ThiswasCiprianoCastro，thegreatestinternationalnuisanceoftheearlytwentiethcentury。Arude，arrogant，fearless，energetic，capriciousmountaineerandcattleman，heregardedforeignersnolessthanhisowncountryfolk，itwouldseem，asobjectsforhisparticularscorn，displeasure，exploitation，oramusement，asthecasemightbe。HewasgreatlyangeredbythewayinwhichforeignersindisputewithlocalofficialsavoidedaresorttoVenezuelancourtsand——stillworse——rejectedtheirdecisionsandappealedinsteadtotheirdiplomaticrepresentativesforprotection。Hedeclaredsuchaproceduretobeanaffronttothenationaldignity。YetforeignerswereusuallycorrectinarmingthatjudgesappointedbyanarbitraryPresidentwerelittlemorethanfigureheads，incapableofdispensingjustice，evenweretheysoinclined。
Jealousnotonlyofhispersonalprestigebutofwhatheimagined，orpretendedtoimagine，weretherightsofasmallnation，CastrotriedthroughouttoportraythesituationinsuchalightastoinducetheotherHispanicrepublicsalsotoviewforeigninterferenceasadireperiltotheirownindependenceandsovereignty;andhefurtherendeavoredtoinvolvetheUnitedStatesinastrugglewithEuropeanpowersasameanspossiblyoftestingtheefficacyoftheMonroeDoctrineoroflayingbarebeforetheworldtheevilnatureofAmericanimperialisticdesigns。
Bytheyear1901，inwhichVenezuelaadoptedanotherconstitution，therevolutionarydisturbanceshadmateriallydiminishedtherevenuesfromthecustoms。FurthermoreCastro’sregulationsexactingmilitaryserviceofallmalesbetweenfourteenandsixtyyearsofagehadfilledtheprisonstooverflowing。Manyforeignerswhohadsufferedinconsequenceresortedtomeasuresofself—defense——amongthemrepresentativesofcertainAmericanandBritishasphaltcompanieswhichwereworkingconcessionsgrantedbyCastro’spredecessors。Thoughfamiliarwithwhatcommonlyhappenstothosewhohandlepitch，theyhadnotscrupledtoaidsomeofCastro’senemies。Castroforthwithimposedonthemenormousfineswhichamountedpracticallytoaconfiscationoftheirrights。
WhiletheUnitedStatesandGreatBritainwereexpostulatingoverthisbehaviorofthedespot，FrancebrokeoffdiplomaticrelationswithVenezuelabecauseofCastro’srefusaleithertopayortosubmittoarbitrationcertainclaimswhichhadoriginatedinpreviousrevolutions。Germany，aggrievedinsimilarfashion，contemplatedaseizureofthecustomsuntilitsdemandsforredressweresatisfied。AndthencameItalywithlikecausesofcomplaint。Asifthesecomplicationswerenotsufficient，VenezuelacametoblowswithColombia。
AstheforeignpressureonCastrosteadilyincreased，LuisMariaDrago，theArgentineMinisterofForeignAffairs，formulatedin1902thedoctrinewithwhichhisnamehasbeenassociated。Itstatedinsubstancethatforceshouldneverbeemployedbetweennationsforthecollectionofcontractualdebts。Encouragedbythisapparenttokenofsupportfromasisterrepublic，Castrodefiedhisarrayofforeignadversariesmorevigorouslythanever，declaringthathemightfinditneedfultoinvadetheUnitedStates，bywayofNewOrleans，toteachitthelessonitdeserved！Butwhenheattempted，inthefollowingyear，toclosetheportsofVenezuelaasameansofbringinghisnativeantagoniststoterms，GreatBritain，Germany，andItalyseizedhiswarships，blockadedthecoast，andbombardedsomeofhisforts。ThereupontheUnitedStatesinterposedwithasuggestionthatthedisputebelaidbeforetheHagueTribunal。AlthoughCastroyielded，hedidnotfailtohaveaclauseinsertedinanew\"constitution\"requiringforeignerswhomightwishtoentertherepublictoshowcertificatesofgoodcharacterfromtheGovernmentsoftheirrespectivecountries。
TheseincidentsgavemuchfoodforthoughttoCastroaswellastohissoberercompatriots。TheEuropeanpowershaddisplayedanapparentwillingnesstohavetheUnitedStates，ifitchosetodoso，assumetheroleofaNewWorldpolicemanandfinancialguarantor。Wereittoassumetheseduties，backwardrepublicsintheCaribbeananditsvicinitywerelikelytohavetheiraffairs，internalaswellasexternal，supervisedbythebignationinordertowardoffEuropeanintervention。Atthismoment，indeed，theUnitedStateswasinterveninginPanama。TheprospectarousedinmanyHispaniccountriesthefearofa\"Yankeeperil\"greatereventhanthatemanatingfromEurope。Insteadofbeingakindlyanddisinterestedprotectorofsmallneighbors，the\"ColossusoftheNorth\"appearedrathertoresembleapoliticalandcommercialogrebentuponswallowingthemtosatisfy\"manifestdestiny。\"
Havingsucceededinputtingaroundhisheadanaureoleoflocalpopularity，Castroin1905pickedanewsetofpartiallyjustifiedquarrelswiththeUnitedStates，GreatBritain，France，Italy，Colombia，andevenwiththeNetherlands，arisingoutofthedepredationsofrevolutionists;butanarmedmenacefromtheUnitedStatesinducedhimtodesistfromhisplans。Hecontentedhimselfaccordinglywithissuingadecreeofamnestyforallpoliticaloffendersexcepttheleaders。When\"reelected，\"hecarriedhismagnanimitysofarastoresignawhileinfavoroftheVicePresident，statingthat，ifhisretirementweretobringpeaceandconcord，hewouldmakeitpermanent。Butashesawtoitthathistemporarywithdrawalshouldnothavethishappyresult，hecamebackagaintohisfirmerpositionafewmonthslater。
VentinghiswrathupontheNetherlandsbecauseitsministerhadreportedtohisGovernmentanoutbreakofcholeraatLaGuaira，thechiefseaportofVenezuela，thedictatorlaidanembargoonDutchcommerce，seizeditsships，anddenouncedtheDutchfortheirallegedfailuretocheckfilibusteringfromtheirislandsoffthecoast。Whentheministerprotested，Castroexpelledhim。
ThereupontheNetherlandsinstitutedablockadeoftheVenezuelanports。WhatmighthavehappenedifCastrohadremainedmuchlongerincharge，maybeguessed。Towardthecloseof1908，however，hedepartedforEuropetoundergoacourseofmedicaltreatment。HardlyhadheleftVenezuelanshoreswhenJuanVicenteGomez，theable，astute，andvigorousVicePresident，managedtosecurehisownelectiontothepresidencyandanimmediaterecognitionfromforeignstates。UnderhisdirectionalloftheinternationaltanglesofVenezuelawerestraightenedout。
In1914thecountryadopteditseleventhconstitutionandtherebylengthenedthepresidentialtermtosevenyears，shortenedthatofmembersofthelowerhouseoftheCongresstofour，determineddefinitelythenumberofStatesintheunion，alteredtheapportionmentoftheircongressionalrepresentation，andenlargedthepowersofthefederalGovernment——or，rather，thoseofitsexecutivebranch！In1914GomezresignedofficeinfavoroftheVicePresident，andsecuredanappointmentinsteadascommanderinchiefofthearmy。Thisprocedurewaspromptlydenouncedasatricktoevadetheconstitutionalprohibitionoftwoconsecutiveterms。AyearlaterhewasunanimouslyelectedPresident，thoughheneverformallytooktheoathofoffice。
WhatevermaybethoughtofthepoliticalwaysandmeansofthisnewGuzminBlancotomaintainhimselfasapowerbehindoronthepresidentialthrone，GomezgaveVenezuelaanadministrationofasortverydifferentfromthatofhisimmediatepredecessor。Hesuppressedvariousgovernmentmonopolies，removedotherobstaclestothematerialadvancementofthecountry，andreducedthenationaldebt。HedidmuchalsotoimprovethesanitaryconditionsatLaGuaira，andhepromotededucation，especiallytheteachingofforeignlanguages。
