Butthepostulatethatmenarerationalbeings，continuallyleadsonetodrawinferenceswhichprovetobeextremelywideofthemark。（25*）
\"Yestruly;yourprincipleisderivedfromthelivesofbrutes，andisabrutalprinciple。Youwillnotpersuademethatmenaretobeunderthedisciplinewhichanimalsareunder。I
carenothingforyournatural—historyarguments。Myconscienceshowsmethatthefeebleandthesufferingmustbehelped;andifselfishpeoplewon’thelpthem，theymustbeforcedbylawtohelpthem。Don’ttellmethatthemilkofhumankindnessistobereservedfortherelationsbetweenindividuals，andthatGovernmentsmustbetheadministratorsofnothingbuthardjustice。Everymanwithsympathyinhimmustfeelthathungerandpainandsqualormustbeprevented;andthatifprivateagenciesdonotsuffice，thenpublicagenciesmustbeestablished。\"
SuchisthekindofresponsewhichIexpecttobemadebynineoutoften。Insomeofthemitwilldoubtlessresultfromafellow—feelingsoacutethattheycannotcontemplatehumanmiserywithoutanimpatiencewhichexcludesallthoughtsofremoteresults。Concerningthesusceptibilitiesoftherest，wemay，however，besomewhatsceptical。Personswho，nowinthiscaseandnowinthat，areangryif，tomaintainoursupposednational\"interests\"ornational\"prestige，\"thoseinauthoritydonotpromptlysendoutsomethousandsofmentobepartiallydestroyedwhiledestroyingotherthousandsofmenwhoseintentionswesuspect，orwhoseinstitutionswethinkdangeroustous，orwhoseterritoryourcolonistswant，cannotafterallbesotenderinfeelingthatcontemplatingthehardshipsofthepoorisintolerabletothem。Littleadmirationneedbefeltfortheprofessedsympathiesofpeoplewhourgeonapolicywhichbreaksupprogressingsocieties;andwhothenlookonwithCynicalindifferenceatthewelteringconfusionleftbehind，withallitsentailedsufferinganddeath。Thosewho，whenBoersassertingtheirindependencesuccessfullyresistedus，wereangrybecauseBritish\"honour\"wasnotmaintainedbyfightingtoavengeadefeat，atthecostofmoremortalityandmiserytoourownsoldiersandtheirantagonists，cannothavesomuch\"enthusiasmofhumanity\"asprotestslikethatindicatedabovewouldleadonetoexpect。Indeed，alongwiththissensitivenesswhichtheyprofesswillnotletthemlookwithpatienceonthepainsof\"thebattleoflife\"asitquietlygoesonaround，theyappeartohaveacallousnesswhichnotonlytoleratesbutenjoyscontemplatingthepainsofbattlesoftheliteralkind;asoneseesinthedemandforfrustratedpaperscontainingscenesofcarnage，andinthegreedinesswithwhichdetailedaccountsofbloodyengagementsareread。Wemayreasonablyhaveourdoubtsaboutmenwhosefeelingsaresuchthattheycannotbearthethoughtofhardshipsborne，mostlybytheidleandtheimprovident，andwho，nevertheless，havedemandedthirty—oneeditionsofTheFifteenDecisiveBattlesoftheWorld，inwhichtheymayrevelinaccountsofslaughter。Nay，evenstillmoreremarkableisthecontrastbetweentheprofessedtender—heartednessandtheactualhard—heartednessofthosewhowouldreversethenormalcourseofthingsthatmediatemiseriesmaybeprevented，evenatthecostofgreatermiserieshereafterproduced。Foronotheroccasionsyoumayhearthem，withutterdisregardofbloodshedanddeath，contendthatintheinterestsofhumanityatlargeitiswellthattheinferiorracesshouldbeexterminatedandtheirplacesoccupiedbythesuperiorraces。Sothat，marvelloustorelate，thoughtheycannotthinkwithcalmnessoftheevilsaccompanyingthestruggleforexistenceasitiscarriedonwithoutviolenceamongindividualsintheirownsociety，theycontemplatewithcontentedequanimitysuchevilsintheirintenseandwholesaleforms，wheninflictedbyfireandswordonentirecommunities。
Notworthyofmuchrespectthen，asitseemstome，isthisgenerousconsiderationoftheinferiorathomewhichisaccompaniedbyunscrupuloussacrificeoftheinferiorabroad。
Stilllessrespectableappearsthisextremeconcernforthoseofourownbloodwhichgoesalongwithutterunconcernforthoseofotherblood，whenweobserveitsmethods。Diditpromptpersonalefforttorelievethesuffering，itwouldrightlyreceiveapprovingrecognition。Werethemanywhoexpressthischeappitylikethefewwhopatiently，weekafterweekandyearafteryear，devotelargepartsoftheirtimetohelpingandencouraging，andoccasionallyamusing，thosewho，insomecasesbyill—fortuneandinothercasesbyincapacityormisconduct，arebroughttolivesofhardship，theywouldbeworthyofunqualifiedadmiration。Themorethereareofmenandwomenwhohelpthepoortohelpthemselves——themorethereareofthosewhosesympathyisexhibiteddirectlyandnotbyproxy，themorewemayrejoice。Butthemensemajorityofthepersonswhowishtomitigatebylawthemiseriesoftheunsuccessfulandthereckless，proposetodothisinsmallmeasureattheirowncostandmainlyatthecostofothers——sometimeswiththeirassentbutmostlywithout。Morethanthisistrue;forthosewhoaretobeforcedtodosomuchforthedistressed，oftenequallyormorerequiresomethingdoingforthem。Thedeservingpoorareamongthosewhoareburdenedtopaythecostsofcaringfortheundeservingpoor。As，undertheoldPoorLaw，thediligentandprovidentlabourerhadtopaythatthegood—for—nothingsmightnotsuffer，untilfrequentlyunderthisextraburdenhebrokedownandhimselftookrefugeintheworkhouse——as，atpresent，itisadmittedthatthetotalratesleviedinlargetownsforallpublicpurposes，havenowreachedsuchaheightthatthey\"cannotbeexceededwithoutinflictinggreathardshiponthesmallshopkeepersandartisans，whoalreadyfinditdifficultenoughtokeepthemselvesfreefromthepaupertaint;\"（26*）soinallcases，thepolicyisonewhichintensifiesthepainsofthosemostdeservingofpity，thatthepainsofthoseleastdeservingofpitymaybemitigated。Inshort，menwhoaresosympatheticthattheycannotallowthestruggleforexistencetobringontheunworthythesufferingsconsequentontheirincapacityormisconduct，aresounsympatheticthattheycan，withouthesitation，makethestruggleforexistenceharderfortheworthy，andinflictonthemandtheirchildrenartificialevilsinadditiontothenaturalevilstheyhavetobear！
