WhenM。Proudhonwantstobeaneconomist，andtoabandonforamomentthe\"evolutionofideasinserialrelationintheunderstanding\"，thenhegoesanddrawseruditionfromAdamSmith，fromatimewhentheautomaticworkshopwasonlyjustcomingintoexistence。Indeed，whatadifferencebetweenthedivisionoflaborasitexistedinAdamSmith’sdayandasweseeitintheautomaticworkshop！Inordertomakethisproperlyunderstood，weneedonlyquoteafewpassagesfromDr。Ure’sThePhilosophyofManufactures。
\"WhenAdamSmithwrotehisimmortalelementsofeconomics，automaticmachinerybeinghardlyknown，hewasproperlyledtoregardthedivisionoflaborasthegrandprincipleofmanufacturingimprovement;andheshowed，intheexampleofpin—making，howeachhandicraftsman，beingtherebyenabledtoperfecthimselfbypracticeinonepoint，becameaquickerandcheaperworkman。Ineachbranchofmanufacturehesawthatsomepartswere，onthatprinciple，ofeasyexecution，likethecuttingofpinwiresintouniformlengths，andsomewerecomparativelydifficult，liketheformationandfixationoftheirheads;andthereforeheconcludedthattoeachaworkmanofappropriatevalueandcostwasnaturallyassigned。Thisappropriationformstheveryessenceofthedivisionoflabor……
\"ButwhatwasinDr。Smith’stimeatopicofusefulillus—tration，cannotnowbeusedwithoutriskofmisleadingthepublicmindastotherightprincipleofmanufacturingindustry。Infact，thedivision，orratheradaptationoflabortothedifferenttalentsofmen，islittlethoughtofinfactoryemployment。Onthecontrary，whereveraprocessrequiresapeculiardexterityandsteadinessofhand，itiswithdrawnassoonaspossiblefromthecunningworkman，whoispronetoirregularitiesofmanykinds，anditisplacedinchargeofapeculiarmechanism，soself—regulating，thatachildmaysuperintendit。
\"Theprincipleofthefactorysystemthenis，tosubstitutemechanicalscienceforhandskill，andthepartitionofaprocessintoitsessentialconstituents，forthedivisionorgradationoflaboramongartisans。Onthehandicraftplan，labormoreorlessskilled，wasusuallythemostexpensiveelementofproduction……butontheautomaticplan，skilledlaborgetsprogressivelysuperseded，andwill，eventually，bereplacedbymereoverlookersofmachines。
\"Bytheinfirmityofhumannatureithappens，thatthemoreskillfultheworkman，themoreself—willedandintractableheisapttobecome，and，ofcourse，thelessfitacompon—entofamechanicalsystem，inwhich，byoccassionalirreg—ularities，hemaydogreatdamagetothewhole。Thegrandobjectthereforeofthemodernmanufactureris，throughtheunionofcapitalandscience，toreducethetaskofhisworkpeopletotheexerciseofvigilanceanddexterity——faculties，whenconcentratedtooneprocess，speedilybroughttoperfectionintheyoung。
\"Onthegradationsystem，amanmustserveanapprenticeshipofmanyyearsbeforehishandandeyebecomeskilledenoughforcertainmechanicalfeats;butonthesystemofdecompos—ingaprocessintoitsconstituents，andembodyingeachpartinanautomaticmachine，apersonofcommoncareandcapa—citymaybeentrustedwithanyofthesaidelementarypartsafterashortprobation，andmaybetransferredfromonetoanother，onanyemergency，atthediscretionofthemaster。Suchtranslationsareutterlyatvariancewiththeoldprac—ticeofthedivisionoflabor，whichfixedonemantoshapingtheheadofapin，anothertoshapingtheheadofapin，andanothertosharpeningitspoint，withthemostirksomeandspirit—wastinguniformity，forawholelife……
\"Butontheequalizationplanofself—actingmachines，theoperativeneedstocallhisfacultiesonlyintoagreeableexercise……Ashisbusinessconsistsinendingtheworkofawell—regulatedmechanism，hecanlearnitinashortperiod;andwhenhetransfershisservices，fromonemachinetoanother，hevarieshistask，andenlargeshisviews，bythinkingonthosegeneralcombinationswhichresultfromhisandhiscompanions’labors。
Thus，thatcrampingofthefac—ulties，thatnarrowingofthemind，thatstuntingoftheframe，whichwereascribed，andnotunjustly，bymoralwriters，tothedivisionoflabor，cannot，incommoncircum—stances，occurundertheequabledistributionofindustry……
\"Itis，infact，theconstantaimandtendencyofeveryimprovementinmachinerytosupersedehumanlaboraltogether，ortodiminishitscost，bysubstitutingtheindustryofwomenandchildrenforthatofmen;ofthatofordinarylaborersfortrainedartisans……Thistendencytoemploymerelychildrenwithwatchfuleyesandnimblefingers，insteadofjourneymenoflongexperience，showshowthescholasticdogmaofthedivisionoflaborintodegreesofskillhasbeenexplodedbyourenlightenedmanufacturers。\"
（AndreUre，Philosophiedesmanufacturesoueconomieindustrielle，Vol。I，Chap。1[pp。34—35]）
Whatcharacterizesthedivisionoflaborinsidemodernsocietyisthatitengendersspecializedfunctions，specialists，andwiththemcraft—idiocy。
\"Wearestruckwithadmiration，\"saysLemontey，\"whenweseeamongtheAncientsthesamepersondistinguishinghimselftoahighdegreeasphilosopher，poet，orator，historian，priest，administrator，generalofanarmy。Oursoulsareappalledatthesightofsovastadomain。Eachoneofusplantshishedgeandshutshimselfupinhisenclosure。Idonotknowwhetherbythisparcellationthefieldisenlarged，butIdoknowthatmanisbelittled。\"
Whatcharacterizesthedivisionoflaborintheautomaticworkshopisthatlaborhastherecompletelylostitsspecializedcharacter。Butthemomenteveryspecialdevelopmentstops，theneedforuniversality，thetendencytowardsanintegraldevelopmentoftheindividualbeginstobefelt。Theautomaticworkshopwipesoutspecialistsandcraft—idiocy。
M。Proudhon，nothavingunderstoodeventhisonerevolutionarysideoftheautomaticworkshop，takesastepbackwardandproposestotheworkerthathemakenotonlythe12thpartofapin，butsuccessivelyall12partsofit。Theworkerwouldthusarriveattheknowledgeandtheconsciousnessofthepin。ThisisM。Proudhon’ssyntheticlabor。Nobodywillcontestthattomakeamovementforwardandanothermovementbackwardistomakeasyntheticmovement。
Tosumup，M。Proudhonhasnotgonefurtherthanthepetty—bourgeoisideal。Andtorealizethisideal，hecanthinkofnothingbetterthantotakeusbacktothejourneymanor，atmost，tothemastercraftsmanoftheMiddleAges。Itisenough，hesayssomewhereinhisbook，tohavecreatedamasterpieceonceinone’slife，tohavefeltoneselfjustoncetobeaman。Isnotthis，informasincontent，themasterpiecedemandedbythetradeguildoftheMiddleAges？
3。
COMPETITIONANDMONOPOLY
|\"CompetitionisasessentialtoGoodsideof|laborasdivision……Itiscompetition|necessaryfortheadventof|equality。\"
|
|[I186，188]
|\"TheprincipleisthenegationofBadsideof|itself。Itsmostcertainresultcompetition|istoruinthosewhomitdrags|initstrain。\"
|
|[I185]
|\"ThedrawbackwhichfollowGeneralreflection|initswake，justasthegoodit|provides……bothflowlogically|fromtheprinciple。\"
|
|[I185—86]
|\"Toseektheprincipleof|accommodation，whichmustbe|derivedfromalawsuperiorto|libertyitself。\"
|
|[I185]
|
|Variant|
Problemtobesolved|\"Therecan，therefore，beno|questionhereofdestroying|competition，athingasimpos—
|sibletodestroyasliberty;we|haveonlytofinditsequilibrium|Iwouldbereadytosayits|police。\"
|
|[I223]M。Proudhonbeginsbydefendingtheeternalnecessityofcompetitionagainstthosewhowishtoreplaceitbyemulation[Engels：TheFourierists]。