GomezneverthelesshadtokeepawatchfuleyeonthepartisansofCastro，whobrokeoutinrevoltwhenevertheyhadanopportunity。
TheUnitedStates，GreatBritain，France，theNetherlands，Denmark，Cuba，andColombiaeyedthemovementsoftheex—dictatornervously，asEuropeanpowerslongagowerewonttodointhecaseofacertainManofDestiny，andbarredhimoutofboththeirpossessionsandVenezuelaitself。Internationalpatience，neverJob—like，hadbeentoosorelyvexedtopermithisreturn。
Nevertheless，afterthemanneroftheancientpersecutoroftheBiblicalmartyr，Castrodidnotrefrainfromgoingtoandfrointheearth。Infacthestill\"walkethabout\"seekingtorecoverhisholduponVenezuela！
CHAPTERX。MEXICOINREVOLUTION
When，in1910，likeseveralofitssisterrepublics，Mexicocelebratedthecentennialanniversaryofitsindependence，theeraofpeaceandprogressinauguratedbyPorfirioDiazseemedlikelytolastindefinitely，forhewasenteringuponhiseighthtermasPresident。Brilliantashiscareerhadbeen，however，andgreatlyasMexicohadprosperedunderhisrigidrule，asullendiscontenthadbeenbrewing。ThecountrythathadhadbutonecontinuousPresidentintwenty—sixyearswasdestinedtohavesomefourteenchiefmagistratesinlessthanaquarterofthattime，andtosurpassallitspreviousrecordsforrapidityinpresidentialsuccession，byhavingoneexecutivewhoissaidtohaveheldofficeforpreciselyfifty—sixminutes！
IthasoftenbeenassertedthatthereasonforthedownfallofDiazandthelapseofMexicointotheunhappyconditionsofahalfcenturyearlierwasthathehadgrowntoooldtokeepafirmgriponthesituation。Ithasalsobeendeclaredthathisinsistenceuponreelectionandupontheelevationofhisownpersonalcandidatetothevicepresidency，asasuccessorincaseofhisretirement，occasionedhisoverthrow。Thetruthofthematteristhatthesecircumstanceswereonlyincidentaltohisdownfall;therealcausesofrevolutionlaydeeprootedinthehistoryofthesetwenty—sixyears。Themostsignificantfeatureoftherevoltwasitsciviliancharacter。Awidespreadpublicopinionhadbeencreated;anationalconsciousnesshadbeenawakenedwhichwasintolerantofabusesanddeterminedupontheirremovalatanycost;andthispublicopinionandnationalconsciousnesswereproductsofgeneraleducation，whichhadbroughttotheforeanumberofintelligentmeneagertoparticipateinpublicaffairsandyetbarredoutbecauseoftheirunwillingnesstosupporttheexistingregime。
Someonehasremarked，andrightly，thatDiazinhiszealforthematerialadvancementofMexico，mistookthetangiblewealthofthecountryforitswelfare。Desirableandevennecessaryasthatmaterialprogresswas，itproducedonlyaone—sidedprosperity。
Diazwassingularlydeaftothejustcomplaintsofthepeopleofthelaboringclasses，who，asmanufacturingandotherindustrialenterprisesdeveloped，wereresolvedtobettertheirconditions。
Inthecountryatlargethediscontentwasstillstronger。
Throughoutmanyoftheruraldistrictsgeneraladvancementhadbeenretardedbecauseoftheholdingofhugeareasoffertilelandbyacomparativelyfewrichfamilies，whodidlittletoimproveitandwerecontentwithsmallreturnsfromthelaborofthrongsofunskillednativecultivators。Wretchedlypaidandhoused，andtoilinglonghours，theworkerslivedliketheserfsofmedievaldaysorastheirownancestorsdidincolonialtimes。
Ignorant，poverty—stricken，liableatanymomenttobedispossessedofthetinypatchofgroundonwhichtheyraisedafewhillsofcornorbeans，mostofthemwerenaturallyasimple，peacefulfolkwho，inspiteoftheirmisfortunes，mighthavegoneonindefinitelywiththeirdrudgeryinahopelessapatheticfashion，unlesstheirlatentsavageinstinctshappenedtobearousedbydrinkandtheprospectofplunder。Ontheotherhand，theintelligentamongthem，knowingthatinsomeofthenorthernStatesoftherepublicwageswerehigherandtreatmentfairer，feltasenseofwrongwhich，likethatofthelaboringclassinthetowns，wasallthemoredangerousbecauseitwasnotallowedtofindexpression。
DiazthoughtthatwhatMexicorequiredaboveeverythingelsewasthedevelopmentofindustrialefficiencyandfinancialstrength，assuredbyamaintenanceofabsoluteorder。Thoughdisposedtodojusticeinindividualcases，hewouldtoleratenoclassmovementsofanykind。Laborunions，strikes，andothereffortsatlighteningtheburdenoftheworkersheregardedasseditiousanddeservingofseverepunishment。Inordertoattractcapitalfromabroadasthebestmeansofexploitingthevastresourcesofthecountry，hewaswillingtogotoanylength，itwouldseem，inguaranteeingprotection。Smallwonder，therefore，thatthepeoplewhosharedinnoneoftheimmediateadvantagesfromthatsourceshouldhavemutteredthatMexicowasthe\"motherofforeignersandthestepmotherofMexicans。\"And，sincesomuchofthecapitalcamefromtheUnitedStates，theantiforeignsentimentsingledAmericansoutforitsparticulardislike。
IfDiazappearedunabletoappreciatethesignificanceoftheeducationalandindustrialawakening，hewasnolessobliviousofthepoliticaloutcome。Heknew，ofcourse，thattheMexicanconstitutionmadeimpossibledemandsuponthepoliticalcapacityofthepeople。HewashimselfmainlyofIndianbloodandhebelievedthatheunderstoodthetemperamentandlimitationsofmostMexicans。Knowinghowtenaciouslytheyclungtopoliticalnotions，hebelievedthatitwassaferandwisertoforego，atleastforatime，realpopulargovernmentandtoconcentratepowerinthehandsofastrongmanwhocouldmaintainorder。
Accordingly，backedbyhispoliticaladherents，knownascientificos（doctrinaires），someofwhomhadacquiredasinisterascendancyoverhim，andalsobytheChurch，thelandedproprietors，andtheforeigncapitalists，Diazcenteredtheentireadministrationmoreandmoreinhimself。Electionsbecamemerefarces。Notonlythefederalofficialsthemselvesbutthestategovernors，themembersofthestatelegislatures，andallothersinauthorityduringthelateryearsofhisruleowedtheirselectionprimarilytohimandheldtheirpositionsonlyifpersonallyloyaltohim。ConfidentofhissupportandcertainthatprotestsagainstmisgovernmentwouldberegardedbythePresidentasseditious，manyofthemabusedtheirpoweratwill。
Notableamongthemwerethelocalofficials，calledjefespoliticos，whosecontrolofthepoliceforceenabledthemtoindulgeinpracticesofintimidationandextortionwhichultimatelybecameunendurable。
ThoughsymptomsofpopularwrathagainsttheDiazregime，ordiazpotismastheMexicanstermedit，wereapparentasearlyas1908，itwasnotuntilJanuary，1911，thattheactualrevolutioncame。ItwasheadedbyFranciscoI。Madero，amemberofawealthyanddistinguishedfamilyoflandedproprietorsinoneofthenorthernStates。WhattherevolutionistsdemandedinsubstancewastheretirementofthePresident，VicePresident，andCabinet;
areturntotheprincipleofnoreelectiontothechiefmagistracy;aguaranteeoffairelectionsatalltimes;thechoiceofcapable，honest，andimpartialjudges，jefespoliticos，andotherofficials;and，inparticular，aseriesofagrarianandindustrialreformswhichwouldbreakupthegreatestates，createpeasantproprietorships，andbettertheconditionsoftheworkingclasses。Disposedatfirsttotreattheinsurrectionlightly，Diazsoonfoundthathehadunderestimateditsstrength。Grantsofsomeofthedemandsandpromisesofreformweremetwithadoggedinsistenceuponhisownresignation。Then，astherebellionspreadtothesouthward，themasterfuloldmanrealizedthathisthirty—oneyearsofrulewereatanend。Onthe25thofMay，therefore，hegaveuphispowerandsailedforEurope。