Andherewearebroughtroundtoouroriginaltopic——thesinsoflegislators。Heretherecomesclearlybeforeusthecommonestofthetransgressionswhichrulerscommit——atransgressionsocommon，andsosanctifiedbycustom，thatnooneimaginesittobeatransgression。Hereweseethat，asindicatedattheoutset，Government，begottenofaggressionandbyaggression，evercontinuestobetrayitsoriginalnaturebyitsaggressiveness;
andthatevenwhatonitsnearerfaceseemsbeneficenceonly，shows，onitsremoterface，notalittlemaleficence——kindnessatthecostofcruelty。Forisitnotcrueltoincreasethesufferingsofthebetterthatthesufferingsoftheworsemaybedecreased？
Itis，indeed，marvelloushowreadilyweletourselvesbedeceivedbywordsandphraseswhichsuggestoneaspectofthefactswhileleavingtheoppositeaspectunsuggested。Agoodfrustrationofthis，andonegermanetothemediatequestion，isseenintheuseofthewords\"protection\"and\"protectionist\"bytheantagonistsoffreetrade，andinthetacitadmissionofitsproprietybyfree—traders。Whiletheonepartyhashabituallyignored，theotherpartyhashabituallyfailedtoemphasize，thetruththatthisso—calledprotectionalwaysinvolvesaggression;
andthatthenameaggressionistoughttobesubstitutedforthenameprotectionist。Fornothingcanbemorecertainthanthatif，tomaintainA’sprofit，BisforbiddentobuyofC，orisfinedtotheextentofthedutyifhebuysofC，BisaggresseduponthatAmaybe\"protected。\"Nay，\"aggressionists\"isatitledoublymoreapplicabletotheanti—free—tradersthanistheeuphemistictitle\"protectionists;\"since，thatoneproducermaygain，tenconsumersarefleeced。
Nowjustthelikeconfusionofideas，causedbylookingatonefaceonlyofthetransaction，maybetracedthroughoutallthelegislationwhichforciblytakesthepropertyofthismanforthepurposeofgivinggratisbenefitstothatman。Habituallywhenoneofthenumerousmeasuresthuscharacterizedisdiscussed，thedominantthoughtisconcerningthepitiableJoneswhoistobeprotectedagainstsomeevil;whilenothoughtisgiventothehard—workingBrownwhoisaggressedupon，oftenmuchmoretobepitied。Moneyisexacted（eitherdirectlyorthroughraisedrent）fromthehucksterwhoonlybyextremepinchingcanpayherway，fromthemasonthrownoutofworkbyastrike，fromthemechanicwhosesavingsaremeltingawayduringanillness，fromthewidowwhowashesorsewsfromdawntodarktofeedherfatherlesslittleones;andallthatthedissolutemaybesavedfromhunger，thatthechildrenoflessimpoverishedneighboursmayhavecheaplessons，andthatvariouspeople，mostlybetteroff，mayreadnewspapersandnovelsfornothing！Theerrorofnomenclatureis，inonerespect，moremisleadingthanthatwhichallowsaggressioniststobecalledprotectionists;for，asjustshown，protectionoftheviciouspoorinvolvesaggressiononthevirtuouspoor。Doubtlessitistruethatthegreaterpartofthemoneyexactedcomesfromthosewhoarerelativelywell—off。Butthisisnoconsolationtotheill—offfromwhomtherestisexacted。Nay，ifthecomparisonbemadebetweenthepressuresbornebythetwoclassesrespectively，itbecomesmanifestthatthecaseisevenworsethanatfirstappears;forwhiletothewell—offtheexactionmeanslossofluxuries，totheill—offitmeanslossofnecessaries。
AndnowseetheNemesiswhichisthreateningtofollowthischronicsinoflegislators。Theyandtheirclass，incommonwithallownersofproperty，areindangerofsufferingfromasweepingapplicationofthatgeneralprinciplepracticallyassertedbyeachoftheseconfiscatingActsofParliament。ForwhatisthetacitassumptiononwhichsuchActsproceed？Itistheassumptionthatnomanhasanyclaimtohisproperty，noteventothatwhichhehasearnedbythesweatofhisbrow，savebypermissionofthecommunity;andthatthecommunitymaycanceltheclaimtoanyextentitthinksfit。NodefencecanbemadeforthisappropriationofA’spossessionsforthebenefitofB，saveonewhichsetsoutwiththepostulatethatsocietyasawholehasanabsoluterightoverthepossessionsofeachmember。Andnowthisdoctrine，whichhasbeentacitlyassumed，isbeingopenlyproclaimed。MrGeorgeandhisfriends，MrHyndmanandhissupporters，arepushingthetheorytoitslogicalissue。Theyhavebeeninstructedbyexamples，yearlyincreasinginnumber，thattheindividualhasnorightsbutwhatthecommunitymayequitablyoverride;andtheyarenowsaying——\"Itshallgohardbutwewillbettertheinstruction，\"andover—rideindividualrightsaltogether。
Legislativemisdeedsoftheclassesaboveindicatedareinlargemeasureexplained，andreprobationofthemmitigated，whenwelookatthematterfromafaroff。Theyhavetheirrootintheerrorthatsocietyisamanufacture;whereasitisagrowth。
Neitherthecultureofpasttimesnorthecultureofthepresenttime，hasgiventoanyconsiderablenumberofpeopleascientificconceptionofasociety——aconceptionofitashavinganaturalstructureinwhichallitsinstitutions，governmental，religious，industrial，commercial，etc。，etc。，areinterdependentlybound——
astructurewhichisinasenseorganic。Orifsuchaconceptionisnominallyentertained，itisnotentertainedinsuchwayastobeoperativeonconduct。Contrariwise，incorporatedhumanityisverycommonlythoughtofasthoughitwerelikesomuchdoughwhichthecookcanmouldasshepleasesintopie—crust，orpuff，ortartlet。Thecommunistshowsusunmistakablythathethinksofthebodypoliticasadmittingofbeingshapedthusorthusatwill;andthetacitimplicationofmanyActsofParliamentisthataggregatedmen，twistedintothisorthatarrangement，willremainasintended。
Itmayindeedbesaidthatevenirrespectiveofthiserroneousconceptionofasocietyasaplasticmassinsteadofasanorganizedbody，factsforcedonhisattentionhourbyhourshouldmakeeveryonescepticalastothesuccessofthisorthatproposedwayofchangingapeople’sactions。Aliketothecitizenandtothelegislator，homeexperiencesdailysupplyproofsthattheconductofhumanbeingsbaulkscalculation。Hehasgivenupthethoughtofmanaginghiswifeandletshermanagehim。
Childrenonwhomhehastriednowreprimand，nowpunishment，nowsuasion，nowreward，donotrespondsatisfactorilytoanymethod;