Thereisno\"purposelessemulation\"，andas\"theobjectofeverypassionisnecessarilyanalogoustothepassionitself——awomanforthelover，powerfortheambitious，goldforthemiser，agarlandforthepoet——
theobjectofindus—trialemulationisnecessarilyprofit。Emulationisnothingbutcompetitionitself。\"
[I187]
Competitionisemulationwithaviewtoprofit。Isindustrialemulationnecessarilyemulationwithaviewtoprofit，thatis，competition？？M。
Proudhonprovesitbyaffirmingit。Wehaveseenthat，forhim，toaffirmistoprove，justastosupposeistodeny。
Iftheimmediateobjectoftheloveristhewoman，theimmediateobjectofindustrialemulationistheproductandnottheprofit。
Competitionisnotindustrialemulation，itiscommercialemulation。
Inourtimeindustrialemulationexistsonlyinviewofcommerce。Thereareevenphasesintheeconomiclifeofmodernnationswheneverybodyisseizedwithasortofcrazeformakingprofitwithoutproducing。Thisspeculationcraze，whichrecursperiodically，laysbarethetruecharacterofcompetition，whichseekstoescapetheneedforindustrialemulation。
Ifyouhadtoldanartisanofthe14thcenturythattheprivilegesandthewholefeudalorganizationofindustryweregoingtobeabrogatedinfavorofindustrialemulation，calledcompetition，hewouldhaverepliedthattheprivilegesofthevariouscorporations，guildsandfraternitieswereorganizedcompetition。M。Proudhondoesnotimposeuponthiswhenheaffirmsthat\"emulationisnothingbutcompetitionitself\"。
\"DecreethatfromthefirstofJanuary1847，laborandwagesshallbeguaranteedtoeverybody：immediatelyanimmenserelaxationwillsucceedthehightensionofindustry。\"
[I189]
Insteadofasupposition，anaffirmationandanegation，wehavenowadecreethatM。Proudhonissuespurposelytoprovethenecessityofcompetition，itseternityasacategory，etc。
Ifweimaginethatdecreesareallthatisneededtogetawayfromcompetition，weshallnevergetawayfromit。Andifwegosofarastoproposetoabolishcompetitionwhileretainingwages，weshallbeproposingnonsensebyroyaldecree。Butnationsdonotproceedbyroyaldecree。Beforeframingsuchordinances，theymustatleasthavechangedfromtoptobottomtheconditionsoftheirindustrialandpoliticalexistence，andconsequentlytheirwholemannerofbeing。
M。Proudhonwillreply，withhisimperturbableassurance，thatitisthehypothesisof\"atransformationofournaturewithouthistoricalantecedents\"，andthathewouldberightin\"excludingisfromthediscussion\"，weknownotinvirtueofwhichordinance。
M。Proudhondoesnotknowthatallhistoryisnothingbutacontinuoustransformationofhumannature。
\"Letussticktothefacts。TheFrenchRevolutionwasmadeforindustriallibertyasmuchasforpoliticalliberty;andalthoughFrance，in1789，hadnotperceived——letussayitopenly——alltheconsequencesoftheprinciplewhosereal—izationitdemanded，itwasmistakenneitherinitswishesnorinitsexpectations。Whoeverattemptstodenythisloses，inmyview，therighttocriticisM。Iwillneverdisputewithanadversarywhoputsasprinciplethespont—aneouserrorof25millionmen……
\"Whythen，ifcompetitionhadnotbeenaprincipleofsocialeconomy，adecreeoffate，anecessityofthehumansoul，why，insteadofabolishingcorporations，guildsandbrother—hoods，didnobodythinkratherofrepairingthewhole？？\"
[I191，192]
So，sincetheFrenchofthe18thcenturyabolishedcorporations，guilds，andfraternitiesinsteadofmodifyingthem，theFrenchofthe19thcenturymustmodifycompetitioninsteadofabolishingit。SincecompetitionwasestablishedinFranceinthe18thcenturyasaresultofhistoricalneeds，thiscompetitionmustnotbedestroyedinthe19thcenturybecauseofotherhistoricalneeds。M。Proudhon，notunderstandingthattheestablishmentofcompetitionwasboundupwiththeactualdevelopmentofthemenofthe18thcentury，makesofcompetitionanecessityofthehumansoul，inpartibusinfidelium[ed：literally，\"territoryoftheinfidels\";here，meaning，\"beyondtherealmofreality\"。]WhatwouldhehavemadeofthegreatColbertforthe17thcentury？？
Aftertherevolutioncomesthepresentstateofaffairs。M。Proudhonequallydrawsfactsfromittoshowtheeternityofcompetition，byprovingthatallindustriesinwhichthiscategoryisnotyetsufficientlydeveloped，asinagriculture，areinastateofinferiorityanddecrepitude。
Tosaythatthereareindustrieswhichhavenotyetreachedthestageofcompetition，thatothersgainsarebelowthelevelofbourgeoisproduction，isdrivelwhichgivesnottheslightestproofoftheeternityofcompetition。
AllM。Proudhon’slogicamountstoisthis：competitionisasocialrelationinwhichwearenowdevelopingourproductiveforces。Tothistruth，hegivesnologicaldevelopment，butonlyforms，oftenverywelldeveloped，whenhesaysthatcompetitionisindustrialemulation，thepresent—daymodeoffreedom，responsibilityinlabor，constitutionofvalue，aconditionfortheadventofequality，aprincipleofsocialeconomy，adecreeoffate，anecessityofthehumansoul，aninspirationofeternaljustice，libertyindivision，divisiononliberty，aneconomiccategory。
\"Competitionandassociationsupporteachother。Farfromexcludingeachothertheyarenotevendivergent。WhoeversayscompetitionalreadysupposesacommonaiM。Competitionisthereforenotegoism，andthemostdeplorableerrorcom—mittedbysocialismistohaveregardeditastheoverthrowofsociety。\"
[I223]
Whoeversayscompetitionsayscommonaim，andthatproves，ontheonehand，thatcompetitionisassociation;ontheother，thatcompetitionisnotegoisM。Andwhoeversaysegoism，doeshenotsaycommonaim？？Everyegoismoperatesinsocietyandbythefactofsociety。Henceitpresupposessociety，thatistosay，commonaims，commonneeds，commonmeansofproduction，etc。，etc。Isit，then，bemerechancethatthecompetitionandassociationwhichtheSocialiststalkaboutarenotevendivergent？？
Socialistsknowwellenoughthatpresent—daysocietyisfoundedoncompetition。Howcouldtheyaccusecompetitionofoverthrowingpresent—daysocietywhichtheywanttooverthrowthemselves？？Andhowcouldtheyaccusecompetitionofoverthrowingthesocietytocome，inwhichtheysee，onthecontrary，theoverthrowofcompetition？？
M。Proudhonsays，lateron，thatcompetitionistheoppositeofmonopoly，andconsequentlycannotbetheoppositeofassociation。
Feudalismwas，fromitsorigins，opposedtopatriarchalmonarchy;
itwasthusnotopposedtocompetition，whichwasnotyetinexistence。
Doesitfollowthatcompetitionisnotopposedtofeudalism？？
Inactualfact，society，associationaredenominationswhichcanbegiventoeverysociety，tofeudalsocietyaswellastobourgeoissocietywhichisassociationfoundedoncompetition。HowthencantherebeSocialists，who，bythesinglewordassociation，thinktheycanrefutecompetition？？AndhowcanM。Proudhonhimselfwishtodefendcompetitionagainstsocialismbydescribingcompetitionbythesinglewordassociation？？
AllwehavejustsaidmakesupthebeautifulsideofcompetitionasM。Proudhonseesit。Nowletuspassontotheuglyside，thatisthenegativeside，ofcompetition，itsdrawbacks，itsdestructive，subversiveelements，itsinjuriousqualities。
ThereissomethingdismalaboutthepictureM。Proudhondrawsofit。
Competitionengendersmisery，itfomentscivilwar，it\"changesnaturalzones\"，mixesupnationalities，causestroubleinfamilies，corruptsthepublicconscience，\"subvertsthenotionofequity，ofjustice\"，ofmorality，andwhatisworse，itdestroysfree，honesttrade，anddoesnotevengiveinexchangesyntheticvalue，fixed，honestprice。Itdisillusionseveryone，eveneconomists。Itpushesthingssofarastodestroyitsveryself。