MaderowaschosenPresidentfivemonthslater，buttherevolutionsoonpassedbeyondhiscontrol。Hewasasincereidealist，ifnotsomethingofavisionary，actuatedbyhumaneandkindlysentiments，buthelackedresolutenessandtheartofmanagingmen。Hewastooprolific，also，ofpromiseswhichhemusthaveknownhecouldnotkeep。Yieldingtofamilyinfluence，helethisfollowersgetoutofhand。AmbitiouschieftainsandgroupsofRadicalsblockedandthwartedhimateveryturn。Whenhecouldfindnomeansofcarryingouthisprogramwithoutwholesaleconfiscationandthedisruptionofbusinessinterests，hewasaccusedofabandoninghisduty。Oneofficerafteranotherdesertedhimandturnedrebel。BrigandageandinsurrectionsweptoverthecountryandthreatenedtoinvolveitinuglycomplicationswiththeUnitedStatesandEuropeanpowers。Atlength，inFebruary，1913，cametheblowthatputanendtoallofMadero’seffortsandaspirations。AmilitaryuprisinginthecityofMexicomadehimprisoner，forcedhimtoresign，andsetupaprovisionalgovernmentunderthedictatorshipofVictorianoHuerta，oneofhischieflieutenants。TwoweekslaterbothMaderoandtheVicePresidentwereassassinatedwhileontheirwaysupposedlytoaplaceofsafety。
HuertawasaroughsoldierofIndianorigin，possessedofunusualforceofcharacterandstrengthofwill，ruthless，cunning，andinbearingalternatelydignifiedandvulgar。Acientificoinpoliticalfaith，hewasdisposedtorestoretheDiazregime，sofarasanapplicationofshrewdnessandforcecouldmakeitpossible。Butfromtheoutsethefoundanobstacleconfrontinghimthathecouldnotsurmount。ThoughacknowledgedbyEuropeancountriesandbymanyoftheHispanicrepublics，hecouldnotwinrecognitionfromtheUnitedStates，eitherasprovisionalPresidentorasacandidateforregularelectiontotheoffice。
WhetherpersonallyresponsibleforthemurderofMaderoornot，hewasnotregardedbytheAmericanGovernmentasentitledtorecognition，onthegroundthathewasnotthechoiceoftheMexicanpeople。Initsrefusaltorecognizeanadministrationsetupmerelybybruteforce，theUnitedStateswasupheldbyArgentina，Brazil，Chile，andCuba。TheeliminationofHuertabecamethechieffeatureforawhileofitsMexicanpolicy。
MeanwhilethefollowersofMaderoandthepronouncedRadicalshadfoundanewnorthernleaderinthepersonofVenustianoCarranza。
TheycalledthemselvesConstitutionalists，asindicativeoftheirpurposetoreestablishtheconstitutionandtochooseasuccessortoMaderoinaconstitutionalmanner。Whattheyreallydesiredwasthoseradicalchangesalongsocial，industrial，andpoliticallines，whichMaderohadchampionedintheory。TheysoughttointroduceaspeciesofsocialisticregimethatwouldprovidetheMexicanswithanopportunityforself—regeneration。WhileDiazhadbelievedineconomicprogresssupportedbythegreatlandedproprietors，themoralinfluenceoftheChurch，andtheapplicationofforeigncapital，theConstitutionalists，personifiedinCarranza，wereconvincedthattheseagencies，ifleftfreeandundisturbedtoworktheirwill，wouldruinMexico。
Thoughnotexactlyantiforeignintheirattitude，theywishedtocurbthepoweroftheforeigner;theywouldaccepthisaidwheneverdesirablefortheeconomicdevelopmentofthecountry，buttheywouldnotsubmittohisvirtualcontrolofpublicaffairs。InanycasetheywouldtoleratenointerferencebytheUnitedStates。CompromisewiththeHuertaregime，therefore，wasimpossible。Huerta，the\"strongman\"oftheDiaztype，mustgo。
Onthispoint，atleast，theConstitutionalistswereinthoroughagreementwiththeUnitedStates。
Avarietyofinternationalcomplicationsensued。BothHuertistasandCarranzistasperpetratedoutragesonforeigners，whichevokedsharpprotestsandthreatsfromtheUnitedStatesandEuropeanpowers。Whilecarefulnottorecognizehisopponentsofficially，theAmericanGovernmentresortedtoallkindsofmeanstooustthedictator。Anembargowaslaidontheexportofarmsandmunitions;alleffortstoprocurefinancialhelpfromabroadwerebalked。ThepowerofHuertawaswaningperceptiblyandthatoftheConstitutionalistswasincreasingwhenanincidentthatoccurredinApril，1914，atTampicobroughtmatterstoaclimax。
AnumberofAmericansailorswhohadgoneashoretoobtainsupplieswerearrestedandtemporarilydetained。TheUnitedStatesdemandedthattheAmericanflagbesalutedasreparationfortheinsult。UpontherefusalofHuertatocomply，theUnitedStatessentanavalexpeditiontooccupyVeraCruz。
BothCarranzaandHuertaregardedthismoveasequivalenttoanactofwar。Argentina，Brazil，andChilethenofferedtheirmediation。ButtheconferencearrangedforthispurposeatNiagaraFalls，Canada，hadbeforeitataskaltogetherimpossibleofaccomplishment。ThoughCarranzawaswillingtohavetheConstitutionalistsrepresented，ifthediscussionrelatedsolelytotheimmediateissuebetweentheUnitedStatesandHuerta，hedeclinedtoextendthescopeoftheconferencesoastoadmittherightoftheUnitedStatestointerfereintheinternalaffairsofMexico。Theconferenceaccomplishednothingsofarastheimmediateissuewasconcerned。Thedictatordidnotmakereparationforthe\"affrontsandindignities\"hehadcommitted;
buthisdaywasover。TheadvanceoftheConstitutionalistssouthwardcompelledhiminJulytoabandonthecapitalandleavethecountry。FourmonthslatertheAmericanforceswerewithdrawnfromVeraCruz。The\"ABC\"Conference，howeverbarrenitwasofdirectresults，helpedtoallaysuspicionsoftheUnitedStatesinHispanicAmericaandbroughtappreciablynearera\"concertofthewesternworld。\"
WhilefarfromexercisingfullcontrolthroughoutMexico，the\"firstchief\"oftheConstitutionalistswaseasilythedominantfigureinthesituation。Athomearanchman，inpublicaffairsastatesmanofconsiderableability，knowinghowtoinsistandyethowtotemporize，Carranzacarriedonastruggle，bothinarmsandindiplomacy，whichsingledhimoutasaremarkablecharacter。ShrewdlyawareoftheadvantageouscircumstancesaffordedhimbythewarinEurope，heturnedthemtoaccountwithadegreeofskillthatblockedeveryattemptatdefeatorcompromise。NomatterhowserioustheoppositiontohiminMexicoitself，howmenacingtheattitudeoftheUnitedStates，orhowpersuasivetheconciliatorydispositionofHispanicAmericannations，heclungstubbornlyandtenaciouslytohisprogram。
EvenafterHuertahadbeeneliminated，Carranza’spositionwasnotassured，forFrancisco，or\"Pancho，\"Villa，achieftainwhosepersonalqualitiesresembledthoseofthefallendictator，wasequallydeterminedtoeliminatehim。Forabriefmoment，indeed，peacereigned。Underanallegedagreementbetweenthem，aconventionofConstitutionalistofficerswastochooseaprovisionalPresident，whoshouldbeineligibleasacandidateforthepermanentpresidencyattheregularelections。WhenCarranzaassumedbothofthesepositions，Villadeclaredhisactaviolationoftheirunderstandingandinsisteduponhisretirement。InasmuchastheconventionwasdominatedbyVilla，the\"firstchief\"decidedtoignoreitselectionofaprovisionalPresident。
ThestrugglebetweentheConventionalistsheadedbyVillaandtheConstitutionalistsunderCarranzaplungedMexicointoworsediscordandmiserythanever。Indeeditbecameasortofthree—corneredcontest。ThethirdpartywasEmilianoZapata，anIndianbandit，nominallyasupporterofVillabutactuallyfavorabletoneitheroftherivals。Operatingnearthecapital，heplunderedConventionalistsandConstitutionalistswithequalimpartiality，andasadiversionoccasionallyoccupiedthecityitself。ThesecircumstancesgaveforcetothesayingthatMexicowasa\"landwherepeacebreaksoutonceinawhile！\"