andnoexpostulationpreventstheirmotherfromtreatingtheminwayshethinksmischievous。So，too，hisdealingswithhisservants，whetherbyreasoningorbyscolding，rarelysucceedforlong：thefallingshortofattention，orpunctuality，orcleanliness，orsobriety，leadstoconstantchanges。Yet，difficultashefindsittodealwithhumanityindetail，heisconfidentofhisabilitytodealwithembodiedhumanity。
Citizens，notone—thousandthofwhomheknows，notone—hundredthofwhomheeversaw，andthegreatmassofwhombelongtoclasseshavinghabitsandmodesofthoughtofwhichhehasbutdimnotions，hefeelssurewillactincertainwaysheforesees，andfulfilendshewishes。Istherenotamarvellousincongruitybetweenpremisesandconclusion？
Onemighthaveexpectedthatwhethertheyobservedtheimplicationsofthesedomesticfailures，orwhethertheycontemplatedineverynewspapertheindicationsofasociallifetoovast，toovaried，tooinvolved，tobeevenvaguelypicturedinthought，menwouldhaveenteredonthebusinessoflaw—makingwiththegreatesthesitation。Yetinthismorethaninanythingelsedotheyshowaconfidentreadiness。Nowhereistheresoastoundingacontrastbetweenthedifficultyofthetaskandtheunpreparednessofthosewhoundertakeit。Unquestionablyamongmonstrousbeliefsoneofthemostmonstrousisthatwhileforasimplehandicraft，suchasshoe—making，alongapprenticeshipisneedful，thesolethingwhichneedsnoapprenticeshipismakinganation’slaws！
Summinguptheresultsofthediscussion，maywenotreasonablysaythatthereliebeforethelegislatorseveralopensecrets，whichyetaresoopenthattheyoughtnottoremainsecretstoonewhoundertakesthevastandterribleresponsibilityofdealingwithmillionsuponmillionsofhumanbeingsbymeasureswhich，iftheydonotconducetotheirhappiness，willincreasetheirmiseriesandacceleratetheirdeaths？
Thereisfirstofalltheundeniabletruth，conspicuousandyetabsolutelyignored，thattherearenophenomenawhichasocietypresentsbutwhathavetheiroriginsinthephenomenaofindividualhumanlife，whichagainhavetheirrootsinvitalphenomenaatlarge。Andthereistheinevitableimplicationthatunlessthesevitalphenomena，bodilyandmental，arechaoticintheirrelations（asuppositionexcludedbytheverymaintenanceoflife）theresultingphenomenacannotbewhollychaotic：theremustbesomekindoforderinthephenomenawhichgrowoutofthemwhenassociatedhumanbeingshavetoco—operate。Evidently，then，whenonewhohasnotstudiedsuchresultingphenomenaofsocialorder，undertakestoregulatesociety，heisprettycertaintoworkmischiefs。
Inthesecondplace，apartfromapriorireasoning，thisconclusionshouldbeforcedonthelegislatorbycomparisonsofsocieties。Itoughttobesufficientlymanifestthatbeforemeddlingwiththedetailsofsocialorganization，inquiryshouldbemadewhethersocialorganizationhasanaturalhistory;andthattoanswerthisinquiry，itwouldbewell，settingoutwiththesimplestsocieties，toseeinwhatrespectssocialstructuresagree。Suchcomparativesociology，pursuedtoaverysmallextent，showsasubstantialuniformityofgenesis。Thehabitualexistenceofchieftainship，andtheestablishmentofchieflyauthoritybywar;theriseeverywhereofthemedicinemanandpriest;thepresenceofaculthavinginallplacesthesamefundamentaltraits;thetracesofdivisionoflabour，earlydisplayed，whichgraduallybecomemoremarked;andthevariouscomplications，political，ecclesiastical，industrial，whichariseasgroupsarecompoundedandrecompoundedbywar;quicklyprovetoanywhocomparesthemthat，apartfromalltheirspecialdifferences，societieshavegeneralresemblancesintheirmodesoforiginanddevelopment。Theypresenttraitsofstructureshowingthatsocialorganizationhaslawswhichover—rideindividualwills;andlawsthedisregardofwhichmustbefraughtwithdisaster。
Andthen，inthethirdplace，thereisthatmassofguidinginformationyieldedbytherecordsoflegislationinourowncountryandinothercountries，whichstillmoreobviouslydemandsattention。Hereandelsewhere，attemptsofmultitudinouskinds，madebykingsandstatesmen，havefailedtodothegoodintendedandhaveworkedunexpectedevils。Centuryaftercenturynewmeasuresliketheoldones，andothermeasuresakininprinciple，haveagaindisappointedhopesandagainbroughtdisaster。Andyetitisthoughtneitherbyelectorsnorbythosetheyelect，thatthereisanyneedforsystematicstudyofthatlaw—makingwhichinbygoneageswentonworkingtheill—beingofthepeoplewhenittriedtoachievetheirwell—being。Surelytherecanbenofitnessforlegislativefunctionswithoutthewideknowledgeofthoselegislativeexperienceswhichthepasthasbequeathed。
Reverting，then，totheanalogydrawnattheoutset，wemustsaythatthelegislatorismorallyblamelessormorallyblameworthy，accordingashehasorhasnotacquaintedhimselfwiththeseseveralclassesoffacts。Aphysicianwho，afteryearsofstudy，hasgainedacompetentknowledgeofphysiology，pathologyandtherapeutics，isnotheldcriminallyresponsibleifamandiesunderhistreatment：hehaspreparedhimselfaswellashecan，andhasactedtothebestofhisjudgment。Similarlythelegislatorwhosemeasuresproduceevilinsteadofgood，notwithstandingtheextensiveandmethodicinquirieswhichhelpedhimtodecide，cannotbeheldtohavecommittedmorethananerrorofreasoning。Contrariwise，thelegislatorwhoiswhollyoringreatpartuninformedconcerningthesemassesoffactswhichhemustexaminebeforehisopiniononaproposedlawcanbeofanyvalue，andwhoneverthelesshelpstopassthatlaw，cannomorebeabsolvedifmiseryandmortalityresult，thanthejourneymandruggistcanbeabsolvedwhendeathiscausedbythemedicineheignorantlyprescribes。
NOTES：
1。PoliticalInstitution，sections437，573。
2。Ibid。，sections471—3。
3。Lanfrey。SeealsoStudyofSociology，p。42，andAppendix。
4。ConstitutionalHistoryofEngland，ii。p。617。
5。Lecky，Rationalism，ii。293—4。
6。DeTocqueville，TheStateofSocietyinFrancebeforetheRevolution，p。421。
7。Young’sTravels，i。128—9。
8。Craik’sHistoryofBritishCommerce，i。134。
9。Ibid。，136—7。
10。Ibid。，137。
11。Mensch，iii，p。225。
12。TheNineteenthCentury，February，1883。
13。\"TheStatisticsofLegislation\"ByF。H。Jansen，Esq。，F。L。S。，Vice—PresidentoftheIncorporatedLawSociety。
14。FireSurveys;or，aSummaryofthePrinciplestobeobservedinEstimatingtheRiskofBuildings。