AfteralltheillM。Proudhonsaysofit，cantherebefortherelationsofbourgeoissociety，foritsprinciplesanditsillusions，amoredisintegrating，moredestructiveelementthancompetition？？
Itmustbecarefullynotedthatcompetitionalwaysbecomesthemoredestructiveforbourgeoisrelationsinproportionasiturgesonafeverishcreationofnewproductiveforces，thatis，ofthematerialconditionsofanewsociety。Inthisrespectatleast，thebadsideofcompetitionwouldhaveitsgoodpoints。
\"Competitionasaneconomicpositionorphase，consideredinitsorigin，isthenecessaryresult……ofthetheoryofthereductionofgeneralexpenses。\"
[I235]
ForM。Proudhon，thecirculationofthebloodmustbeaconsequenceofHarvey’stheory。
\"Monopolyistheinevitableendofcompetition，whichengen—dersitbyacontinualnegationofitself。Thisgenerationofmonopolyisinitselfajustificationofit……
\"Monopolyisthenaturaloppositeofcompetition……butassoonascompetitionisnecessary，itimpliestheideaofmonopoly，sincemonopolyis，asitwere，theseatofeachcompetingindividuality。\"
[I236，237]
WerejoicewithM。Proudhonthathecanforonceatleastproperlyapplyhisformulatothesisandantithesis。Everyoneknowsthatmodernmonopolyisengenderedbycompetitionitself。
Asforthecontent，M。Proudhonclingstopoeticimages。Competitionmade\"ofeverysubdivisionoflaborasortofsovereigntyinwhicheachindividualstoodwithhispowerandhisindependence\"。Monopolyis\"theseatofeverycompetingindividuality\"。Thesovereigntyisworthatleastasmuchastheseat。
M。Proudhontalksofnothingbutmodernmonopolyengenderedbycompetition。Butweallknowthatcompetitionwasengenderedbyfeudalmonopoly。Thuscompetitionwasoriginallytheoppositeofmonopolyandnotmonopolytheoppositeofcompetition。Sothatmodernmonopolyisnotasimpleantithesis，itisonthecontrarythetruesynthesis。
THESIS：Feudalmonopoly，beforecompetition。
ANTITHESIS：Competition。
SYNTHESIS：Modernmonopoly，whichisthenegationoffeudalmonopoly，insofarasitimpliesthesystemofcompetition，andthenegationofcompetitioninsofarasitismonopoly。
Thusmodernmonopoly，bourgeoismonopoly，issyntheticmonopoly，thenegationofthenegation，theunityofopposites。Itismonopolyinthepure，normal，rationalstate。
M。Proudhonisincontradictionwithhisownphilosophywhenheturnsbourgeoismonopolyintomonopolyinthecrude，primitive，contradictory，spasmodicstate。M。Rossi，whomM。Proudhonquotesseveraltimesonthesubjectofmonopoly，seemstohaveabettergraspofthesyntheticcharacterofbourgeoismonopoly。InhisCoursd’economiepolitique，hedistinguishesbetweenartificialmonopoliesandnaturalmonopolies。Feudalmonopolies，hesays，areartificial，thatis，arbitrary;bourgeoismonopoliesarenatural，thatis，rational。
Monopolyisagoodthing，reasonsM。Proudhon，sinceitisaneconomiccategory，anemanation\"fromtheimpersonalreasonofhumanity\"。
Competition，again，isagoodthingsinceitalsoisaneconomiccategory。
Butwhatisnotgoodistherealityofmonopolyandtherealityofcompetition。
Whatisstillworseisthatcompetitionandmonopolydevoureachother。
Whatistobedone？？Lookforthesynthesisofthesetwoeternalthoughts，wrestitfromthebosomofGod，whereishasbeendepositedfromtimeimmemorial。
Inpracticallifewefindnotonlycompetition，monopolyandtheantagonismbetweenthem，butalsothesynthesisofthetwo，whichisnotaformula，butamovement。Monopolyproducescompetition，competitionproducesmonopoly。Monopolistsaremadefromcompetition;competitorsbecomemonopolists。
Ifthemonopolistsrestricttheirmutualcompetitionbymeansofpartialassociations，competitionincreasesamongtheworkers;andthemorethemassoftheproletariansgrowsasagainstthemonopolistsofonenation，themoredesperatecompetitionbecomesbetweenthemonopolistsofdifferentnations。Thesynthesisisofsuchacharacterthatmonopolycanonlymaintainitselfbycontinuallyenteringintothestruggleofcompetition。
Tomakethedialecticaltransitiontothetaxeswhichcomeaftermonopoly，M。Proudhontalkstousaboutthesocialgeniuswhich，afterzigzaggingintrepidlyonward，，\"afterstridingwithajauntystep，withoutrepentingandwithoutblting，reachesthecornerofmonopoly，castsbackwardamelancholyglance，and，afterprofoundreflection，assailsalltheobjectsofproductionwithtaxes，andcreatesawholeadministrativeorganization，inorderthatallemploymentsbegiventotheproletariatandpaidbythemenofmonopoly。\"
[I284，285]
Whatcanwesayofthisgenius，which，whilefasting，walksaboutinazigzag？？Andwhatcanwesayofthiswalkingwhichhasnootherobjectinviewthanthatofdestroyingthebourgeoisbytaxes，whereastaxesaretheverymeansofgivingthebourgeoisthewherewithaltopreservethemselvesastherulingclass？？
MerelytogiveaglimpseofthemannerinwhichM。Proudhontreatseconomicdetails，itsufficestosaythat，accordingtohim，thetaxonconsumptionwasestablishedwithaviewtoequality，andtorelievetheproletariat。
Thetaxonconsumptionhasassumeditstruedevelopmentonlysincetheriseofthebourgeoisie。Inthehandsofindustrialcapital，thatis，ofsoberandeconomicalwealth，whichmaintains，reproduces，andincreasesitselfbythedirectexploitationoflabor，thetaxonconsumptionwasameansofexploitingthefrivolous，gay，prodigalwealthofthefinelordswhodidnothingbutconsume，JamesSteuartclearlydevelopedthisoriginalpurposeofthetaxonconsumptioninhisRecherchesdesprincipesdel’economiepolitique，whichhepublished10yearsbeforeAdamSmith。
\"Underthepuremonarchy，theprinceseemsjealous，asitwere，ofgrowingwealth，andthereforeimposestaxesuponpeoplewhoaregrowingricher。Underthelimitedgovernmenttheyarecalculatedchieflytoaffectthosewhofromricharegrowingpoorer。Thusthemonarchimposesataxuponindustry，whereeveryoneisratedinproportiontothegainheissupposedtomakebyhisprofession。Thepoll—taxandtaillearelikewiseproportionedtothesupposedopulenceofeveryonelibeltothem……
Inlimitedgovernments，impositionsaremoregenerallylaiduponconsumption。\"
[II190—91]
Asforthelogicalsequenceoftaxes，ofthebalanceoftrade，ofcredit——intheunderstandingofM。Proudhon——wecouldonlyremarkthattheEnglishbourgeoisie，onattainingitspoliticalconstitutionunderWilliamofOrange，createdallatonceanewsystemoftaxes，publiccredit，andthesystemofprotectiveduties，assoonasitwasinapositionfreelytodevelopitsconditionsofexistence。
ThisbriefsummarywillsufficetogivethereaderatrueideaofM。Proudhon’slubricationsonthepoliceorontaxes，thebalanceoftrade，credit，communism，andpopulation。Wedefythemostindulgentcriticismtotreatthesechaptersseriously。
4。
PROPERTYORGROUNDRENT
Ineachhistoricalepoch，propertyhasdevelopeddifferentlyandunderasetofentirelydifferentsocialrelations。thustodefinebourgeoispropertyisnothingelsethantogiveanexpositionofallthesocialrelationsofbourgeoisproduction。
Totrytogiveadefinitionofpropertyasofanindependentrelation，acategoryapart，anabstractandeternalidea，canbenothingbutanillusionofmetaphysicsorjurisprudence。
M。Proudhon，whileseemingtospeakofpropertyingeneral，dealsonlywithlandedproperty，withgroundrent。
\"Theoriginofrent，asproperty，is，sotospeak，extra—economic：
itrestsinpsychologicalandmoralconsiderationswhichareonlyverydistantlyconnectedwiththeproductionofwealth。\"