Earlyin1915Carranzaproceededtoissueanumberofradicaldecreesthatexasperatedforeignersalmostbeyondendurance。
Ratherthanresorttoextrememeasuresagain，however，theUnitedStatesinvokedthecooperationoftheHispanicrepublicsandproposedaconferencetodevisesomesolutionoftheMexicanproblem。Togivetheproposedconferenceawiderrepresentation，itinvitednotonlythe\"ABC\"powers，butBolivia，Uruguay，andGuatemalatoparticipate。MeetingatWashingtoninAugust，themediatorsencounteredthesamedifficultywhichhadconfrontedtheirpredecessorsatNiagaraFalls。Thoughtheotherchieftainsassented，Carranza，nowcertainofsuccess，declinedtoheedanyproposalofconciliation。Characterizingeffortsofthekindasanunwarrantedinterferenceintheinternalaffairsofasisternation，hewarnedtheHispanicrepublicsagainstsettingupsodangerousaprecedent。InreplyArgentinastatedthattheconferenceobeyeda\"loftyinspirationofPan—Americansolidarity，and，insteadoffindinganycauseforalarm，theMexicanpeopleshouldseeinitaproofoftheirfriendlyconsiderationthatherfateevokesinus，andcallsforthourgoodwishesforherpacificationanddevelopment。\"However，astheonlyapparentescapefrommorewatchfulwaitingorfromarmedinterventiononthepartoftheUnitedStates，inOctoberthesevenGovernmentsdecidedtoacceptthefactsastheystood，andaccordinglyrecognizedCarranzaasthedefactorulerofMexico。
Enragedatthisfavorshowntohisrival，VilladetermineddeliberatelytoprovokeAmericaninterventionbyamurderousraidonatowninNewMexicoinMarch，1916。WhentheUnitedStatesdispatchedanexpeditiontoavengetheoutrage，CarranzaprotestedenergeticallyagainstitsviolationofMexicanterritoryanddemandeditswithdrawal。Severalclashes，infact，occurredbetweenAmericansoldiersandCarranzistas。Neithertheexpeditionitself，however，nordiplomaticeffortstofindsomemethodofcooperationwhichwouldpreventconstanttroublealongthefrontierservedanyusefulpurpose，sinceVillaapparentlycouldnotbecapturedandCarranzarefusedtoyieldtodiplomaticpersuasion。Carranzathenproposedthatajointcommissionbeappointedtosettlethesevexedquestions。Eventhisdeviceprovedwhollyunsatisfactory。TheMexicanswouldnotconcedetherightoftheUnitedStatestosendanarmedexpeditionintotheircountryatanytime，andtheAmericansrefusedtoacceptlimitationsonthekindoftroopsthattheymightemployoronthezoneoftheiroperations。InJanuary，1917，thejointcommissionwasdissolvedandtheAmericansoldierswerewithdrawn。Againthe\"firstchief\"hadwon！
Onthe5thofFebruaryaconventionassembledatQueretaropromulgatedaconstitutionembodyingsubstantiallyalloftheradicalprogramthatCarranzahadanticipatedinhisdecrees。
Besidesprovidingforanelaborateimprovementintheconditionofthelaboringclassesandforsuchadivisionofgreatestatesasmightsatisfytheirparticularneeds，thenewconstitutionimposeddrasticrestrictionsuponforeignersandreligiousbodies。Underitsterms，foreignerscouldnotacquireindustrialconcessionsunlesstheywaivedtheirtreatyrightsandconsentedtoregardthemselvesforthepurposeasMexicancitizens。InallsuchcasespreferencewastobeshownMexicansoverforeigners。
Ecclesiasticalcorporationswereforbiddentoownrealproperty。
Noprimaryschoolandnocharitableinstitutioncouldbeconductedbyanyreligiousmissionordenomination，andreligiouspublicationsmustrefrainfromcommentingonpublicaffairs。Thepresidentialtermwasreducedfromsixyearstofour;reelectionwasprohibited;andtheofficeofVicePresidentwasabolished。
When，onthe1stofMay，VenustianoCarranzawaschosenPresident，Mexicohaditsfirstconstitutionalexecutiveinfouryears。Afteracruelandobstinatelyintolerantstrugglethathadoccasionedindescribablesufferingfromdiseaseandstarvation，aswellastheusualslaughteranddestructionincidenttowar，thecountrybegantoenjoyoncemoreameasureofpeace。
Financialexhaustion，however，hadtobeovercomebeforerecuperationwaspossible。Industrialprogresshadbecomealmostparalyzed;vastquantitiesofdepreciatedpapermoneyhadtobewithdrawnfromcirculation;andanenormousarrayofclaimsforthelossofforeignlifeandpropertyhadrolledup。
CHAPTERXI。THEREPUBLICSOFTHECARIBBEAN
ThecourseofeventsincertainoftherepublicsinandaroundtheCaribbeanSeawarnedtheHispanicnationsthatindependencewasarelativeconditionandthatitmightvaryindirectratiowithnearnesstotheUnitedStates。After1906thispowerfulnorthernneighborshowedanunmistakabletendencytoextenditsinfluenceinvariousways。Herefiscalandpolicecontrolwasestablished;thereofficialrecognitionwaswithheldfromaPresidentwhohadsecuredofficebyunconstitutionalmethods。
Nonrecognitionpromisedtobeaneffectivewayofmaintainingaregimeoflawandorder，astheUnitedStatesunderstoodthoseterms。AssurancesfromtheUnitedStatesofthefullpoliticalequalityofallrepublics，bigorlittle，inthewesternhemispheredidnotalwayscarryconvictiontoSpanishAmericanears。ThesmallercountriesinandaroundtheCaribbeanSea，atleast，seemedlikelytobecomevirtuallyAmericanprotectorates。
LiketheirHispanicneighboronthenorth，thelittlerepublicsofCentralAmericawerealsoscenesofpoliticaldisturbance。
NoneofthemexceptPanamaescapedrevolutionaryuprisings，thoughthelossoflifeandpropertywasinsignificant。Ontheotherhand，intheseearlyyearsofthecenturythefivecountriesnorthofPanamamadesubstantialprogresstowardfederation。AsaSouthAmericanwriterhasexpressedit，theirpreviouseffortsinthatdirection\"amidsumptuousfestivals，banquetsandothersolemnpublicacts\"atwhichthey\"intonedinlyricaccentsdailyhymnsfortheimperishablereunionoftheisthmianrepublics，\"hadbeenasillusoryastheywerefrequent。
DespitethemediationoftheUnitedStatesandMexicoin1906，whilethelatterwasstillruledbyDiaz，thestruggleinwhichNicaragua，Honduras，Guatemala，andSalvadorhadbeenengagedwassoonrenewedbetweenthefirsttwobelligerents。Sincediplomaticinterpositionnolongeravailed，AmericanmarineswerelandedinNicaragua，andthebumptiousZelayawasinducedtohavehiscountrymeetitsneighborsinaconferenceatWashington。UndertheauspicesoftheUnitedStatesandMexico，inDecember，1907，representativesofthefiverepublicssignedaseriesofconventionsprovidingforpeaceandcooperation。Anarbitralcourtofjustice，tobeerectedinCostaRicaandcomposedofonejudgefromeachnation，wastodecideallmattersofdisputewhichcouldnotbeadjustedthroughordinarydiplomaticmeans。
Here，also，aninstituteforthetrainingofCentralAmericanteacherswastobeestablished。Annualconferencesweretodiscuss，andanofficeinGuatemalawastorecord，measuresdesignedtosecureuniformityinfinancial，commercial，industrial，sanitary，andeducationalregulations。Honduras，thestormcenterofweakness，wastobeneutralized。NoneoftheStateswasthereaftertorecognizeinanyofthemagovernmentwhichhadbeensetupinanillegalfashion。A\"ConstitutionalActofCentralAmericanFraternity，\"moreover，wasadoptedonbehalfofpeace，harmony，andprogress。Towardarealizationoftheseveralobjectsoftheconference，thePresidentsofthefiverepublicsweretoinvitetheircolleaguesoftheUnitedStatesandMexico，wheneverneedful，toappointrepresentatives，to\"lendtheirgoodofficesinapurelyfriendlyway。\"
