouncils，Parliament
orStates—General，wastoadvisetheKinginallimportantbusiness。Intruth，
farthemostinfluentialcauseoftheextensionofparticularlawsandof
particularsystemsoflawovernewareaswastheapprovalofthembyliterate
classes，byclergymenandlawyers，andtheacquiescenceoftherestofthe
communityintheopinionsoftheseclasses。Whenthenweareaskedbywhat
legislativeauthorityInternationalLawcametobeadoptedsoastomake
itbindingonparticularcommunities，weshouldrejointhatthesamequestion
mustfirstbeputrespectingtheextensionofRomanlawandofeveryother
systemoflawwhich，beforetheeraoflegislatures，gaveproofofpossessingthesamepowerofself—propagation。Agreatpart，then，ofInternationalLawisRomanLaw，spreadoverEurope
byaprocessexceedinglylikethatwhich，afewcenturiesearlier，hadcaused
otherportionsofRomanLawtofilterintotheintersticesofeveryEuropean
legalsystem。TheRomanelementinInternationalLawbelonged，however，to
onespecialprovinceoftheRomansystem，thatwhichtheRomansthemselves
calledNaturalLawor，byanalternativename，JusGentium。Inabookpublished
someyearsagoon’AncientLaw’Imadethisremark：’SettingasidetheTreaty
LawofNations，itissurprisinghowlargeapartofthesystemismadeup
ofpureRomanlaw。WhereverthereisadoctrineoftheRomanjurisconsults
affirmedbythemtobeinharmonywiththeJusGentium，thePublicistshave
foundareasonforborrowingit，howeverplainlyitmaybearthemarksof
adistinctivelyRomanorigin。’Imustobserve，however，thattherespect
fornaturallawasthepartoftheRomanLawwhichhadmostCairnsonour
reverencedidnotactuallybeginwiththeinternationallawyers。Thehabit
ofidentifyingtheRomanlawwiththeLawofNature，forthepurposeofgiving
itdignity，wasofolddateinEurope。Whenaclergymanoralawyerofan
earlyagewishestoquotetheRomanLawinacountryinwhichitsauthority
wasnotrecognised，orinacasetowhichRomanLawwasnotallowedtoapply，
hecallsit’NaturalLaw。’WhenourEdwardIIIlaidadocumentbeforethe
PopeforthepurposeofestablishinghisclaimtotheFrenchthrone，and
ofcontendingthatthedescendantsofwomenmaysucceedtothepropertyor
throneofamaleancestor，hespokeofhimselfasarguingonNaturalLaw;
thoughinpointoffactthepowerofwomentotransmitrightsofinheritance
totheirdescendantswaspureRomanLawofrecentorigin，andwasnotspeciallyconnectedinanywaywiththeLawofNature。Butthoughthefoundersofthesystemwhichliesatthebasisoftherules
nowregulatingtheconcernsofstatesintersewerenotthefirsttodescribe
theLawofNatureandtheLawofNations，JusNature，JusGentium，asthe
mostadmirable，themostdignifiedportionofRomanLaw，theyspeakofit
withaprecisionandaconfidencewhichwerealtogethernew。Theylookupon
itasperfectlydeterminableifthepropertestsbeapplied，partlyonthe
authorityofexpresstextsofRomanLaw，partlybyaprocessofinference
fromagreatmassofrecordedprecedents。Itsfitnessforinternationalpurposes
theyregardasadiscoveryoftheirown，andsomewritersoftheirdayspeak
ofthesystemasthenewscience。Nomoredoubtofitsrealityseemstohave
beenentertainedthan（letussay）oftheEnglishcommonlawbyanEnglish
mediaevallawyer。ItissometimesdifficulttobequitesurehowGrotius
andhissuccessorsdistinguishedrulesoftheLawofNaturefromreligious
rulesprescribedbyinspiredwriters。Butthattheydiddrawadistinction
isplain。Grotius’sfamouswork，the’DeJureBellietPacis，’isingreat