（Vol。II，p。265）
SoM。Proudhondeclareshimselfincapableofunderstandingtheeconomicoriginofrentandofproperty。Headmitsthatthisincapacityobligeshimtoresorttopsychologicalandmoralconsiderations，which，indeed，whileonlydistantlyconnectedwiththeproductionofwealth，haveyetaverycloseconnectionwiththenarrownessofhishistoricalviews。M。
Proudhonaffirmsthatthereissomethingmysticalandmysteriousabouttheoriginofproperty。Now，toseemysteryintheoriginofproperty——thatis，tomakeamysteryoftherelationbetweenproductionitselfandthedistributionoftheinstrumentsofproduction——isnotthis，touseM。Proudhon’slanguage，arenunciationofallclaimstoeconomicscience？？
M。Proudhon\"confineshimselftorecallingthatattheseventhepochofeconomicevolution——credit——whenfictionhadcausedrealitytovanish，andhumanactivitythreatenedtoloseitselfinemptyspace，ithadbecomenecessarytobindmanmorecloselytonature。Now，rentwasthepriceofthisnewcontract。\"
（Vol。II，p。269）
L’hommeauxquaranteecus[ed：\"theManofFortyEcus\"——theheroofVoltaire’sstoryofthesamename，amodest，hard—workingpeasantwithanannualincomeof40ecus;thefollowingpassageisquotedfromthestory]foresawaM。
Proudhonofthefuture：
\"Mr。Creator，byyourleave：everyoneismasterinhisownworld：butyouwillnevermakemebelievethattheoneweliveinismadeofglass。\"
Inyourworld，wherecreditwasameansoflosingoneselfinemptyspace，itisverypossiblethatpropertybecamenecessaryinordertobindmantonature。Intheworldofrealproduction，wherelandedpropertyalwaysprecedescredit，M。Proudhon’shorrorvacuicouldnotexist。
Theexistenceofrentonceadmitted，whateveritsorigin，itbecomesasubjectofmutuallyantagonisticnegotiationsbetweenthefarmerandthelandedproprietor。Whatistheultimateresultofthesenegotiations，inotherwords，whatistheaverageamountofrent？？ThisiswhatM。Proudhonsays：
\"Ricardo’stheoryanswersthisquestion。Inthebeginningofsociety，whenman，newtoearth，hadbeforehimnothingbuthugeforests，whentheearthwasvastandwhenindustrywasbeginningtocometolife，rentmusthavebeennil。Land，asyetunformedbylabor，wasanobjectofutility;
itwasnotanexchangevalue，itwascommon，notsocial。Littlebylittle，themultiplicationoffamiliesandtheprogressofagriculturecausedthepriceoflandtomakeitselffelt。Laborcametogivethesoilitsworth;
fromthis，rentcameintobeing。Themorefruitafieldyieldedwiththesameamountoflabor，thehigheritwasvalued;hencethetendencyofproprietorswasalwaystoarrogatetothemselvesthewholeamountofthefruitsofthesoil，lessthewagesofthefarm——thatis，lessthecostsofproduc—
tion。Thuspropertyfollowedontheheelsoflabortotakefromitalltheproductthatexceededtheactualexpenses。Astheproprietorfulfilsamysticdutyandrepresentsthecommunityasagainstthecolonus，thatfarmeris，bythedispensationofProvidence，nomorethanaresponsiblelaborer，whomustaccounttosocietyforallhereapsabovehislegitimatewage……
\"Inessenceandbydestination，then，rentisaninstrumentofdistributivejustice，oneofthethousandmeansthatthegeniusofeconomyemploystoattaintoequality。Itisanimmediatelandvaluationwhichiscarriedoutcontradictor—ilybylandownersandfarmers，withoutanypossiblecollu—sion，inahigherinterest，andwhoseultimateresultmustbetoequalizethepossessionofthelandbetweentheex—ploitersofthesoilandtheindustrialists……
\"Itneedednolessthanthismagicofpropertytosnatchfromthecolonusthesurplusofhisproductwhichhecannothelpregardingashisownandofwhichheconsidershimselftobeexclusivelytheauthor。
Rent，orratherproperty，hasbrokendownagriculturalegoismandcreatedasolidaritythatnopower，nopartitionofthelandcouldhavebroughtintobeing……
\"Themoraleffectofpropertyhavingbeensecured，atpresentwhatremainstobedoneistodistributetherent。\"
[II270—72]
Allthistumultofwordsmaybereducedfirstlytothis：Ricardosaysthattheexcessofthepriceofagriculturalproductsovertheircostofproduction，includingtheordinaryprofitandinterestonthecapital，givesthemeasureoftherent。M。Proudhondoesbetter。Hemakesthelandownerintervene，likeaDeusexmachina，andsnatchfromthecolonusallthesurplusofhisproductionoverthecostofproduction。Hemakesuseoftheinterventionofthelandowner[proprietaire]toexplainproperty[propriete]，oftheinterventionoftherent—receiver[rentier]toexplainrent[rente]。
Heanswerstheproblembyformulatingthesameproblemandaddinganextrasyllable。[Marxmakesaplayonwords：turning\"propriete\"into\"proprietaire\"
and\"rente\"into\"rentier\"。]
Letusnotealsothatindeterminingrentbythedifferenceinfertilityofthesoil，M。Proudhonassignsaneworigintoit，sinceland，beforebeingassessedaccordingtodifferentdegreesoffertility，\"wasnot\"，inhisview，\"anexchangevalue，butwascommon\"。What，then，hashappenedtothefictionaboutrenthavingcomeintobeingthroughthenecessityofbringingbacktothelandmanwhowasabouttolosehimselfintheinfinityofemptyspace？？
NowletusfreeRicardo’sdoctrinefromtheprovidential，allegorical，andmysticalphrasesinwhichM。Proudhonhasbeencarefultowrapit。
Rent，intheRicardiansense，ispropertyinlandinitsbourgeoisstate;thatis，feudalpropertywhichhasbecomesubjecttotheconditionsofbourgeoisproduction。
Wehaveseenthat，accordingtotheRicardiandoctrine，thepriceofallobjectsisdeterminedultimatelybythecostofproduction，includingtheindustrialprofit;inotherwords，bythelabortimeemployed。Inmanufacturingindustry，thepriceoftheproductobtainedbytheminimumoflaborregulatesthepriceofallothercommoditiesofthesamekind，seeingthatthecheapestandmostproductiveinstrumentsofproductioncanbemultipliedtoinfinityandthatcompetitionnecessarilygivesrisetoamarketprice——thatis，acommonpriceforallproductsofthesamekind。
Inagriculturalindustry，onthecontrary，itisthepriceoftheproductobtainedbythegreatestamountoflaborwhichregulatesthepriceofallproductsofthesamekind。Inthefirstplace，onecannot，asinmanufacturingindustry，multiplyatwilltheinstrumentsofproductionpossessingthesamedegreeofproductivity，thatis，plotsoflandwiththesamedegreeoffertility。Then，aspopulationincreases，landofaninferiorqualitybeginstobeexploited，ornewoutlaysofcapital，proportionatelylessproductivethanbefore，aremadeuponthesameplotofland。Inbothcasesagreateramountoflaborisexpendedtoobtainaproportionatelysmallerproduct。Theneedsofthepopulationhavingrenderednecessarythisincreaseoflabor，theproductofthelandwhoseexploitationisthemorecostlyhasascertainasaleasthatofapieceoflandwhoseexploitationischeaper。Ascompetitionlevelsthemarketprice，theproductofthebettersoilwillbepaidforasdearlyasthatoftheinferior。Itistheexcessofthepriceoftheproductsofthebettersoiloverthecostoftheirproductionthatconstitutesrent。Ifonecouldalwayshaveatone’sdisposalplotsoflandofthesamedegreeoffertility;ifonecould，asinmanufacturingindustry，haverecoursecontinuallytocheaperandmoreproductivemachines，orifthesubsequentoutlaysofcapitalproducedasmuchasthefirst，thenthepriceofagriculturalproductswouldbedeterminedbythepriceofcommoditiesproducedbythebestinstrumentsofproduction，aswehaveseenwiththepriceofmanufacturedproducts。But，fromthismomentrentwouldhavedisappearedalso。