Thoughmostoftheseagencieswerepromptlyputintooperation，theresultswerenotaltogethersatisfactory。Somediscords，tobesure，wereremovedbytreatiessettlingboundaryquestionsandprovidingforreciprocaltradeadvantages;butitisdoubtfulwhetherthearrangementsdevisedatWashingtonwouldhaveworkedatalliftheUnitedStateshadnotkeptthelittlecountriesunderacertainamountofobservation。WhattheCentralAmericansapparentlypreferredwastobeleftalone，someofthemtomindtheirownbusiness，otherstomindtheirneighbor’saffairs。
OfalltheCentralAmericancountriesHonduraswas，perhaps，theonemostafflictedwithpecuniarymisfortunes。In1909itsforeigndebt，alongwitharrearsofinterestunpaidforthirty—sevenyears，wasestimatedatupwardsof$110，000，000。Ofthisamountalargepartconsistedofloansobtainedfromforeigncapitalists，atmoreorlessextortionaterates，fortheconstructionofashortrailway，ofwhichlessthanhalfhadbeenbuilt。ThatrevolutionsshouldberatherchronicinalandwheresomuchmoneycouldbesquanderedandwherethetemperamentsofPresidentsandex—Presidentsweresobellicose，wasnaturalenough。WhentheUnitedStatescouldnotinducethewarringrivalstoabidebyfairelections，itsentaforceofmarinestooverawethemandgavewarningthatfurtherdisturbanceswouldnotbeallowed。
InNicaraguatheconditionsweresimilar。HereZelaya，restiveunderthelimitationssetbytheconferenceatWashington，yearnedtobecomethe\"strongman\"ofCentralAmerica，whowouldteachtheYankeestostoptheirmeddling。Buthisdownfallwasimminent。In1909，astheresultofhisexecutionoftwoAmericansoldiersoffortunewhohadtakenpartinarecentinsurrection，theUnitedStatesresolvedtotolerateZelayanolonger。Openlyrecognizingtheinsurgents，itforcedthedictatoroutofthecountry。Threeyearslater，whenaPresident—electstartedtoassumeofficebeforethelegallyappointedtime，aforceofAmericanmarinesatthecapitalconvincedhimthatsuchaprocedurewasundesirable。The\"corruptandbarbarous\"conditionsprevailinginZelaya’stime，hewasinformed，couldnotbetolerated。TheUnitedStates，infact，notifiedallpartiesinNicaraguathat，underthetermsoftheWashingtonconventions，ithada\"moralmandatetoexertitsinfluenceforthepreservationofthegeneralpeaceofCentralAmerica。\"Sincethoseagreementshadvestednoonewithauthoritytoenforcethem，suchaninterpretationoftheirlanguage，aimedapparentlyatalldisturbances，foreignaswellasdomestic，wasratherelastic！Atallevents，after1912，whenanewconstitutionwasadopted，thecountrybecamerelativelyquietandsomewhatprogressive。
Wheneverapoliticalflurrydidtakeplace，Americanmarineswereemployedtopreservethepeace。Manycitizens，therefore，declinedtovote，onthegroundthatthemoralandmaterialsupportthusfurnishedbythegreatnationtothenorthwardrendereditfutileforthemtoassumepoliticalresponsibilities。
MeanwhilenegotiationsbeganwhichwereultimatelytomakeNicaraguaafiscalprotectorateoftheUnitedStates。Americanofficialswerechosentoactasfinancialadvisersandcollectorsofcustoms，andfavorablearrangementswereconcludedwithAmericanbankersregardingthemonetarysituation;butitwasnotuntil1916thatatreatycoveringthissituationwasratified。
Accordingtoitsprovisions，inreturnforastipulatedsumtobeexpendedunderAmericandirection，NicaraguawastogranttotheUnitedStatestheexclusiveprivilegeofconstructingacanalthroughtheterritoryoftherepublicandtoleasetoittheCornIslandsandapartofFonsecaBay，onthePacificcoast，foruseasnavalstations。TheprospectofAmericaninterventionalarmedtheneighboringrepublics。Assertingthatthetreatyinfringedupontheirrespectiveboundaries，CostaRica，andSalvadorbroughtsuitagainstNicaraguabeforetheCentralAmericanCourt。
WiththeexceptionoftheNicaraguanrepresentative，thejudgesupheldthecontentionoftheplaintiffsthatthedefendanthadnorighttomakeanysuchconcessionswithoutpreviousconsultationwithCostaRica，Salvador，andHonduras，sinceallthreealikewereaffectedbythem。TheCourtobserved，however，thatitcouldnotdeclarethetreatyvoidbecausetheUnitedStates，oneofthepartiesconcerned，wasnotsubjecttoitsjurisdiction。Nicaraguadeclinedtoacceptthedecision;andtheUnitedStates，thecountryresponsiblefortheexistenceoftheCourtandpresumablyinterestedinhelpingtoenforceitsjudgment，allowedittogooutofexistencein1918ontheexpirationofitsten—yearterm。
TheeconomicsituationofCostaRicabroughtaboutastateofaffairswhollyunusualinCentralAmericanpolitics。ThePresident，AlfredoGonzalez，wishedtoreformthesystemoftaxationsothatafairershareofthepublicburdensshouldfallonthegreatlandholderswho，likemostoftheirbrethrenintheHispaniccountries，werepracticallyexempt。Thisproject，coupledwiththefactthatcertainAmericancitizensseekinganoilconcessionhadunderminedthepowerofthePresidentbywholesalebribery，inducedtheMinisterofWar，in1917，tostartarevoltagainsthim。Ratherthanshedthebloodofhisfellowcitizensformerepersonaladvantages，GonzalezsustainedthegoodreputationofCostaRicaforfreedomfromcivilcommotionsbyquietlyleavingthecountryandgoingtotheUnitedStatestopresenthiscase。Inconsequence，theAmericanGovernmentdeclinedtorecognizethedefactoruler。
PoliceandfiscalsupervisionbytheUnitedStateshascharacterizedtherecenthistoryofPanama。Notonlyhasaproposedincreaseinthecustomsdutiesbeendisallowed，butmorethanoncetheunrestattendingpresidentialelectionshasrequiredthecalmingpresenceofAmericanofficials。Asameansofforestallingoutbreaks，particularlyinviewofthecosmopolitanpopulationresidentontheIsthmus，therepublicenactedalawin1914whichforbadeforeignerstomixinlocalpoliticsandauthorizedtheexpulsionofnaturalizedcitizenswhoattackedtheGovernmentthroughthepressorotherwise。WiththeapprovaloftheUnitedStates，PanamaenteredintoanagreementwithAmericanfinanciersprovidingforthecreationofanationalbank，one—fourthofthedirectorsofwhichshouldbenamedbytheGovernmentoftherepublic。
ThesecondperiodofAmericanruleinCubalastedtill1909。
ControloftheGovernmentwasthenformallytransferredtoJoseMiguelGomez，thePresidentwhohadbeenchosenbytheLiberalsattheelectionsheldinthepreviousyear;buttheUnitedStatesdidnotceasetowatchoveritschiefCaribbeanward。AbittercontroversysoondevelopedintheCubanCongressovermeasurestoforbidthefurtherpurchaseoflandbyaliens，andtoinsurethatacertainpercentageofthepublicofficesshouldbeheldbycoloredcitizens。Thoughbothprojectsweredefeated，theyrevealedastrongantiforeignsentimentandmuchdissatisfactiononthepartofthenegropopulation。ItwasclearalsothatGomez，intendedtooustallconservativesfromoffice，foranobedientCongresspassedabillsuspendingthecivilservicerules。
ThepartisanshipofGomez，andhissupporters，togetherwiththeconstantinterferenceofmilitaryveteransinpoliticalaffairs，provokednumerousoutbreaks，whichledtheUnitedStates，in1912，towarnCubathatitmightagainbecompelledtointervene。
Eventually，whenanegroinsurrectionintheeasternpartoftheislandmenacedthesafetyofforeigners，Americanmarineswerelanded。AnotherinstanceofinterventionwastheobjectionbytheUnitedStatestoanemployers’liabilitylawthatwouldhavegivenamonopolyoftheinsurancebusinesstoaCubancompanytothedetrimentofAmericanfirms。