15。SeeTimes，October6，1874，whereotherinstancesaregiven。
16。TheStateinitsRelationtoTrade，bySirThomasFarrer，p。
147。
17。Ibid。，p。149。
18。Hansard，vol。clvi。，p。718，andvol。clvii。，p。4464。
19。LetterofanEdiburghM。D。inTimesof17thJanuary，1876，verifyingothertestimonies;oneofwhichIhadpreviouslycitedconcerningWindsor，where，asinEdinburgh，therewasabsolutelynotyphoidintheundrainedparts，whileitwasveryfatalinthedrainedparts。StudyinSociology，chap。i。，notes。
20。Isaythispartlyfrompersonalknowledge;havingnowbeforemememoranadamade25yearsago，concerningsuchresultsproducedundermyownobservation。VerifyingfactshaverecentlybeengivenbySirRichardCrossintheNineteenthCenturyforJanuary，1884，p。155。
21。Nicholl’sHistoryofEnglishPoorLaw，ii。p。252。
22。SeeTimes，March31，1863。
23。Intheseparagraphsarecontainedjustafewadditionalexamples。NumberswhichIhavebeforegiveninbooksandessays，willbefoundinSocialStatics（1851）：\"Over—Legislation\"
（1853）;\"RepresentativeGovernment\"（1857）;\"SpecializedAdministration\"（1871）;StudyofSociology（1873），andPostscripttoditto（1880）;besidescasesinsmalleressays。
24。OntheValueofPoliticalEconomytoMankind。byA。N。
Cummings;pp。47，48。
25。ThesayingofEmersonthatmostpeoplecanunderstandaprincipleonlywhenitslightfallsonafact，inducesmeheretociteafactwhichmaycarryhometheaboveprincipletothoseonwhom，initsabstractform，itwillproducenoeffect。Itrarelyhappensthattheamountofevilcausedbyfosteringtheviciousandgood—for—nothingcanbeestimated。ButinAmerica，atameetingoftheStatesCharitiesAidAssociation，heldonDecember18，1874，astartlinginstancewasgivenindetailbyDrHarris。
ItwasfurnishedbyacountyontheUpperHudson，remarkablefortheratioofcrimeandpovertytopopulation。Generationsagotherehadexistedacertain\"gutter—child，\"asshewouldbeherecalled，knownas\"Margaret，\"whoprovedtobetheprolificmotherofaprolificrace。Besidesgreatnumbersofidiots，imbeciles，drunkards，lunatics，paupers，andprostitutes，\"thecountyrecordsshowtwohundredofherdescendantswhohavebeencriminals。\"Wasitkindnessorcrueltywhich，generationaftergeneration，enabledthesetomultiplyandbecomeanincreasingcursetothesocietyaroundthem？（ForparticularsseetheJukes：
aStudyinCrime，Pauperism，DiseaseandHeredity，byR。L。
Dugdale，NewYork;Putnams。）
26。MrChamberlaininFortnightlyReview，December，1883，p。772。
THEGREATPOLITICALSUPERSTITION
Thegreatpoliticalsuperstitionofthepastwasthedivinerightofkings。Thegreatpoliticalsuperstitionofthepresentisthedivinerightofparliaments。Theoilofanointingseemsunawarestohavedrippedfromtheheadoftheoneontotheheadsofthemany，andgivensacrednesstothemalsoandtotheirdecrees。
Howeverirrationalwemaythinktheearlierofthesebeliefs，wemustadmitthatitwasmoreconsistentthanisthelatter。
Whetherwegobacktotimeswhenthekingwasagod，ortotimeswhenhewasadescendantofagod，ortotimeswhenhewasgod—appointed，weseegoodreasonforpassiveobediencetohiswill。When，asunderLouisXIV，theologianslikeBossuettaughtthatkings\"aregods，andshareinamannertheDivineindependence，\"orwhenitwasthought，asbyourownTorypartyinolddays，that\"themonarchwasthedelegateofheaven;\"itisclearthat，giventhepremise，theinevitableconclusionwasthatnoboundscouldbesettogovernmentalcommands。Butforthemodernbeliefsuchawarrantdoesnotexist。Makingnopretensiontodivinedescentordivineappointment，alegislativebodycanshownosupernaturaljustificationforitsclaimtounlimitedauthority;andnonaturaljustificationhaseverbeenattempted。
Hence，beliefinitsunlimitedauthorityiswithoutthatconsistencywhichofoldcharacterizedbeliefinaking’sunlimitedauthority。
Itiscurioushowcommonlymencontinuetoholdinfact，doctrineswhichtheyhaverejectedinname——retainingthesubstanceaftertheyhaveabandonedtheform。InTheologyanillustrationissuppliedbyCarlyle，who，inhisstudentdays，givingup，ashethought，thecreedofhisfathers，rejecteditsshellonly，keepingthecontents;andwasprovedbyhisconceptionsoftheworld，andman，andconduct，tobestillamongthesternestofScotchCalvinists。Similarly，SciencefurnishesaninstanceinonewhounitednaturalisminGeologywithsupernaturalisminBiology——SirCharlesLyell。While，astheleadingexpositoroftheuniformitariantheoryinGeology，heignoredwhollytheMosaiccosmogony，helongdefendedthatbeliefinspecialcreationsoforganictypes，forwhichnoothersourcethantheMosaiccosmogonycouldbeassigned;andonlyinthelatterpartofhislifesurrenderedtotheargumentsofMrDarwin。InPolitics，asaboveimplied，wehaveananalogouscase。
Thetacitly—asserteddoctrine，commontoTories，Whigs，andRadicals，thatgovernmentalauthorityisunlimited，datesbacktotimeswhenthelaw—giverwassupposedtohaveawarrantfromGod;
anditsurvivesstill，thoughthebeliefthatthelaw—giverhasGod’swarranthasdiedout。\"Oh，anActofParliamentcandoanything，\"isthereplymadetoacitizenwhoquestionsthelegitimacyofsomearbitraryState—interference;andthecitizenstandsparalysed。Itdoesnotoccurtohimtoaskthehow，andthewhen，andthewhence，ofthisassertedomnipotenceboundedonlybyphysicalimpossibilities。
Herewewilltakeleavetoquestionit。Indefaultofthejustification，oncelogicallyvalid，thattheruleronEarthbeingadeputyoftherulerinHeaven，submissiontohiminallthingsisaduty，letusaskwhatreasonthereisforassertingthedutyofsubmissioninallthingstoarulingpower，constitutionalorrepublican，whichhasnoHeaven—derivedsupremacy。Evidentlythisinquirycommitsustoacriticismofpastandpresenttheoriesconcerningpoliticalauthority。Torevivequestionssupposedtobelongsincesettled，maybethoughttoneedsomeapology。butthereisasufficientapologyintheimplicationabovemadeclear，thatthetheorycommonlyacceptedisill—basedorunbased。
Thenotionofsovereigntyisthatwhichfirstpresentsitself;
andacriticalexaminationofthisnotion，asentertainedbythosewhodonotpostulatethesupernaturaloriginofsovereignty，carriesusbacktotheargumentsofHobbes。