FortheRicardiandoctrine——\"oncethepremisesgranted\"[MarxpennedthesewordsintothecopyhegaveN。Utina]——tobegenerallytrue，itismoreoveressentialthatcapitalshouldbefreelyapplicabletodifferentbranchesofindustry;thatastronglydevelopedcompetitionamongthecapitalistsshouldhavebroughtprofitstoanequallevel;thatthefarmershouldbenomorethananindustrialcapitalistclaimingfortheuseofhiscapitaloninferiorland[Marxscratchedouttheword\"inferior\"inthecopyhegaveN。Utina]，aprofitequaltothatwhichhewoulddrawfromhiscapitalifitwereappliedinanykindofmanufacture;thatagriculturalexploitationshouldbesubjectedtotheregimeoflarge—scaleindustry;andfinally，thatthelandownerhimselfshouldaimatnothingbeyondthemoneyreturn。
Itmayhappen，asinIreland，thatrentdoesnotyetexist，althoughthelettingoflandhasreachedanextremedevelopmentthere。Rentbeingtheexcessnotonlyoverwages，butalsooverindustrialprofit，itcannotexistwherethelandowner’srevenueisnothingbutamerelevyonwages。
Thus，farfromconvertingtheexploiteroftheland，thefarmer，intoasimplelaborer，and\"snatchingfromthecultivatorthesurplusofhisproduct，whichhecannothelpregardingashisown\"，rentconfrontsthelandowner，notwiththeslave，theserf，thepayeroftribute，thewagelaborer，butwiththeindustrialcapitalist。
Onceconstitutedasgroundrent，groundpropertyhasinitspossessiononlythesurplusoverproductioncosts，whicharedeterminednotonlybywagesbutalsobyindustrialprofit。Itisthereforefromthelandownerthatgroundrentsnatchedapartofhisincome。Thus，therewasabiglapseoftimebeforethefeudalfarmerwasreplacedbytheindustrialcapitalist。
InGermany，forexample，thistransformationbeganonlyinthelastthirdofthe18thcentury。ItisinEnglandalonethatthisrelationbetweentheindustrialcapitalistandthelandedproprietorhasbeenfullydeveloped。
SolongastherewasonlyM。Proudhon’scolonus，therewasnorent。Theremomentrentexists，thecolonusisnolongerthefarmer，buttheworker，thefarmer’scolonus。Theabasementofthelaborer，reducedtotheroleofasimpleworker，daylaborer，wage—earner，workingfortheindustrialcapitalist;theinventionoftheindustrialcapitalist，exploitingthelandlikeanyotherfactory;thetransformationofthelandedproprietorfromapettysovereignintoavulgarusurer;thesearethedifferentrelationsexpressedbyrent。
Rent，intheRicardiansense，ispatriarchalagriculturetransformedintocommercialindustry，industrialcapitalappliedtoland，thetownbourgeoisietransplantedintothecountry。Rent，insteadofbindingmantonature，hasmerelyboundtheexploitationofthelandtocompetition。
Onceestablishedasrent，landedpropertyitselfistheresultofcompetition，sincefromthattimeonwardsitdependsonthemarketvalueofagriculturalproduce。Asrent，landedpropertyismobilizedandbecomesanarticleofcommerce。Rentispossibleonlyfromthemomentwhenthedevelopmentofurbanindustry，andthesocialorganizationresultingtherefrom，forcethelandownertoaimsolelyatcashprofits，atthemonetaryrelationofhisagriculturalproducts——infacttolookuponhislandedpropertyonlyasamachineforcoiningmoney。Renthassocompletelydivorcedthelandedproprietorfromthesoil，fromnature，thathehasnoneedeventoknowhisestates，asistobeseeninEngland。Asforthefarmer，theindustrialcapitalistandtheagriculturalworker，theyarenomoreboundtothelandtheyexploitthanaretheemployerandtheworkerinthefactoriestothecottonandwooltheymanufacture;theyfeelanattachmentonlyforthepriceoftheirproduction，themonetaryproduct。Hencethejeremiadsofthereactionaryparties，whoofferupalltheirprayersforthereturnoffeudalism，ofthegoodoldpatriarchallife，ofthesimplemannersandthefinevirtuesofourforefathers。Thesubjectionofthesoiltothelawswhichdominateallotherindustriesisandalwayswillbethesubjectofinterestedcondolences。Thusitmaybesaidthatrenthasbecomethemotivepowerwhichhasintroducedidyllintothemovementofhistory。
Ricardo，afterpostulatingbourgeoisproductionasnecessaryfordeterminingrent，appliestheconceptionofrent，nevertheless，tothelandedpropertyofallagesandallcountries。Thisisanerrorcommontoalltheeconomists，whorepresentthebourgeoisrelationsofproductionaseternalcategories。
Fromtheprovidentialaimofrent——whichis，forM。Proudhon，thetransformationofthecolonusintoaresponsibleworker，hepassestotheequalizedrewardofrent。
Rent，aswehavejustseen，isconstitutedbytheequalpriceoftheproductsoflandsofunequalfertility，sothatahectolitreofcornwhichhascost10francsissoldfor20francsifthecostofproductionrisesto20francsuponsoilofinferiorquality。
Solongasnecessityforcesthepurchaseofalltheagriculturalproductsintothemarket，themarketpriceisdeterminedbythecostofthemostexpensiveproduct。Thusitisthisequalizationofprice，resultingfromcompetitionandnotfromthedifferentfertilitiesofthelands，thatsecurestotheownerofthebettersoilarentfor10francsforeveryhectolitrethathistenantsells。
Letussupposeforamomentthatthepriceofcornisdeterminedbythelabortimeneededtoproduceit，andatoncethehectolitreofcornobtainedfromthebettersoilwillsellat10francs，whilethehectolitreofcornobtainedontheinferiorsoilwillcost20francs。Thisbeingadmitted，theaveragemarketpricewillbe15francs，whereas，accordingtothelawofcompetition，itis20francs。Iftheaveragepricewere15francs，therewouldbenooccassionforanydistribution，whetherequalizedorotherwise，fortherewouldbenorent。Rentexistsonlywhenonecansellfor20francsthehectolitreofcornwhichhascosttheproducer10francs。M。Proudhonsupposesequalityofthemarketprice，withunequalcostsofproduction，inordertoarriveatanequalizedsharingoutoftheproductofinequality。
WeunderstandsucheconomistsasMill，Cherbuliez，Hilditch，andothersdemandingthatrentshouldbehandedovertothestatetoserveinplaceoftaxes。Thatisafrankexpressionofthehatredtheindustrialcapitalistbearstowardsthelandedproprietor，whoseemstohimauselessthing，anexcrescenceuponthegeneralbodyofbourgeoisproduction。
Butfirsttomakethepriceofthehectolitreofcorn20francsinorderthentomakeageneraldistributionofthe10francsoverchargeleviedontheconsumer，isindeedenoughtomakethesocialgeniuspursueitszigzagcoursemournfully——andknockitsheadagainstsomecorner。
Rentbecomes，underM。Proudhon’spen，\"animmenselandvaluation，whichiscarriedoutcontradictorilybyland—ownersandfarmers……inahigherinterest，andwhoseultimateresultmustbetoequalizethepossesionoflandbetweenexploitersofthesoilandtheindustrialists。\"
[II271]
Foranylandvaluationbaseduponrenttobeofpracticalvalue，theconditionsofpresentsocietymustnotbedepartedfrom。
Now，wehaveshownthatthefarmrentpaidbythefarmertothelandlordexpressestherentwithanyexactitudeonlyinthecountriesmostadvancedinindustryandcommerce。Andeventhisrentoftenincludesinterestpaidtothelandlordoncapitalincorporatedintheland。Thelocationoftheland，thevicinityoftowns，andmanyothercircumstancesinfluencethefarmrentandmodifythegroundrent。Theseperemptoryreasonswouldbeenoughtoprovetheinaccuracyofalandvaluationbasedonrent。
Thushistory，farfromsupplying，inrent，aready—madelandvaluation，doesnothingbutchangeandturntopsy—turvythelandvaluationsalreadymade。