AftertheelectionofMarioMenocal，theConservativecandidate，tothepresidencyin1912，anotheroccasionforinterventionpresenteditself。Anamnestybill，originallydraftedforthepurposeoffreeingthecoloredinsurgentsandotheroffenders，wasamendedsoastoempowertheretiringPresidenttograntpardonbeforetrialtopersonswhomhissuccessorwishedtoprosecuteforwholesalecorruptioninfinancialtransactions。
Beforethebillpassed，however，noticewassentfromWashingtonthat，sincetheAmericanGovernmenthadtheauthoritytosupervisethefinancesoftherepublic，Gomezwouldbettervetothebill，andthisheaccordinglydid。
AsharpstrugglearosewhenitbecameknownthatMenocalwouldbeacandidateforreelection。TheLiberalmajorityintheCongresspassedabillrequiringthataPresidentwhosoughttosucceedhimselfshouldresigntwomonthsbeforetheelections。WhenMenocalvetoedthismeasure，hisopponentsdemandedthattheUnitedStatessupervisetheelections。Astheresultoftheelectionswasdoubtful，Gomezandhisfollowersresortedin1917
totheusualinsurrection;whereupontheAmericanGovernmentwarnedtherebelsthatitwouldnotrecognizetheirclaimsiftheywonbyforce。Activeaidfromthatquarter，aswellasthecaptureoftheinsurgentleader，causedthemovementtocollapseaftertheelectoralcollegehaddecidedinfavorofMenocal。
IntheDominicanRepublicdisturbanceswerefrequent，notwithstandingthefactthatAmericanofficialswereinchargeofthecustomhousesandbytheirpresencewereexpectedtoexertaquietinginfluence。Eventheadoption，in1908，ofanewconstitutionwhichprovidedfortheprolongationofthepresidentialtermtosixyearsandfortheabolitionoftheofficeofVicePresident——twostabilizingdevicesquitecommoninHispaniccountrieswherepersonalambitionispronetobeasourceofpoliticaltrouble——didnothelpmuchtorestoreorder。
TheassassinationofthePresidentandthepersistenceofage—longquarrelswithHaitioverboundariesmademattersworse。
Thereupon，in1913，theUnitedStatesservedformalnoticeontherebelliouspartiesthatitwouldnotonlyrefusetorecognizeanyGovernmentsetupbyforcebutwouldwithholdanyshareinthereceiptsfromthecustoms。AsthisproceduredidnotpreventarevolutionaryleaderfromdemandinghalfamilliondollarsasafinancialsedativeforhispoliticalnervesandfromcreatingmoretroublewhenthePresidentfailedtodispenseit，theheavyhandofanAmericannavalforceadministeredanotherkindofspecific，untilcommissionersfromPortoRicocouldarrivetosuperintendtheselectionofanewchiefmagistrate。
NotwithstandingtheprotestoftheDominicanGovernment，the\"fairestandfreest\"electionseverknowninthecountrywereheldunderthedirectionofthoseofficials——asa\"bodyoffriendlyobservers\"！
Howeveramicablethisarrangementseemed，itdidnotsmothertheflamesofdiscord。In1916，whenanAmericannavalcommandersuggestedthatarebelliousMinisterofWarleavethecapital，heagreedtodosoifthe\"fairestandfreest\"ofchosenPresidentswouldresign。Evenafterbothofthemhadcompliedwiththesuggestions，theindividualswhoassumedtheirrespectiveofficesweresoonatloggerheads。AccordinglytheUnitedStatesplacedtherepublicundermilitaryrule，untilaPresidentcouldbeelectedwhomightbeabletoretainhispostwithouttoomuch\"friendlyobservation\"fromWashington，andaMinisterofWarcouldbeappointedwhowouldrefrainfrommakingwaronthePresident！Thentheorganizationofanewpartytocombatthepreviousinordinatedisplayofpersonalitiesinpoliticscreatedsomehopethattherepublicwouldaccomplishitsownredemption。
OnlybecauseofitsrelationtothewarsofemancipationandtotheDominicanRepublic，needthenegrostateofHaiti，occupyingthewesternpartoftheCaribbeanisland，bementionedinconnectionwiththestoryoftheHispanicnations。SufficeittosaythatthefactthattheircolorwasdifferentandthattheyspokeavariantofFrenchinsteadofSpanishdidnotpreventtheinhabitantsofthisstatefromofferingafarworsespectacleofpoliticalandfinancialdemoralizationthandidtheirneighborstotheeastward。PerpetualcommotionsandrepeatedinterventionsbyAmericanandEuropeannavalforcesonbehalfoftheforeignresidents，eventuallymadeitimperativefortheUnitedStatestotakedirectchargeoftherepublic。In1916，byaconventionwhichplacedthefinancesunderAmericancontrol，createdanativeconstabularyunderAmericanofficers，andimposedanumberofotherrestraints，theUnitedStatesconvertedHaitiintowhatispracticallyaprotectorate。
CHAPTERXII。PAN—AMERICANISMANDTHEGREATWAR
WhiletheHispanicrepublicswereenteringuponthesecondcenturyoftheirindependentlife，theideaofacertaincommunityofinterestsbetweenthemselvesandtheUnitedStatesbegantoassumeafairlydefiniteform。ThoughemphasizedbyAmericanstatesmenandpublicistsinparticular，thenewpointofviewwasnotgenerallyunderstoodorappreciatedbythepeopleofeitherthiscountryoritsfellownationstothesouthward。Itseemed，nevertheless，topromiseaneffectivecooperationinspiritandactionbetweenthemandcamethereforetobecalled\"Pan—Americanism。\"
Thissentimentofinter—Americansolidaritysprangfromseveralsources。TheperiodicalconferencesoftheUnitedStatesanditssisterrepublicsgaveoccasionforaninterchangeofofficialcourtesiesandexpressionsofgoodfeeling。Doubtless，also，thepresenceofdelegatesfromtheHispaniccountriesattheinternationalgatheringsatTheHagueservedtoacquainttheworldatlargewiththestability，strength，wealth，andcultureoftheirrespectivelands。IndividualAmericanstookanactiveinterestintheirfellowsofHispanicstockandfoundtheirinterestreciprocated。Motivesofbusinessorpleasureandadesiretoobtainpersonalknowledgeaboutoneanotherledtovisitsandcountervisitsthatbecamesteadilymorefrequent。
Societieswerecreatedtoencouragethefriendshipandacquaintancethusformed。ScientificcongresseswereheldandinstituteswerefoundedinwhichboththeUnitedStatesandHispanicAmericawererepresented。Books，articles，andnewspaperaccountsaboutoneanother’scountrieswerepublishedinincreasingvolume。Educationalinstitutionsdevotedaconstantlygrowingattentiontointer—Americanaffairs。IndividualsandcommissionsweredispatchedbytheHispanicnationsandtheUnitedStatestostudyoneanother’sconditionsandtoconferaboutmattersofmutualconcern。SecretariesofState，MinistersofForeignAffairs，andotherdistinguishedpersonagesinterchangedvisits。Aboveall，thecommondangersandresponsibilitiesfallingupontheAmericasatlargeasaconsequenceoftheEuropeanwarseemedlikelytobringtheseveralnationsintoaharmonyoffeelingandrelationshiptowhichtheyhadneverbeforeattained。
Pan—Americanism，however，wasdestinedtoremainlargelyagenerousideal。TheactionoftheUnitedStatesinextendingitsdirectinfluenceoverthesmallrepublicsinandaroundtheCaribbeanarousedthesuspicionandalarmofHispanicAmericans，whostillfearedimperialisticdesignsonthepartofthatcountrynowmorethanevertheColossusoftheNorth。\"TheartoforatoryamongtheYankees，\"declaredaSouthAmericancritic，\"islavishwithafraternalidealism;butstrongwillsenforcetheirimperialisticambitions。\"ImpassionedspeakersandwritersadjuredtheghostofHispanicconfederationtoriseandconfrontthenewnorthernperil。TheyevenadvocatedanappealtoGreatBritain，Germany，orJapan，andtheyurgedclosereconomic，social，andintellectualrelationswiththecountriesofEurope。