partcomposedofexamplessuppliedbythelanguageandconductofheathen
statesmen，generals，andsovereigns，whomhecouldnothavesupposedtoknow
anythingofinspiredteaching。Ifweassumehimtohavebelievedthatthe
mosthumaneandvirtuousoftheactsandopinionswhichhequoteswereprompted
byaninstinctderivedfromahappierstateofthehumanrace，whenitwas
stillmoredirectlyshapedandguidedbyDivineauthority，weshouldprobably
havegotasnearhisconceptionaspossible。Astimehasgoneon，someparts
ofthisbasisofthoughthaveprovedtobenolongertenable。Grotiusgreatly
overratedtheextentofrecordedhistoryand，stillmore，theaccuracyof
therecord。Theveryconceptionfromwhichhestarted，theconceptionof
arealanddeterminableLawofNature，hasnotresistedtheapplicationof
moderncriticism。Toeachsuccessiveinquirer，theactualchildhoodofthe
humanracelookslessandlesslikethepicturewhichthejuristsofthe
seventeenthcenturyformedofit。Itwasexcessivelyinhumaninwar;and
itwasbeforeallthingsenamouredoflegaltechnicalityinpeace。Butnevertheless
thesystemfoundedonanimaginaryreconstructionofitmoreandmorecalmed
thefuryofangrybelligerency，andsuppliedaframeworktowhichmoreadvancedprinciplesofhumanityandconvenienceeasilyadjustedthemselves。Theeffectsofthe’DeJureBellietPacis，’bothinrespectofitsgeneral
influenceandofthedetailedpropositionswhichitlaiddown，wereexceedingly
promptandhaveprovedextremelydurable。Ataboutthemiddleofhisreign
LouisXIVofFranceadoptedtwomeasuresbywhichhewasthoughttohave
carriedtheseverityofwartothefurthestpoint。HedevastatedthePalatinate，
expresslydirectinghisofficerstocarryfireandswordintoeverycorner
oftheprovince，andheissuedanoticetotheDutch，withwhomhewasat
war，that，assoonasthemeltingoftheiceopenedthecanals，hewould
grantnomorequartertohisDutchenemies。ThedevastationofthePalatinate
hasbecomeaproverbofsavagenesswithallhistorians，thoughfiftyyears
earlieritmightatmosthavebeenpassedasameasureofseverity，ormight
evenhavebeendefended;buttheproclamationtotheDutchcalledfortha
burstofexecrationfromallEurope，andthethreattorefusequarterwas
notactedupon。ThebookofGrotiuswasmakingitselffelt，andthesuccessors
ofGrotiusassureusthatitwashisauthoritywhichdeterredtheFrenchkingandtheFrenchgeneralsfromthethreatenedoutrage。Butthereisotherevidenceoftherespectpaidtothedetailsofhis
system。AmongthemostinterestinglegalproductsofourdayaretheManuals
oftheusagesofwarwhichagreatnumberofcivilisedstatesarenowissuing
totheirofficersinthefield。TheManualpreparedfortheUnitedStates
istheoldestofthem，butmostofthemhavefollowedtheattempttoform
aCodeofLandWarwhichwasmadeattheConferenceatBrusselsin1874，
anattemptwhichmiscarriedprincipallythroughrecollectionsofthecourse
ofthegreatFranco—Germanwarin1870—1871。Thereisverymuchthatisremarkable
inallthisprivatecodification，asIproposetoshowinoneortwolectures
whichwillfollow;butperhapsthemostsingularfeatureoftheManualsis
thenumberofrulesadoptedinthemwhichhavebeenliterallyborrowedfrom
the’DeJureBellietPacis，’andspeciallyfromitsthirdbook。Remembering
whatGrotiushimselfsaysoftheconditioninwhichhefoundthelawand
usageofwarwhenbebegantowriteofit，andrecallingwhatwelearnfrom
historicalsourcesofthewarsofsuccessionandthewarsofreligion，we
maywellbelieveVattel，theSwissJurist，acontemporaryoftheSevenYears’