Finally，fertilityisnotsonaturalaqualityasmightbethought;
itiscloselyboundupwiththesocialrelationsofthetime。Apieceoflandmaybeveryfertileforcorngrowing，andyetthemarketpricemaydecidethecultivatortoturnitintoanartificialpasturelandandthusrenderitinfertile。
M。Proudhonhasimprovisedhislandvaluation，whichhasnoteventhevalueofanordinarylandvaluation，onlytogivesubstancetotheprovidentiallyequalitarianaimofrent。
\"Rent，\"continuesM。Proudhon，\"istheinterestpaidonacapitalwhichneverperishes，namely——land。Andasthecapitaliscapableofnoincreaseinmatter，butonlyofanindefiniteimprovementinitsuse，itcomesaboutthatwhiletheinterestorprofitonaloan（mutuum）tendstodiminishcontinuallythroughabundanceofcapital，renttendsalwaystoincreasethroughtheperfectingofindustry，fromwhichresultstheimprovementintheuseoftheland……Such，initsessence，isrent。\"
（Vol。II，p。265）
Thistime，M。Proudhonseesinrentallthecharacteristicsofinterest，savethatitisderivedfromcapitalofaspecificnature。Thiscapitalisland，aneternalcapital，\"whichiscapableofnoincreaseinmatter，butonlyanindefiniteimprovementinitsuse\"。Intheprogressiveadvanceofcivilization，interesthasacontinualtendencytofall，whilstrentcontinuallytendstorise。Interestfallsbecauseoftheabundanceofcapital;
rentrisesowningtotheimprovementsbroughtaboutinindustry，whichresultsinaneverbetterutilizationofland。
Such，initsessence，istheopinionofM。Proudhon。
Letusfirstexaminehowfaritistruetosaythatrentisinterestoncapital。
Forthelandedproprietorhimself，rentrepresentstheinterestonthecapitalthatthelandhascosthim，orthathewoulddrawfromitifhesoldit。Butinbuyingorsellinglandheonlybuysorsellsrent。
Thepricehepaystomakehimselfareceiverofrentisregulatedbytherateofinterestingeneralandhasnothingtodowithwithactualnatureofrent。Theinterestoncapitalinvestedinlandisingenerallowerlowerthantheinterestoncapitalinvestedinmanufactureorcommerce。Thus，forthosewhomakenodistinctionbetweentheinterestthatthelandrepresentstotheownerandtherentitself，theinterestonlandcapitaldiminishesstillmorethandoestheinterestonothercapital。Butitisnotaquestionofthepurchaseorsalepriceofrent，ofthemarketablevalueofrent，ofcapitalizedrent，itisaquestionofrentitself。
Farmrentcanimplyagain，apartfromrentproper，theinterestonthecapitalincorporatedintheland。Inthisinstancethelandlordreceivesthispartofthefarmrent，notasalandlordbutasacapitalist;
butthisisnottherentproperthatwearetodealwith。
Land，solongasitisnotexploitedasameansofproduction，isnotcapital。Landascapitalcanbeincreasedjustasmuchasalltheotherinstrumentsofproduction。Nothingisaddedtoitsmatter，touseM。Proudhon’slanguage，butthelandswhichserveasinstrumentsofproductionaremultiplied。Theveryfactofapplyingfurtheroutlaysofcapitaltolandalreadytransformedintomeansofproductionincreaseslandascapitalwithoutaddinganythingtolandasmatter——thatis，totheextentoftheland。M。Proudhon’slandasmatteristheEarthinitslimitation。
Asfortheeternityheattributestoland，wegrantreadilyithasthisvirtueasmatter。Landascapitalisnomoreeternalthananyothercapital。
Goldandsilver，whichyieldinterest，arejustaslastingandeternalasland。Ifthepriceofgoldandsilverfalls，whilethatoflandkeepsrising，thisiscertainlynotbecauseofitsmoreorlesseternalnature。
Landascapitalisfixedcapital;butfixedcapitalgetsusedupjustasmuchascirculatingcapital。Improvementstothelandneedproductionandupkeep;theylastonlyforatime;andthistheyhaveincommonwithallotherimprovementsusedtotransformmatterintomeansofproduction。
Iflandascapitalwereeternal，somelandswouldpresentaverydifferentappearancefromwhattheydotoday，andweshouldseetheRomanCampagna，Sicily，Palestine，inallthesplendouroftheirformerprosperity。
Thereareeveninstanceswhenlandascapitalmightdisappear，eventhoughtheimprovementsremainincorporatedintheland。
Inthefirstplace，thisoccurseverytimerentproperiswipedoutbythecompetitionofnewandmorefertilesoils;secondly，theimprovementswhichmighthavebeenvaluableatonetimeceasetobeofvaluethemomenttheybecomeuniversalowingtothedevelopmentofagronomy。
Therepresentativeoflandascapitalisnotthelandlord，butthefarmer。Theproceedsyieldedbylandascapitalareinterestandindustrialprofit，notrent。Therearelandswhichyieldsuchinterestandprofitbutstillyieldnorent。
Briefly，landinsofarasityieldsinterest，islandcapital，andaslandcapitalityieldsnorent，itisnotlandedproperty。Rentresultsfromthesocialrelationsinwhichtheexploitationofthelandtakesplace。Itcannotbearesultofthemoreorlesssolid，moreorlessdurablenatureofthesoil。Rentisaproductofsocietyandnotofthesoil。
AccordingtoM。Proudhon，\"improvementintheuseoftheland\"
——aconsequence\"oftheperfectingofindustry\"——causesthecontinualriseinrent。Onthecontrary，thisimprovementcausesitsperiodicfall。
Whereinconsists，ingeneral，anyimprovement，whetherinagricultureorinmanufacture？？Inproducingmorewiththesamelabor;inproducingasmuch，orevenmore，withlesslabor。Thankstotheseimprovements，thefarmerissparedfromusingagreateramountoflaborforarelativelysmallerproduct。Hehasnoneed，therefore，toresorttoinferiorsoils，andinstallmentsofcapitalappliedsuccessivelytothesamesoilremainequallyproductive。
Thus，theseimprovements，farfromcontinuallyraisingrentasM。Proudhonsays，becomeonthecontrarysomanytemporaryobstaclespreventingitsrise。
TheEnglishlandownersofthe17thcenturyweresowellawareofthistruth，thattheyopposedtheprogressofagricultureforfearofseeingtheirincomesdiminish。（SeePetty，anEnglisheconomistofthetimeofCharlesII。）
5。
STRIKESANDCOMBINATIONSOFWORKERS
\"Everyupwardmovementinwagescanhavenoothereffectthanariseinthepriceofcorn，wine，etc。，thatis，theeffectofadearth。Forwhatarewages？Theyarethecostpriceofcorn，etc。;theyaretheintegrantpriceofevery—thing。Wemaygoevenfurther：wagesaretheproportionoftheelementscomposingwealthandconsumedreproductivelyeverydaybythemassoftheworkers。Now，todoublewages……istoattributetoeachoneoftheproducersagreatersharethanhisproduct，whichiscontradictory，andiftheriseextendsonlytoasmallnumberofindustries，itbringsageneraldisturbanceinexchange;inaword，adearth……
\"Itisimpossible，Ideclare，forstrikesfollowedbyanincreaseinwagesnottoculminateinageneralriseinprices：thisisascertainasthattwoandtwomakefour。\"
（Proudhon，Vol。I，pp。110and111）
Wedenyalltheseassertions，exceptthattwoandtwomakefour。
Inthefirstplace，thereisnogeneralriseinprices。
Ifthepriceofeverythingdoublesatthesametimeaswages，thereisnochangeinprice，theonlychangeisinterms。
Thenagain，ageneralriseinwagescanneverproduceamoreorlessgeneralriseinthepriceofgoods。Actually，ifeveryindustryemployedthesamenumberofworkersinrelationtofixedcapitalortotheinstrumentsused，ageneralriseinwageswouldproduceageneralfallinprofitsandthecurrentpriceofgoodswouldundergonoalteration。