ItwaswhiletheUnitedStateswasthuswideningthesphereofitsinfluenceintheCaribbeanthatthe\"ABC\"
powers——Argentina，Brazil，andChile——reachedanunderstandingwhichwasinasenseameasureofself—defense。Forsomeyearscordialrelationshadexistedamongthesethreenationswhichhadgrownsoremarkablyinstrengthandprestige。ItwasfeltthatbyunitedactiontheymightsetupintheNewWorldtheEuropeanprincipleofabalanceofpower，assumetheleadershipinHispanicAmerica，andserveinsomedegreeasacounterpoisetotheUnitedStates。NeverthelesstheyweredisposedtocooperatewiththeirnorthernneighborinthepeaceableadjustmentofconflictsinwhichotherHispaniccountrieswereconcerned，providedthatthemediationcarriedonbysucha\"concertofthewesternworld\"didnotincludeactualinterventionintheinternalaffairsofthecountriesinvolved。
Withthisattitudeofthepublicmind，itisnotstrangethattheHispanicrepublicsatlargeshouldhavebeeninclinedtolookwithscantfavoruponproposalsmadebytheUnitedStates，in1916，torenderthespiritofPan—Americanismmorepreciseinitsoperation。Theproposalsinsubstancewerethese：thatallthenationsofAmerica\"mutuallyagreetoguaranteetheterritorialintegrity\"ofoneanother;to\"maintainarepublicanformofgovernment\";toprohibitthe\"exportationofarmstoanybutthelegallyconstitutedgovernments\";andtoadoptlawsofneutralitywhichwouldmakeit\"impossibletofilibusteringexpeditionstothreatenorcarryonrevolutionsinneighboringrepublics。\"Theseproposalsappeartohavereceivednoformalapprovalbeyondwhatissignifiedbythediplomaticexpression\"inprinciple。\"
Consideringthedisparityinstrength，wealth，andprestigebetweenthenortherncountryanditssouthernfellows，suggestionsofthesortcouldbemadepracticableonlybylettingtheUnitedStatesdowhateveritmightthinkneedfultoaccomplishtheobjectswhichitsought。ObviouslytheHispanicnations，singlyorcollectively，wouldhardlyventuretotakeanysuchactionwithinthebordersoftheUnitedStatesitself，if，forexample，itfailedtomaintainwhat，intheiropinion，was\"arepublicanformofgovernment。\"AfullacceptanceoftheplanaccordinglywouldhaveamountedtoarecognitionofAmericanoverlordship，andthistheywerenaturallynotdisposedtoadmit。
ThecommonperilsanddutiesconfrontingtheAmericasasaresultoftheGreatWar，however，madeclosecooperationbetweentheHispanicrepublicsandtheUnitedStatesuptoacertainpointindispensable。TowardthattransatlanticstruggletheattitudeofallthenationsoftheNewWorldattheoutsetwassubstantiallythesame。Thoughstronglysympatheticonthewholewiththe\"Allies\"andnotablywithFrance，thesoutherncountriesneverthelessdeclaredtheirneutrality。Morethanthat，theytriedtoconvertneutralityintoaPan—Americanpolicy，insteadofregardingitasanofficialattitudetobeadoptedbytherepublicsseparately。Thuswhentheconflictoverseasbegantoinjuretherightsofneutrals，ArgentinaandothernationsurgedthatthecountriesoftheNewWorldjointlyagreetodeclarethatdirectmaritimecommercebetweenAmericanlandsshouldbeconsideredas\"inter—Americancoastwisetrade，\"andthatthemerchantshipsengagedinit，whatevertheflagunderwhichtheysailed，shouldbelookeduponasneutral。ThoughtheSouthAmericancountriesfailedtoenlistthesupportoftheirnorthernneighborinthisbolddeparturefrominternationalprecedent，theyfoundsomecompensationfortheirdisappointmentintheclosercommercialandfinancialrelationswhichtheyestablishedwiththeUnitedStates。
BecauseofthedependenceoftheHispanicnations，andespeciallythoseofthesoutherngroup，ontheintimacyoftheireconomictieswiththebelligerentsoverseas，theysufferedfromtheravagesofthestrugglemoreperhapsthanotherlandsoutsideofEurope。Negotiationsforprospectiveloansweredropped。
Industriesweresuspended，workonpublicimprovementswaschecked，andcommercebroughtalmosttoastandstill。Astherevenuesfelloffandreadymoneybecamescarce，drasticmeasureshadtobedevisedtomeetthefinancialstrain。Fortheprotectionofcredit，bankholidaysweredeclared，stockexchangeswereclosed，moratoriaweresetupinnearlyallthecountries，taxesanddutieswereincreased，radicalreductionsinexpenditurewereundertaken，andinafewcaseslargequantitiesofpapermoneywereissued。
WiththeEuropeanmarketthuswhollyorpartiallycutoff，theHispanicrepublicswereforcedtosupplytheconsequentshortagewithmanufacturedarticlesandothergoodsfromtheUnitedStatesandtosendthithertheirrawmaterialsinexchange。Totheirnorthernneighbortheyhadtoturnalsoforpecuniaryaid。A
Pan—AmericanfinancialconferencewasheldatWashingtonin1915，andaninternationalhighcommissionwasappointedtocarryitsrecommendationsintoeffect。GraduallymostoftheHispaniccountriescametoshowafavorabletradebalance。Then，asthewardrewintoitsfourthyear，severalofthemevenbegantoenjoygreatprosperity。ThatPan—Americanismhadnotmeantmuchmorethancooperationforeconomicendsseemedevidentwhen，onApril6，1917，theUnitedStatesdeclaredwaronGermany。Insteadoffollowingspontaneouslyinthewakeoftheirgreatnorthernneighbor，theHispanicrepublicsweredividedbyconflictingcurrentsofopinionandhesitatedastotheirpropercourseofprocedure。WhileamajorityofthemexpressedapprovalofwhattheUnitedStateshaddone，andwhileUruguayforitspartassertedthat\"noAmericancountry，whichindefenseofitsownrightsshouldfinditselfinastateofwarwithnationsofothercontinents，wouldbetreatedasabelligerent，\"MexicoveeredalmosttotheotherextremebyproposingthattherepublicsofAmericaagreetolayanembargoontheshipmentofmunitionstothewarringpowers。
Asamatteroffact，onlysevenoutofthenineteenHispanicnationssawfittoimitatetheexamplesetbytheirnorthernneighborandtodeclarewaronGermany。ThesewereCuba——inviewofits\"dutytowardtheUnitedStates，\"Panama，Guatemala，Brazil，Honduras，Nicaragua，andCostaRica。SincetheDominicanRepublicatthetimewasunderAmericanmilitarycontrol，itwasnotinapositiontochooseitscourse。FourcountriesEcuador，Peru，Bolivia，andUruguay——brokeoffdiplomaticrelationswithGermany。Theothersevenrepublics——Mexico，Salvador，Colombia，Venezuela，Chile，Argentina，andParaguay——continuedtheirformalneutrality。InspiteofadisclosuremadebytheUnitedStatesofinsultingandthreateningutterancesonthepartoftheGermancharged’affairesinArgentina，whichledtopopularoutbreaksatthecapitalandinducedthenationalCongresstodeclareinfavorofaseveranceofdiplomaticrelationswiththatfunctionary’sGovernment，thePresidentoftherepublicstoodfirminhisresolutiontomaintainneutrality。IfPan—AmericanismhadeverinvolvedtheideaofpoliticalcooperationamongthenationsoftheNewWorld，itbrokedownjustwhenitmighthaveservedthegreatestofpurposes。Eventhe\"ABC\"combinationitselfhadapparentlybeenshattered。