LetusgrantHobbes’spostulatethat，\"duringthetimemenlivewithoutacommonpowertokeepthemallinawe，theyareinthatconditionwhichiscalledwar……ofeverymanagainsteveryman;\"（1*）thoughthisisnottrue，sincetherearesomesmalluncivilizedsocietiesinwhich，withoutany\"commonpowertokeepthemallinawe，\"menmaintainpeaceandharmonybetterthanitismaintainedinsocietieswheresuchapowerexists。Letussupposehimtoberight，too，inassumingthattheriseofarulingpoweroverassociatedmen，resultsfromtheirdesirestopreserveorderamongthemselves;though，infact，ithabituallyarisesfromtheneedforsubordinationtoaleaderinwar，defensiveoroffensive，andhasoriginallynonecessary，andoftennoactual，relationtothepreservationoforderamongthecombinedindividuals。Oncemore，letusadmittheindefensibleassumptionthattoescapetheevilsofchronicconflicts，whichmustotherwisecontinueamongthem，themembersofacommunityenterintoa\"pactorcovenant，\"bywhichtheyallbindthemselvestosurrendertheirprimitivefreedomofaction，andsubordinatethemselvestothewillofarulingpoweragreedupon：（2*）accepting，also，theimplicationthattheirdescendantsforeverareboundbythecovenantwhichremoteancestorsmadeforthem。Letus，Isay，notobjecttothesedata，butpasstotheconclusionsHobbesdraws。Hesays：——
\"Forwherenocovenanthathpreceded，therehathnorightbeentransferred，andeverymanhasrighttoeverything;andconsequently，noactioncanbeunjust。Butwhenacovenantismade，thentobreakitisunjust：andthedefinitionofINJUSTICE，isnootherthanthenotperformanceofcovenant……
Thereforebeforethenamesofjustandunjustcanhaveplace，theremustbesomecoercivepower，tocompelmenequallytotheperformanceoftheircovenants，bytheterrorofsomepunishment，greaterthanthebenefittheyexpectbythebreachoftheircovenant。\"（3*）
Werepeople’scharactersinHobbes’sdayreallysobadastowarranthisassumptionthatnonewouldperformtheircovenantsintheabsenceofacoercivepowerandthreatenedpenalties？Inourday\"thenamesofjustandunjustcanhaveplace\"quiteapartfromrecognitionofanycoercivepower。AmongmyfriendsIcouldnamehalfadozenwhomIwouldimplicitlytrusttoperformtheircovenantswithoutany\"terrorofsomepunishment\"andoverwhomtherequirementsofjusticewouldbeasimperativeintheabsenceofacoercivepowerasinitspresence。Merelynoting，however，thatthisunwarrantedassumptionvitiatesHobbes’sargumentforState—authority，andacceptingbothhispremisesandconclusion，wehavetoobservetwosignificantimplications。OneisthatState—authorityasthusderived，isameanstoanend，andhasnovaliditysaveassubservingthatend：iftheendisnotsubserved，theauthority，bythehypothesis，doesnotexist。Theotheristhattheendforwhichtheauthorityexists，asthusspecified，istheenforcementofjustice——themaintenanceofequitablerelations。Thereasoningyieldsnowarrantforothercoercionovercitizensthanthatwhichisrequiredforpreventingdirectaggressions，andthoseindirectaggressionsconstitutedbybreachesofcontract;towhich，ifweaddprotectionagainsteternalenemies，theentirefunctionimpliedbyHobbes’sderivationofsovereignauthorityiscomprehended。
Hobbesarguedintheinterestsofabsolutemonarchy。Hismodernadmirer，Austin，hadforhisaimtoderivetheauthorityoflawfromtheunlimitedsovereigntyofoneman，orofanumberofmen，smallorlargecomparedwiththewholecommunity。Austinwasoriginallyinthearmy;andithasbeentrulyremarkedthat\"thepermanenttracesleft\"maybeseeninhisProvinceofJurisprudence。When，undeterredbytheexasperatingpedantries——
theendlessdistinctionsanddefinitionsandrepetitions——whichservebuttohidehisessentialdoctrines，weascertainwhattheseare，itbecomesmanifestthatheassimilatescivilauthoritytomilitaryauthority：takingforgrantedthattheone，astheother，isabovequestioninrespectofbothoriginandrange。Togetjustificationforpositivelaw，hetakesusbacktotheabsolutesovereigntyofthepowerimposingit——amonarch，anaristocracy，orthatlargerbodyofmenwhohavevotesinademocracy;forsuchabodyalso，hestylesthesovereign，incontrastwiththeremainingportionofthecommunitywhich，fromincapacityorothercause，remainssubject。Andhavingaffirmed，or，rather，takenforgranted，theunlimitedauthorityofthebody，simpleorcompound，smallorlarge，whichhestylessovereign，he，ofcourse，hasnodifficultyindeducingthelegalvalidityofitsedicts，whichhecallspositivelaw。Buttheproblemissimplymovedastepfurtherbackandthereleftunsolved。Thetruequestionis——Whencethesovereignty？Whatistheassignablewarrantforthisunqualifiedsupremacyassumedbyone，orbyasmallnumber，orbyalargenumber，overtherest？A
criticmightfitlysay——\"Wewilldispensewithyourprocessofderivingpositivelawfromunlimitedsovereignty：thesequenceisobviousenough。Butfirstproveyourunlimitedsovereignty。\"
Tothisdemandthereisnoresponse。Analysehisassumption，andthedoctrineofAustinprovestohavenobetterbasisthanthatofHobbes。Intheabsenceofadmitteddivinedescentorappointment，neithersingle—headedrulernormany—headedrulercanproducesuchcredentialsastheclaimtounlimitedsovereigntyimplies。
\"Butsurely，\"willcomeindeafeningchorusthereply，\"thereistheunquestionablerightofthemajority，whichgivesunquestionablerightstotheparliamentitelects。\"
Yes，nowwearecomingdowntotherootofthematter。Thedivinerightofparliamentsmeansthedivinerightofmajorities。
Thefundamentalassumptionmadebylegislatorsandpeoplealike，isthatamajorityhaspowerstowhichnolimitscanbeput。Thisisthecurrenttheorywhichallacceptwithoutproofasaself—evidenttruth。Nevertheless，criticismwill，Ithink，showthatthiscurrenttheoryrequiresaradicalmodification。
Inanessayon\"RailwayMoralsandRailwayPolicy，\"publishedintheEdinburghReviewforOctober，1854，Ihadoccasiontodealwiththequestionofamajority’spowersasexemplifiedintheconductofpubliccompanies;andIcannotbetterpreparethewayforconclusionspresentlytobedrawn，thanbyquotingapassagefromit：——