Butastherelationofmanuallabortofixedcapitalisnotthesameindifferentindustries，alltheindustrieswhichemployarelativelygreatermassofcapitalandfewerworkers，willbeforcedsoonerorlatertolowerthepriceoftheirgoods。Intheoppositecase，inwhichthepriceoftheirgoodsisnotlowered，theirprofitwillriseabovethecommonrateofprofits。Machinesarenotwage—earners。Therefore，thegeneralriseinwageswillaffectlessthoseindustries，which，comparedwiththeothers，employmoremachinesthanworkers。Butascompetitionalwaystendstoleveltherateofprofits，thoseprofitswhichriseabovetheaverageratecannotbutbetransitory。Thus，apartfromafewfluctuations，ageneralriseinwageswilllead，notasM。Proudhonsays，toageneralincreaseinprices，buttoapartialfall——thatisafallinthecurrentpriceofthegoodsthataremadechieflywiththehelpofmachines。
Theriseandfallofprofitsandwagesexpressesmerelytheproportioninwhichcapitalistsandworkersshareintheproductofaday’swork，withoutinfluencinginmostinstancesthepriceoftheproduct。Butthat\"strikesfollowedbyanincreaseinwagesculminateinageneralriseinprices，inadeartheven\"——thosearenotionswhichcanblossomonlyinthebrainofapoetwhohasnotbeenunderstood。
InEngland，strikeshaveregularlygivenrisetotheinventionandapplicationofnewmachines。Machineswere，itmaybesaid，theweaponemployedbythecapitalisttoquelltherevoltofspecializedlabor。Theself—actingmule，thegreatestinventionofmodernindustry，putoutofactionthespinnerswhowereinrevolt。Ifcombinationsandstrikeshadnoothereffectthanthatofmakingtheeffortsofmechanicalgeniusreactagainstthem，theywouldstillexerciseanimmenseinfluenceonthedevelopmentofindustry。
\"Ifind，\"continuesM。Proudhon，\"inanarticlepublishedbyM。LeonFaucher……September1845，thatforsometimetheBritishworkershavegotoutthehabitofcombination，whichisassuredlyaprogressforwhichonecannotbutcongratu—latethem：butthisimprovementinthemoraleoftheworkerscomeschieflyfromtheireconomiceducation。’Itisnotonthemanufacturers，’criesaspinning—millworkerataBoltonmeeting，’thatwagesdepend。Inperiodsofdepressionthemastersare，sotospeak，merelythewhipwithwhichneces—sityarmsitself，andwhethertheywanttoornot，theyhavetodealblows。Theregulativeprincipleistherelationofsupplyanddemand;andthemastershavenotthispower’……
\"Welldone！\"criesM。Proudhon。\"Thesearewell—trainedworkers，modelworkers，etc。，etc。，etc。SuchpovertydidnotexistinBritain;
itwillnotcrosstheChannel。\"
（Proudhon，Vol。I，pp。261and262）
OfallthetownsinEngland，Boltonistheoneinwhichtheradicalismisthemostdeveloped。TheBoltonworkersareknowntobethemostrevolutionaryofall。AtthetimeofthegreatagitationinEnglandfortheabolitionoftheCornLaws，theEnglishmanufacturersthoughtthattheycouldcopewiththelandownersonlybythrustingtheworkerstothefore。Butastheinterestsoftheworkerswerenolessopposedtothoseofthemanufacturersthantheinterestsofthemanufacturersweretothoseofthelandowners，itwasnaturalthatthemanufacturersshouldfarebadlyintheworkers’
meetings。Whatdidthemanufacturersdo？Tosaveappearancestheyorganizedmeetingscomposed，toalargeextent，offoremen，ofthesmallnumberofworkerswhoweredevotedtothem，andoftherealfriendsoftrade。
Whenlateronthegenuineworkerstried，asinBoltonandManchester，totakepartintheseshamdemonstrations，inordertoprotestagainstthem，theywereforbiddenadmittanceonthegroundthatitwasaticketmeeting——ameetingtowhichonlypersonswithentrancecardswereadmitted。Yetthepostersplacardedonthewallshadannouncedpublicmeetings。Everytimeoneofthesemeetingswasheld，themanufacturers’newspapersgaveapompousanddetailedaccountofthespeechesmade。Itgoeswithoutsayingthatitwastheforemenwhomadethesespeeches。TheLondonpapersreproducedthemwordforword。M。Proudhonhasthemisfortunetotakeforemenforordinaryworkers，andenjoinsthemnottocrosstheChannel。
Ifin1844and1845strikesdrewlessattentionthanbefore，itwasbecause1844and1845werethefirsttwoyearsofprosperitythatBritishindustryhadhadsince1837。Neverthelessnoneofthetradesunionshadbeendissolved。
NowletuslistentotheforemenofBolton。Accordingtothemmanufacturershavenocommandoverwagesbecausetheyhavenocommandoverthepriceofproducts，andtheyhavenocommandoverthepriceofproductsbecausetheyhavenocommandovertheworldmarket。Forthisreason，theywishittobeunderstoodthatcombinationsshouldnotbeformedtoextortanincreaseinwagesfromthemasters。M。Proudhon，onthecontrary，forbidscombinationsforfeartheyshouldbefollowedbyariseinwageswhichwouldbringwithitageneraldearth。WehavenoneedtosaythatononepointthereisanententecordialebetweentheforemenandM。Proudhon：
thatariseinwagesisequivalenttoariseinthepriceofproducts。
ButisthefearofadearththetruecauseofM。Proudhon’srancour？
No。Quitesimple，heisannoyedwiththeBoltonforemenbecausetheydeterminevaluebysupplyanddemandandhardlytakeanyaccountofconstitutedvalue，ofvaluewhichhaspassedintothestateofconstitution，oftheconstitutionofvalue，includingpermanentexchangeabilityandalltheotherproportionalitiesofrelationsandrelationsofproportionality，withProvidenceattheirside。
\"Aworkers’strikesisillegal，anditisnotonlythePenalCodethatsaysso，itistheeconomicsystem，thenecessityoftheestablishedorder……
\"Thateachworkerindividuallyshoulddisposefreelyoverhispersonandhishands，thiscanbetolerated，butthatworkersshouldundertakebycombinationtodoviolencetomonopoly，issomethingsocietycannotpermit。\"
（Vol。I，pp。334and335）
M。ProudhonwantstopassoffanarticleofthePenalCodeasanecessaryandgeneralresultofbourgeoisrelationsofproduction。
InEngland，combinationisauthorizedbyanActofParliament，anditistheeconomicsystemwhichhasforcedParliamenttograntthislegalauthorization。In1825，when，undertheMinisterHuskisson，Parliamenthadtomodifythelawinordertobringitmoreandmoreintolinewiththeconditionsresultingfromfreecompetition，ithadofnecessitytoabolishalllawsforbiddingcombinationsofworkers。Themoremodernindustryandcompetitiondevelop，themoreelementstherearewhichcallforthandstrengthcombination，andassoonascombinationbecomesaneconomicfact，dailygaininginsolidity，itisboundbeforelongtobecomealegalfact。
ThusthearticleofthePenalCodeprovesatthemostthatmodernindustryandcompetitionwerenotyetwelldevelopedundertheConstituentAssemblyandundertheEmpire。[Note：ThelawsinoperationatthattimeinFrance——theso—calledLeChapelierlawadoptedin1791duringthebourgeoisrevolutionbytheConstituentAssemblyandthecriminalcodeelaboratedundertheNapoleonicEmpire——forbadetheworkerstoformlaborunionsoftogoonstrikeonpainofseverepunishment。TheprohibitionoftradeunionswasabolishedinFranceaslateas1884。]
EconomistsandSocialists[thatis，theSocialistsofthattime：
theFourieristsinFrance，theOwenitesinEngland——Engels，1885]areinagreementononepoint：thecondemnationofcombination。Onlytheyhavedifferentmotivesfortheiractofcondemnation。
Theeconomistssaytoworkers：
Donotcombine。Bycombinationyouhindertheregularprogressofindustry，youpreventmanufacturersfromcarryingouttheirorders，youdisturbtradeandyouprecipitatetheinvasionofmachineswhich，byrenderingyourlaborinpartuseless，forceyoutoacceptastilllowerwage。Besides，whateveryoudo，yourwageswillalwaysbedeterminedbytherelationofhandsdemandedtohandssupplied，anditisaneffortasridiculousasitisdangerousforyoutorevoltagainsttheeternallawsofpoliticaleconomy。