WarandofFredericktheGreat，whenhetellsusthatwhatstruckhimmost
inthewarsofhisdaywastheirextremegentleness;andofthestandardofgentlenesspropertobefollowedinwarVattelwasaseverejudge。IhereconcludethisIntroductoryLecture，buttherestillremainsome
pointsofprinciplewhichmeetusonthethresholdofInternationalLaw，
andwhichcannotbedismissedabsolutelyinsilence。InmynextlectureI
proposetoconsiderthebindingforceofInternationalLaw，andwithita
questionofsomegravityonwhichthejudgesofEnglandandthelegalauthorities
oftheUnitedStatesdonotentertainabsolutelyidenticalopinions，and
IwillstatethewayinwhichIventuretothinkthevariousshadesofdifference
canbegotover。InthesucceedinglecturesIshallhavetoconsiderafew
fundamentaltopicsinthesystembeforeus，andIhopeafterwardstogive
asketch，whichmustbebriefonaccountofthenarrowlimitsofmycourse，
onthelawofwarbyseaandland;andfinallyIwillendeavourtodischarge
apartofthedutyimposedonmebyDr。Whewell’sdirections，andtostate
whatmeasuresproposedinourdayseemtometotendtodiminishtheevils
ofwarandtodosomethingtowardsextinguishingitamongnations。
LECTUREII。
ITSAUTHORITYANDSANCTION。InthelatterportionofthelastlectureIendeavouredtoestablishthree
propositions，whichIholdtobeextremelyimportanttotheintelligentstudy
ofInternationalLaw。ThefirstofthemwasthattheprocessbywhichInternational
LawobtainedauthorityinagreatpartofEuropewasalatestageofthe
processbywhichtheRomanLawhadalsoobtainedauthorityoververymuch
thesalinepartoftheworld。Next，Isaidthatthisprocesshadlittleor
noanalogytowhatisnowunderstoodbylegislation，butconsistedinthe
receptionofabodyofdoctrineinamassbyspeciallyconstitutedortrained
minds。Lastly，Icontendedthatthisdoctrine，sospreadoverEurope，consisted
mainlyofthatpartoftheRomanLawwhichtheRomansthemselveshadcalled
JusGentiumorJusNaturae——LawofNations，orLawofNature;termswhichhadbecomepracticablyconvertible。Theinquiryintotheexactmeaningofthephrase’LawofNature’belongs
toadifferentdepartmentofjuridicalstudy，andIthinkitwillbesufficient
ifIbrieflysummarisetheviews，themselvesconsiderablycondensed，which
IpublishedsomeyearsagoinavolumefromwhichIquotedinthelastlecture。
JusGentium，orLawofNations，hadnot，soIthought，muchcolouratfirst
ofthemeaningwhichitafterwardsacquired。Itwasprobably，Isaid，half
asameasureofpolice，andhalfinfurtheranceofcommerce，thatjurisdiction
wasfirstassumedindisputesinwhicheitherforeigners，oranativeand
aforeigner，wereconcerned。Inordertoobtainsomeprinciplesuponwhich
thequestionstobeadjudicatedoncouldbesettled，theRomanpraetorperegrinus
resortedtotheexpedientofselectingtherulesoflawcommontoRomeand
tothedifferentItaliancommunitiesinwhichtheimmigrantswereborn。In
otherwords，hesethimselftoformasystemansweringtotheprimitiveand
literalmeaningofJusGentium，thatislawcommontoallnations。JusGentium
wasinfactthesumofthecommoningredientsinthecustomsoftheoldItalian
tribes。Itwasaccordinglyacollectionofrulesandprinciplesdetermined
byobservationtobecommontotheinstitutionswhichprevailedamongthe
variousItalianraces。Now，itistoberememberedthateveryRomanofposition
whofollowedpubliclifewasinthecourseofhisofficialcareernotonly，
sofarashispowerswent，astatesman，butspeciallyageneralandajudge。