\"Underwhatevercircumstances，orforwhateverends，anumberofmenco—operate，itisheldthatifdifferenceofopinionarisesamongthem，justicerequiresthatthewilloftheseaternumbershallbeexecutedratherthanthatofthesmallernumber;andthisruleissupposedtobeuniformlyapplicable，bethequestionatissuewhatitmay。Soconfirmedisthisconvictionandsolittlehavetheethicsofthematterbeenconsidered，thattomostthismeresuggestionofadoubtwillcausesomeastonishment。Yetitneedsbutabriefanalysistoshowthattheopinionislittlebetterthanapoliticalsuperstition。Instancesmayreadilybeselectedwhichprove，byreductioadabsurdum，thattherightofamajorityisapurelyconditionalright，validonlywithinspecificlimits。Letustakeafew。Supposethatatthegeneralmeetingofsomephilanthropicassociation，itwasresolvedthatinadditiontorelievingdistresstheassociationshouldemployhome—missionariestopreachdownpopery。MightthesubscriptionsofCatholics，whohadjoinedthebodywithcharitableviews，berightfullyusedforthisend？Supposethatofthemembersofabookclub，theseaternumber，thinkingthatunderexistingcircumstancesrifle—practicewasmoreimportantthanreading，shoulddecidetochangethepurposeoftheirunion，andtoapplythefundsinhandforthepurchaseofpowder，ball，andtargets。Wouldtherestbeboundbythisdecision？SupposethatundertheexcitementofnewsfromAustralia，themajorityofaFreeholdLandSocietyshoulddetermine，notsimplytostartinabodyforthegold—diggings，buttousetheiraccumulatedcapitaltoprovideoutfits。Wouldthisappropriationofpropertybejusttotheminority？andmustthesejointheexpedition？
Scarcelyanyonewouldventureanaffirmativeanswereventothefirstofthesequestions;muchlesstotheothers。Andwhy？
Becauseeveryonemustperceivethatbyunitinghimselfwithothers，nomancanequitablybebetrayedintoactsutterlyforeigntothepurposeforwhichhejoinedthem。Eachofthesesupposedminoritieswouldproperlyreplytothoseseekingtocoercethem：——’Wecombinedwithyouforadefinedobject;wegavemoneyandtimeforthefurtheranceofthatobject;onallquestionsthencearisingwetacitlyagreedtoconformtothewillofthegreaternumber;butwedidnotagreetoconformonanyotherquestions。Ifyouinduceustojoinyoubyprofessingacertainend，andthenundertakesomeotherendofwhichwewerenotapprised，youobtainoursupportunderfalsepretences;youexceedtheexpressedorunderstoodcompacttowhichwecommittedourselves;andwearenolongerboundbyyourdecisions。’Clearlythisistheonlyrationalinterpretationofthematter。Thegeneralprincipleunderlyingtherightgovernmentofeveryincorporatedbody，is，thatitsmemberscontactwitheachotherseverallytosubmittothewillofthemajorityinallmattersconcerningthefulfilmentoftheobjectsforwhichtheyareincorporated;butinnoothers。Tothisextentonlycanthecontacthold。Forasitisimpliedintheverynatureofacontact，thatthoseenteringintoitmustknowwhattheycontacttodo;andasthosewhounitewithothersforaspecifiedobject，cannotcontemplatealltheunspecifiedobjectswhichitishypotheticallypossiblefortheuniontoundertake;itfollowsthatthecontactenteredintocannotextendtosuchunspecifiedobjects。Andifthereexistsnoexpressedorunderstoodcontactbetweentheunionanditsmembersrespectingunspecifiedobjects，thenforthemajoritytocoercetheminorityintoundertakingthem，isnothinglessthangrosstyranny。\"
Naturally，ifsuchaconfusionofideasexistsinrespectofthepowersofamajoritywherethedeedofincorporationtacitlylimitsthesepowers，stillmoremustthereexistsuchaconfusionwheretherehasbeennodeedofincorporation。Neverthelessthesameprincipleholds。Iagainemphasizethepropositionthatthemembersofanincorporatedbodyarebound\"severallytosubmittothewillofthemajorityinallmattersconcerningthefulfilmentoftheobjectsforwhichtheyareincorporated;butinnoothers。\"AndIcontendthatthisholdsofanincorporatednationasmuchasofanincorporatedcompany。
\"Yes，but，\"comestheobviousrejoinder，\"asthereisnodeedbywhichthemembersofanationareincorporated——asthereneitheris，noreverwas，aspecificationofpurposesforwhichtheunionwasformed，thereexistnolimits;and，consequently，thepowerofthemajorityisunlimited。\"
Evidentlyitmustbeadmittedthatthehypothesisofasocialcontract，eitherundertheshapeassumedbyHobbesorundertheshapeassumedbyRousseau，isbaseless。Naymore，itmustbeadmittedthatevenhadsuchacontractoncebeenformed，itcouldnotbebindingontheposterityofthosewhoformedit。Moreover，ifanysaythatintheabsenceofthoseStationstoitspowerswhichadeedofincorporationmightimply，thereisnothingtopreventamajorityfromimposingitswillonaminoritybyforce，assentmustbegivenanassent，however，joinedwiththecommentthatifthesuperiorforceofthemajorityisitsjustification，thenthesuperiorforceofadespotbackedbyanadequatearmy，isalsojustified：theproblemlapses。Whatwehereseekissomehigherwarrantforthesubordinationofminoritytomajoritythanthatarisingfrominabilitytoresistphysicalcoercion。EvenAustin，anxiousasheistoestablishtheunquestionableauthorityofpositivelaw，andassuming，ashedoes，anabsolutesovereigntyofsomekind，monarchic，aristocratic，constitutional，orpopular，asthesourceofitsunquestionableauthority，isobliged，inthelastresort，toadmitamorallimittoitsactionoverthecommunity。Whileinsisting，inpursuanceofhisrigidtheoryofsovereignty，thatasovereignbodyoriginatingfromthepeople\"islegallyfreetoabridgetheirpoliticalliberty，atitsownpleasureordiscretion，\"heallowsthat\"agovernmentmaybehinderedbypositivemoralityfromabridgingthepoliticallibertywhichitleavesorgrantstoitssubjects。\"（4*）Hence，wehavetofind，notaphysicaljustification，butamoraljustification，forthesupposedabsolutepowerofthemajority。