TheSocialistssaytotheworkers：
Donotcombine，becausewhatwillyougainbyitanyway？Ariseinwages？Theeconomistswillprovetoyouquiteclearlythatthefewha’penceyoumaygainbyitforafewmomentsifyousucceedwillbefollowedbyapermanentfall。Skilledcalculatorswillprovetoyouthatitwouldtakeyouyearsmerelytorecover，throughtheincreaseinyourwages，theexpensesincurredfortheorganizationandupkeepofthecombinations。
Andwe，asSocialists，tellyouthat，apartfromthemoneyquestion，youwillcontinuenonethelesstobeworkers，andthemasterswillstillcontinuetobethemasters，justasbefore。Sonocombination！Nopolitics！
Forisnotenteringintocombinationengaginginpolitics？
Theeconomistswanttheworkerstoremaininsocietyasitisconstitutedandasithasbeensignedandsealedbythemintheirmanuals。
TheSocialistswanttheworkerstoleavetheoldsocietyalone，thebettertobeabletoenterthenewsocietywhichtheyhavepreparedforthemwithsomuchforesight。
Inspiteofbothofthem，inspiteofmanualsandutopias，combinationhasnotyetceasedforaninstanttogoforwardandgrowwiththedevelopmentandgrowthofmodernindustry。Ithasnowreachedsuchastage，thatthedegreetowhichcombinationhasdevelopedinanycountryclearlymarkstherankitoccupiesinthehierarchyoftheworldmarket。England，whoseindustryhasattainedthehighestdegreeofdevelopment，hasthebiggestandbestorganizedcombinations。
InEngland，theyhavenotstoppedatpartialcombinationswhichhavenootherobjectivethanapassingstrike，andwhichdisappearwithit。Permanentcombinationshavebeenformed，tradesunions，whichserveasrampartsfortheworkersintheirstruggleswiththeemployers。
AndatthepresenttimealltheselocaltradesunionsfindarallyingpointintheNationalAssociationofUnitedTrades，thecentralcommitteeofwhichisinLondon，andwhichalreadynumbers80，000members。[NAUT——
AtradeunionorganizationestablishedinEnglandin1845。Itsactivitiesdidnotextendbeyondthescopeofeconomicstruggleforbetterconditionsofsaleoflaborpower，forbetterlaborlaws。TheAssociationexisteduntiltheearly’60s，butafter1851，itdidnotplayanimportantpartinthetradeunionmovement。——ed。]theorganizationofthesestrikes，combinations，andtradesunionswentonsimultaneouslywiththepoliticalstrugglesoftheworkers，whonowconstitutealargepoliticalparty，underthenameofChartists。
Thefirstattemptofworkerstoassociateamongthemselvesalwaystakesplaceintheformofcombinations。
Large—scaleindustryconcentratesinoneplaceacrowdofpeopleunknowntooneanother。Competitiondividestheirinterests。Butthemaintenanceofwages，thiscommoninterestwhichtheyhaveagainsttheirboss，unitestheminacommonthoughtofresistance——combination。Thuscombinationalwayshasadoubleaim，thatofstoppingcompetitionamongtheworkers，sothattheycancarryongeneralcompetitionwiththecapitalist。Ifthefirstaimofresistancewasmerelythemaintenanceofwages，combinations，atfirstisolated，constitutethemselvesintogroupsasthecapitalistsintheirturnuniteforthepurposeofrepression，andinthefaceofalwaysunitedcapital，themaintenanceoftheassociationbecomesmorenecessarytothemthanthatofwages。ThisissotruethatEnglisheconomistsareamazedtoseetheworkerssacrificeagoodpartoftheirwagesinfavorofassociations，which，intheeyesoftheseeconomists，areestablishedsolelyinfavorofwages。Inthisstruggle——averitablecivilwar——
alltheelementsnecessaryforacomingbattleuniteanddevelop。Onceithasreachedthispoint，associationtakesonapoliticalcharacter。
Economicconditionshadfirsttransformedthemassofthepeopleofthecountryintoworker。Thecombinationofcapitalhascreatedforthismassacommonsituation，commoninterests。Thismassisthusalreadyaclassasagainstcapital，butnotyetforitself。Inthestruggle，ofwhichwehavenotedonlyafewphases，thismassbecomesunited，andconstitutesitselfasaclassforitself。Theinterestsitdefendsbecomesclassinterests。
Butthestruggleofclassagainstclassisapoliticalstruggle。
Inthebourgeoisiewehavetwophasestodistinguish：thatinwhichitconstituteditselfasaclassundertheregimeoffeudalismandabsolutemonarchy，andthatinwhich，alreadyconstitutedasaclass，itoverthrewfeudalismandmonarchytomakesocietyintoabourgeoissociety。
Thefirstofthesephaseswasthelongerandnecessitatedthegreaterefforts。
Thistoobeganbypartialcombinationsagainstthefeudallords。
Muchresearchhasbeencarriedouttotracethedifferenthistoricalphasesthatthebourgeoisiehaspassedthrough，fromthecommuneuptoitsconstitutionasaclass。
Butwhenitisaquestionofmakingaprecisestudyofstrikes，combinationsandotherformsinwhichtheproletarianscarryoutbeforeoureyestheirorganizationasaclass，someareseizedwithrealfearandothersdisplayatranscendentaldisdain。
Anoppressedclassisthevitalconditionforeverysocietyfoundedontheantagonismofclasses。Theemancipationoftheoppressedclassthusimpliesnecessarilythecreationofanewsociety。Fortheoppressedclasstobeabletoemancipateitself，itisnecessarythattheproductivepowersalreadyacquiredandtheexistingsocialrelationsshouldnolongerbecapableofexistingsidebyside。Ofalltheinstrumentsofproduction，thegreatestproductivepoweristherevolutionaryclassitself。Theorganizationofrevolutionaryelementsasaclasssupposestheexistenceofalltheproductiveforceswhichcouldbeengenderedinthebosomoftheoldsociety。
Doesthismeanthatafterthefalloftheoldsocietytherewillbeanewclassdominationculminatinginanewpoliticalpower？No。
Theconditionfortheemancipationoftheworkingclassistheabolitionofeveryclass，justastheconditionfortheliberationofthethirdestate，ofthebourgeoisorder，wastheabolitionofallestatesandallorders。[Estateshereinthehistoricalsenseoftheestatesoffeudalism，estateswithdefiniteandlimitedprivileges。Therevolutionofthebourgeoisieabolishedtheestatesandtheirprivileges。Bourgeoissocietyknowsonlyclasses。Itwas，therefore，absolutelyincontradictionwithhistorytodescribetheproletariatasthe\"fourthestate\"——Engels，1885Germanedition。]
Theworkingclass，inthecourseofitsdevelopment，willsubstitutefortheoldcivilsocietyanassociationwhichwillexcludeclassesandtheirantagonism，andtherewillbenomorepoliticalpowerproperlyso—called，sincepoliticalpowerispreciselytheofficialexpressionofantagonismincivilsociety。
Meanwhiletheantagonismbetweentheproletariatandthebourgeoisieisastruggleofclassagainstclass，astrugglewhichcarriedtoitshighestexpressionisatotalrevolution。Indeed，isitatallsurprisingthatasocietyfoundedontheoppositionofclassesshouldculminateinbrutalcontradiction，theshockofbodyagainstbody，asitsfinaldenouement？
Donotsaythatsocialmovementexcludespoliticalmovement。Thereisneverapoliticalmovementwhichisnotatthesametimesocial。
Itisonlyinanorderofthingsinwhichtherearenomoreclassesandclassantagonismsthatsocialevolutionswillceasetobepoliticalrevolutions。Tillthen，ontheeveofeverygeneralreshufflingofsociety，thelastwordofsocialsciencewillalwaysbe：
\"Lecombatonlamort;laluttesanguinaireouleneant。C’estainsiquelaquestionestinvinciblementposee。\"
GeorgeSand[FromthenovelJeanSiska：\"CombatorDeath：bloodystruggleorextinction。Itisthusthatthequestionisinexorablyput。\"]