AcenturyandmorehadnowpassedsincetheSpanishandPortuguesepeoplesoftheNewWorldhadachievedtheirindependence。Eighteenpoliticalchildrenofvarioussizesandstagesofadvancement，orbackwardness，werebornofSpaininAmerica，andoneacknowledgedthematernityofPortugal。BigBrazilhasalwaysmaintainedthehappiestrelationswiththelittlemotherinEurope，whostillwatcheswithpridethegrowthofherstrappingyoungster。BetweenSpainandherdescendants，however，animosityenduredformanyyearsaftertheyhadthrownofftheparentalyoke。Yetoflate，muchhasbeendoneonbothsidestorendertherelationshipcordial。ThegracefulactofSpaininsendingthemuch—belovedInfantaIsabeltorepresentherinArgentinaandChileatthecelebrationofthecentennialanniversaryoftheircryforindependence，andtowishthemGodspeedontheironwardjourney，wastypicaloftheyearningofthemothercountryforherchildrenoverseas，despitethelapseofyearsandpoliticalties。So，too，herablestmenofintellecthavestrivennoblyandwithmarkedsuccesstoreviveamongthemasenseoffilialaffectionandgratitudeforallthatSpaincontributedtomoldthemindandheartofherkindredindistantlands。Ontheirpart，theHispanicAmericanshavecometoaclearerconsciousnessofthefactthatonthecontinentsoftheNewWorldtherearetwodistincttypesofcivilization，withallthateachconnotesofdifferencesinrace，psychology，tradition，language，andcustom——theirown，andthatrepresentedbytheUnitedStates。Appreciativethoughthesoutherncountriesareoftheirnorthernneighbor，theyclingneverthelesstotheirheritagefromSpainandPortugalinwhateverseemsconducivetothemaintenanceoftheirownidealsoflifeandthought。
BIBLIOGRAPHICALNOTE
ForanythinglikeadetailedstudyofthehistoryoftheHispanicnationsofAmerica，obviouslyonemustconsultworkswritteninSpanishandPortuguese。Therearemanyimportantbooks，also，inFrenchandGerman;but，withfewexceptions，therecommendationsforthegeneralreaderwillbelimitedtoaccountsinEnglish。
AveryusefuloutlineandguidetorecentliteratureonthesubjectisW。W。Pierson，Jr。，\"ASyllabusofLatin—AmericanHistory\"（ChapelHill，NorthCarolina，1917）。AbriefintroductiontothehistoryandpresentaspectsofHispanicAmericancivilizationisW。R。Shepherd，\"LatinAmerica\"（NewYork，1914）。ThebestgeneralaccountsoftheSpanishandPortuguesecolonialsystemswillbefoundinCharlesdeLannoyandHermanvanderLinden，\"HistoiredeL’ExpansionColonialedesPeuplesEuropeens：PortugaletEspagne\"（BrusselsandParis，1907），andKurtSimon，\"SpanienandPortugalalsSeeandKolonialmdchte\"（Hamburg，1913）。FortheSpanishcolonialregimealone，E。G。Bourne，\"SpaininAmerica\"（NewYork，1904）isexcellent。ThesituationinsouthernSouthAmericatowardthecloseofSpanishruleiswelldescribedinBernardMoses，\"SouthAmericaontheEveofEmancipation\"（NewYork，1908）。Amongcontemporaryaccountsofthatperiod，AlexandervonHumboldtandAimeBonpland，\"PersonalNarrativeofTravelstotheEquinoctialRegionsofAmerica\"，3vols。（London，1881）;AlexandervonHumboldt，\"PoliticalEssayontheKingdomofNewSpain\"，4vols。
（London，1811—1822）;andF。R。J。dePons，\"TravelsinSouthAmerica\"，2vols。（London，1807），areauthoritative，evenifnotalwayseasytoread。
Onthewarsofindependence，seethescholarlytreatisebyW。S。
Robertson，\"RiseoftheSpanish—AmericanRepublicsasToldintheLivesoftheirLiberators\"（NewYork，1918）;BartolomeMitre，\"TheEmancipationofSouthAmerica\"（London，1893）——acondensedtranslationoftheauthor’s\"HistoriadeSanMartin\"，andwhollyfavorabletothatpatriot;andF。L。Petre，\"SimonBolivar\"
（London，1910）——impartialattheexpenseoftheimagination。
Amongthenumerouscontemporaryaccounts，thefollowingwillbefoundserviceable：W。D。Robinson，\"MemoirsoftheMexicanRevolution\"（Philadelphia，1890）;J。R。Poinsett，\"NotesonMexico\"（London，1825）;H。M。Brackenridge，\"VoyagetoSouthAmerica，2vols。（London，1820）;W。B。Stevenson，\"HistoricalandDescriptiveNarrativeofTwentyYears’ResidenceinSouthAmerica\"，3vols。（London，1895）;J。Miller，\"MemoirsofGeneralMillerintheServiceoftheRepublicofPeru\"，2vols。（London，1828）;H。L。V。DucoudrayHolstein，\"MemoirsofSimonBolivar\"，2
vols。（London，1830），andJohnArmitage，\"HistoryofBrazil\"，2
vols。（London，1836）。
Thebestbooksonthehistoryoftherepublicsasawholesincetheattainmentofindependence，andwrittenfromanHispanicAmericanviewpoint，areF。GarciaCalderon，\"LatinAmerica，itsRiseandProgress\"（NewYork，1913），andM。deOliveiraLima，\"TheEvolutionofBrazilComparedwiththatofSpanishandAnglo—SaxonAmerica\"（StanfordUniversity，California，1914）。ThecountriesofCentralAmericaaredealtwithbyW。H。Koebel，\"CentralAmerica\"（NewYork，1917），andofSouthAmericabyT。C。
Dawson，\"TheSouthAmericanRepublics\"，2vols。（NewYork，1903—1904），andC。E。Akers，\"HistoryofSouthAmerica\"（London，1912），thoughinamannerthatoftenconfusesratherthanenlightens。
Amongthehistoriesanddescriptionsofindividualcountries，arrangedinalphabeticalorder，thefollowingareprobablythemostusefultothegeneralreader：W。A。Hirst，\"Argentina\"（NewYork，1910）;PaulWalle，\"Bolivia\"（NewYork，1914）;PierreDenis，\"Brazil\"（NewYork，1911）;G。F。S。Elliot，\"Chile\"（NewYork，1907）;P。J。Eder，\"Colombia\"（NewYork，1913）;J。B。
Calvo，\"TheRepublicofCostaRica\"（Chicago，1890）;A。G。
Robinson，\"Cuba，OldandNew\"（NewYork，1915）;OttoSchoenrich，\"SantoDomingo\"（NewYork，1918）;C。R。Enock，\"Ecuador\"（NewYork，1914）;C。R。Enock，\"Mexico\"（NewYork，1909）;W。H。
Koebel，\"Paraguay\"（NewYork，1917）;C。R。Enock，\"Peru\"（NewYork，1910）;W。H。Koebel，\"Uruguay\"（NewYork，1911），andL。V。
Dalton，\"Venezuela\"（NewYork，1912）。Ofthese，thebooksbyRobinsonandEder，onCubaandColombia，respectively，arethemostreadableandreliable。
Foradditionalbibliographicalreferencessee\"SouthAmerica\"andthearticlesonindividualcountriesin\"TheEncyclopaediaBritannica\"，11thedition，andinMarrionWilcoxandG。E。Rines，\"EncyclopediaofLatinAmerica\"（NewYork，1917）。
OfcontemporaryorlaterworksdescriptiveofthelifeandtimesofeminentcharactersinthehistoryoftheHispanicAmericanrepublicssince1830，afewmaybetakenasrepresentative。
Rosas：J。A。King，\"Twenty—fourYearsintheArgentineRepublic\"
（London，1846），andWoodbineParish，\"BuenosAyresandtheProvincesoftheRiodelaPlata\"（London，1850）。Francia：J。R。
Rengger，\"ReignofDr。JosephGaspardRoderick[！]deFranciainParaguay\"（London，1827）;J。P。andW。P。Robertson，\"LettersonSouthAmerica\"，3vols。（London，1843），andE。L。White，\"ElSupremo\"，anovel（NewYork，1916）。SantaAnna：WaddyThompson，\"RecollectionsofMexico\"（NewYork，1846），andF。E。Ingles，CalderondelaBarca，\"LifeinMexico\"（London，1859。）。Juarez：
U。R。Burke，\"LifeofBenitoJuarez\"（London，1894）。SolanoLopez：T。J。Hutchinson，\"Parana;withIncidentsoftheParaguayanWarandSouthAmericanRecollections\"（London，1868）;
GeorgeThompson，\"TheWarinParaguay\"（London，1869）;R。F。
Burton，\"LettersfromtheBattle—fieldsofParaguay\"（London，1870），andC。A。Washburn，\"TheHistoryofParaguay\"，2vols。
（Boston，1871）。PedroII：J。C。FletcherandD。P。Kidder，\"BrazilandtheBrazilians\"（Boston，1879），andFrankBennett，\"FortyYearsinBrazil\"（London，1914）。GarciaMoreno：FrederickHassaurek，\"FourYearsamongSpanishAmericans\"（NewYork，1867）。
GuzmanBlanco：C。D。Dance，\"RecollectionsofFourYearsinVenezuela\"（London，1876）。Diaz：JamesCreelman，\"Diaz，MasterofMexico\"（NewYork，1911）。Balmaceda：M。H。Hervey，\"DarkDaysinChile\"（London，1891—1890。Carranza：L。GutierrezdeLaraandEdgcumbPinchon，\"TheMexicanPeople：theirStruggleforFreedom\"
（NewYork，1914）。