Thiswillatoncedrawforththerejoinder——\"Ofcourse，intheabsenceofanyagreement，withitsimpliedlimitations，theruleofthemajorityisunlimited;becauseitismorejustthatthemajorityshouldhaveitswaythanthattheminorityshouldhaveitsway。\"Averyreasonablerejoinderthisseemsuntiltherecomesthere—rejoinder。Wemayopposetoittheequallytenablepropositionthat，intheabsenceofanagreement，thesupremacyofamajorityoveraminoritydoesnotexistatall。Itisco—operationofsomekind，fromwhichtherearisethesepowersandobligationsofmajorityandminority;andintheabsenceofanyagreementtoco—operate，suchpowersandobligationsarealsoabsent。
Heretheargumentapparentlyendsinadeadlock。Undertheexistingconditionofthings，nomoraloriginseemsassignableeitherforthesovereigntyofthemajorityorforthelimitationofitssovereignty。Butfurtherconsiderationrevealsasolutionofthedifficulty。Forif，dismissingallthoughtofanyhypotheticalagreementtocooperateheretoforemade，weaskwhatwouldbetheagreementintowhichcitizenswouldnowenterwithpracticalunanimity，wegetasufficientlyclearanswer;andwithitasufficientlyclearjustificationfortheruleofthemajorityinsideacertainsphere，butnotoutsidethatsphere。
Letusfirstobserveafewofthelimitationswhichatoncebecomeapparent。
WereallEnglishmennowaskediftheywouldagreetoco—operatefortheteachingofreligion，andwouldgivethemajoritypowertofixthecreedandtheformsofworship，therewouldcomeaveryemphatic\"No\"fromalargepartofthem。If，inpursuanceofaproposaltorevivesumptuarylaws，theinquiryweremadewhethertheywouldbindthemselvestoabidebythewillofthemajorityinrespectofthefashionsandqualitiesoftheirclothes，nearlyallofthemwouldrefuse。Inlikemannerif（totakeanactualquestionoftheday）peoplewerepolledtoascertainwhether，inrespectofthebeveragestheydrank，theywouldacceptthedecisionofthegreaternumber，certainlyhalf，andprobablymorethanhalf，wouldbeunwilling。Similarlywithrespecttomanyotheractionswhichmostmennow—a—daysregardasofpurelyprivateconcern。Whateverdesiretheremightbetoco—operateforcarryingon，orregulating，suchactions，wouldbefarfromaunanimousdesire。Manifestly，then，hadsocialco—operationtobecommencedbyourselves，andhaditspurposestobespecifiedbeforeconsenttoco—operatecouldbeobtained，therewouldbelargepartsofhumanconductinrespectofwhichco—operationwouldbedeclined;andinrespectofwhich，consequently，noauthoritybythemajorityovertheminoritycouldberightfullyexercised。
Turnnowtotheconversequestion——Forwhatendswouldallmenagreetoco—operate？Nonewilldenythatforresistinginvasiontheagreementwouldbepracticallyunanimous。ExceptingonlytheQuakers，who，havingdonehighlyusefulworkintheirtime，arenowdyingout，allwouldunitefordefensivewar（not，however，foroffensivewar）;andtheywould，bysodoing，tacitlybindthemselvestoconformtothewillofthemajorityinrespectofmeasuresdirectedtothatend。Therewouldbepracticalunanimity，also，intheagreementtoco—operatefordefenceagainstinternalenemiesasagainsteternalenemies。Omittingcriminals，allmustwishtohavepersonandpropertyadequatelyprotected。Inshort，eachcitizendesirestopreservehislife，topreservethosethingswhichconducetomaintenanceofhislifeandenjoymentofit，andtopreserveintacthislibertiesbothofusingthesethingsandgettingfurthersuch。Itisobvioustohimthathecannotdoallthisifheactsalone。Againstforeigninvadersheispowerlessunlesshecombineswithhisfellows;andthebusinessofprotectinghimselfagainstdomesticinvaders，ifhedidnotsimilarlycombine，wouldbealikeonerous，dangerous，andinefficient。Inoneotherco—operationallareinterested——
useoftheterritorytheyinhabit。Didtheprimitivecommunalownershipsurvive，therewouldsurvivetheprimitivecommunalcontroloftheusestobemadeoflandbyindividualsorbygroupsofthem;anddecisionsofthemajoritywouldrightlyprevailrespectingthetermsonwhichportionsofitmightbeemployedforraisingfood，formakingmeansofcommunication，andforotherpurposes。Evenatpresent，thoughthematterhasbeencomplicatedbythegrowthofprivatelandownership，yet，sincetheStateisstillsupremeowner（everylandownerbeinginlawatenantoftheCrown）abletoresumepossession，orauthorizecompulsorypurchase，atafairprice;theimplicationisthatthewillofthemajorityisvalidrespectingthemodesinwhich，andconditionsunderwhich，partsofthesurfaceorsub—surface，maybeutilized：involvingcertainagreementsmadeonbehalfofthepublicwithprivatepersonsandcompanies。
Detailsarenotneedfulhere;norisitneedfultodiscussthatborderregionlyingbetweentheseclassesofcases，andtosayhowmuchisincludedinthelastandhowmuchisexcludedwiththefirst。Forpresentpurposes，itissufficienttorecognizetheundeniabletruththattherearenumerouskindsofactionsinrespectofwhichmenwouldnot，iftheywereasked，agreewithanythinglikeunanimitytobeboundbythewillofthemajority;whiletherearesomekindsofactionsinrespectofwhichtheywouldalmostunanimouslyagreetobethusbound。Here，then，wefindadefinitewarrantforenforcingthewillofthemajoritywithincertainlimits，andadefinitewarrantfordenyingtheauthorityofitswillbeyondthoselimits。
Butevidently，whenanalysed，thequestionresolvesitselfintothefurtherquestion——Whataretherelativeclaimsoftheaggregateandofitsunits？Aretherightsofthecommunityuniversallyvalidagainsttheindividual？orhastheindividualsomerightswhicharevalidagainstthecommunity？Thejudgmentgivenonthispointunderliestheentirefabricofpoliticalconvictionsformed，andmoreespeciallythoseconvictionswhichconcernthepropersphereofgovernment。Here，then，Iproposetoreviveadormantcontroversy，withtheexpectationofreachingadifferentconclusionfromthatwhichisfashionable。
SaysProfessorJevons，inhiswork，TheStateinRelationtoLabour\"Thefirststepmustbetoridourmindsoftheideathatthereareanysuchthingsinsocialmattersasabstractrights。\"
OflikecharacteristhebeliefexpressedbyMrMatthewArnold，inhisarticleoncopyright：——\"Anauthorhasnonaturalrighttoapropertyinhisproduction。Butthenneitherhasheanaturalrighttoanythingwhateverwhichhemayproduceoracquire。\"（5*）So，too，Irecentlyreadinaweeklyjournalofhighrepute，that\"toexplainoncemorethatthereisnosuchthingas’naturalright’wouldbeawasteofphilosophy。\"Andtheviewexpressedintheseextractsiscommonlyutteredbystatesmenandlawyersinawayimplyingthatonlytheunthinkingmassesholdanyother。
OnemighthaveexpectedthatutterancestothiseffectwouldhavebeenrenderedlessdogmaticbytheknowledgethatawholeschooloflegalistsontheContinent，maintainsabeliefdiametricallyopposedtothatmaintainedbytheEnglishschool。
TheideaofNatur—rechtistheroot—ideaofGermanjurisprudence。
NowwhatevermaybetheopinionheldrespectingGermanphilosophyatlarge，itcannotbecharacterizedasshallow。Adoctrinecurrentamongapeopledistinguishedaboveallothersaslaboriousinquirers，andcertainlynottobeclassedwithsuperficialthinkers，shouldnotbedismissedasthoughitwerenothingmorethanapopulardelusion。This，however，bytheway。
Alongwiththepropositiondeniedintheabovequotations，theregoesacounter—propositionaffirmed。Letusseewhatitis;andwhatresultswhenwegobehinditandseekitswarrant。
OnrevertingtoBentham，wefindthiscounter—propositionovertlyexpressed。Hetellsusthatgovernmentfulfilsitsoffice\"bycreatingrightswhichitconfersuponindividuals：rightsofpersonalsecurity;rightsofprotectionforhonour;rightsofproperty;\"etc。（6*）Werethisdoctrineassertedasfollowingfromthedivinerightofkings，therewouldbenothinginitmanifestlyincongruous。DiditcometousfromancientPeru，wheretheYnca\"wasthesourcefromwhicheveningflowed\";（7*）orfromShoa（Abyssinia），where\"oftheirpersonsandworldlysubstancehe[theking]isabsolutemaster\";（8*）orfromDahome，where\"allmenareslavestotheking\";（9*）itwouldbeconsistentenough。ButBentham，farfrombeinganabsolutistlikeHobbes，wroteintheinterestsofpopularrule。InhisConstitutionalCode（10*）hefixesthesovereigntyinthewholepeople;arguingthatitisbest\"togivethesovereignpowertothelargestpossibleportionofthosewhosegreatesthappinessistheproperandchosenobject，\"because\"thisproportionismoreaptthananyotherthatcanbeproposed\"forachievementofthatobject。
Mark，now，whathappenswhenweputthesetwodoctrinestogether。Thesovereignpeoplejointlyappointrepresentatives，andsocreateagovernment;thegovernmentthuscreated，createsrights;andthen，havingcreatedrights，itconfersthemontheseparatemembersofthesovereignpeoplebywhichitwasitselfcreated。Hereisamarvellouspieceofpoliticallegerdemain！MrMatthewArnold，contending，inthearticleabovequoted，that\"propertyisthecreationoflaw，\"tellsustobewareofthe\"metaphysicalphantomofpropertyinitself。\"Surely，amongmetaphysicalphantomsthemostshadowyisthiswhichsupposesathingtobeobtainedbycreatinganagent，whichcreatesthething，andthenconfersthethingonitsowncreator。！
Fromwhateverpointofviewweconsiderit，Bentham’spropositionprovestobeunthinkable。Government，hesays，fulfilsitsoffice\"bycreatingrights。\"Twomeaningsmaybegiventotheword\"creating。\"Itmaybesupposedtomeantheproductionofsomethingoutofnothing;oritmaybesupposedtomeanthegivingformandstructuretosomethingwhichalreadyexists。Therearemanywhothinkthattheproductionofsomethingoutofnothingcannotbeconceivedaseffectedevenbyomnipotence;andprobablynonewillassertthattheproductionofsomethingoutofnothingiswithinthecompetenceofahumangovernment。Thealternativeconceptionisthatahumangovernmentcreatesonlyinthesensethatitshapessomethingpre—existing。
Inthatcase，thequestionarises——\"Whatisthesomethingpre—existingwhichitshapes？\"Clearlytheword\"creating\"begsthewholequestion——passesoffanillusionontheunwaryreader。Benthamwasasticklerfordefinitenessofexpression，andinhisBookofFallacieshasachapteron\"Impostor—terms。\"
Itiscuriousthatheshouldhavefurnishedsostrikinganillustrationofthepervertedbeliefwhichanimpostor—termmaygenerate。
Butnowletusoverlookthesevariousimpossibilitiesofthought，andseekthemostdefensibleinterpretationofBentham’sview。
Itmaybesaidthatthetotalityofallpowersandrights，originallyexistedasanundividedwholeinthesovereignpeople;
andthatthisundividedwholeisgivenintrust（asAustinwouldsay）toarulingpower，appointedbythesovereignpeople，forthepurposeofdistribution。If，aswehaveseen，thepropositionthatrightsarecreatedissimplyafigureofspeech;thentheonlyintelligibleconstructionofBentham’sviewisthatamultitudeofindividuals，whoseverallywishtosatisfytheirdesires，andhave，asanaggregate，possessionofallthesourcesofsatisfaction，aswellaspoweroverallindividualactions，appointagovernment，whichdeclaresthewaysinwhich，andtheconditionsunderwhich，individualactionsmaybecarriedonandthesatisfactionsobtained。Letusobservetheimplications。Eachmanexistsintwocapacities。Inhisprivatecapacityheissubjecttothegovernment。Inhispubliccapacityheisoneofthesovereignpeoplewhoappointthegovernment。Thatistosay，inhisprivatecapacityheisoneofthosetowhomrightsaregiven;andinhispubliccapacityheisoneofthosewho，throughthegovernmenttheyappoint，givetherights。Turnthisabstractstatementintoaconcretestatement，andseewhatitmeans。Letthecommunityconsistofamillionmen，who，bythehypothesis，arenotonlyjointpossessorsoftheinhabitedregion，butjointpossessorsofalllibertiesofactionandappropriation：theonlyrightrecognizedbeingthatoftheaggregatetoeverything。Whatfollows？Eachperson，whilenotowninganyproductofhisownlabour，has，asaunitinthesovereignbody，amillionthpartoftheownershipoftheproductsofallothers’labour。Thisisanunavoidableimplication。Asthegovernment，inBentham’sview，isbutanagent;therightsitconfersarerightsgiventoitintrustbythesovereignpeople。Ifso，suchrightsmustbepossessedenblocbythesovereignpeoplebeforethegovernment，infulfilmentofitstrust，confersthemonindividuals;and，ifso，eachindividualhasamillionthportionoftheserightsinhispubliccapacity，whilehehasnorightsinhisprivatecapacity。Thesehegetsonlywhenalltherestofthemillionjointoendowhimwiththem;whilehejoinstoendowwiththemeveryothermemberofthemillion！
Thus，inwhateverwayweinterpretit，Bentham’spropositionleavesusinaplexusofabsurdities。