Faithfulwatchmenweoughttobeovertherightsandprivilegesofthepeople。Butourduty，ifwearequalifiedforitasweought，istogivetheminformation，andnottoreceiveitfromthem;wearenottogotoschooltothemtolearntheprinciplesoflawandgovernment。Indoingsoweshouldnotdutifullyserve，butweshouldbaselyandscandalouslybetray，thepeople，whoarenotcapableofthisservicebynature，norinanyinstancecalledtoitbytheConstitution。Ireverentiallylookuptotheopinionofthepeople，andwithanawethatisalmostsuperstitious。Ishouldbeashamedtoshowmyfacebeforethem，ifIchangedmyground，astheycrieduporcrieddownmen，orthings，oropinions;ifIwaveredandshiftedaboutwitheverychange，andjoinedinit，oropposed，asbestansweredanylowinterestorpassion;ifIheldthemuphopes，whichIknewIneverintended，orpromisedwhatIwellknewIcouldnotperform。Ofallthesethingstheyareperfectsovereignjudgeswithoutappeal;butastothedetailofparticularmeasures，ortoanygeneralschemesofpolicy，theyhaveneitherenoughofspeculationinthecloset，norofexperienceinbusiness，todecideuponit。Theycanwellseewhetherwearetoolsofacourt，ortheirhonestservants。Ofthattheycanwelljudge;andIwishthattheyalwaysexercisedtheirjudgment;butoftheparticularmeritsofameasureIhaveotherstandards。Thatthefrequencyofelectionsproposedbythisbillhasatendencytoincreasethepowerandconsiderationoftheelectors，notlessencorruptibility，Idomostreadilyallow;sofarasitisdesirable，thisiswhatithas;
Iwilltellyounowwhatithasnot：1st。Ithasnosortoftendencytoincreasetheirintegrityandpublicspirit，unlessanincreaseofpowerhasanoperationuponvotersinelections，thatithasinnoothersituationintheworld，anduponnootherpartofmankind。2nd。ThisbillhasnotendencytolimitthequantityofinfluenceintheCrown，torenderitsoperationmoredifficult，ortocounteractthatoperation，whichitcannotprevent，inanywaywhatsoever。Ithasitsfullweight，itsfullrange，anditsuncontrolledoperationontheelectorsexactlyasithadbefore。
3rd。Nor，thirdly，doesitabatetheinterestorinclinationofMinisterstoapplythatinfluencetotheelectors：onthecontrary，itrendersitmuchmorenecessarytothem，iftheyseektohaveamajorityinparliament，toincreasethemeansofthatinfluence，andredoubletheirdiligence，andtosharpendexterityintheapplication。Thewholeeffectofthebillisthereforetheremovingtheapplicationofsomepartoftheinfluencefromtheelectedtotheelectors，andfurthertostrengthenandextendacourtinterestalreadygreatandpowerfulinboroughs;heretofixtheirmagazinesandplacesofarms，andthustomakethemtheprincipal，notthesecondary，theatreoftheirmanoeuvresforsecuringadeterminedmajorityinparliament。
Ibelievenobodywilldenythattheelectorsarecorruptible。Theyaremen;itissayingnothingworseofthem;manyofthemarebutill—informedintheirminds，manyfeebleintheircircumstances，easilyover—reached，easilyseduced。Iftheyaremany，thewagesofcorruptionarethelower;andwouldtoGoditwerenotratheracontemptibleandhypocriticaladulationthanacharitablesentiment，tosaythatthereisalreadynodebauchery，nocorruption，nobribery，noperjury，noblindfury，andinterestedfactionamongtheelectorsinmanypartsofthiskingdom：norisitsurprising，oratallblamable，inthatclassofprivatemen，whentheyseetheirneighboursaggrandised，andthemselvespoorandvirtuous，withoutthateclatordignitywhichattendsmeninhigherstations。
Butadmititweretruethatthegreatmassoftheelectorsweretoovastanobjectforcourtinfluencetograsp，orextendto，andthatindespairtheymustabandonit;hemustbeveryignorantofthestateofeverypopularinterest，whodoesnotknowthatinallthecorporations，alltheopenboroughs——indeed，ineverydistrictofthekingdom——thereissomeleadingman，someagitator，somewealthymerchant，orconsiderablemanufacturer，someactiveattorney，somepopularpreacher，somemoney—lender，&c。，&c。，whoisfollowedbythewholeflock。Thisisthestyleofallfreecountries。
—MultuminFabiavalethic，valetilleVelina;
Cuilibethicfascesdabiteripietquecurule。
Thesespirits，eachofwhichinformsandgovernshisownlittleorb，areneithersomany，norsolittlepowerful，norsoincorruptible，butthataMinistermay，ashedoesfrequently，findmeansofgainingthem，andthroughthemalltheirfollowers。Toestablish，therefore，averygeneralinfluenceamongelectorswillnomorebefoundanimpracticableproject，thantogainanundueinfluenceovermembersofparliament。ThereforeIamapprehensivethatthisbill，thoughitshiftstheplaceofthedisorder，doesbynomeansrelievetheConstitution。Iwentthroughalmosteverycontestedelectioninthebeginningofthisparliament，andactedasamanagerinverymanyofthem：bywhich，thoughataschoolofprettysevereandraggeddiscipline，Icametohavesomedegreeofinstructionconcerningthemeansbywhichparliamentaryinterestsareingeneralprocuredandsupported。
Theory，Iknow，wouldsuppose，thateverygeneralelectionistotherepresentativeadayofjudgment，inwhichheappearsbeforehisconstituentstoaccountfortheuseofthetalentwithwhichtheyentrustedhim，andoftheimprovementhehadmadeofitforthepublicadvantage。Itwouldbeso，ifeverycorruptiblerepresentativeweretofindanenlightenedandincorruptibleconstituent。Butthepracticeandknowledgeoftheworldwillnotsufferustobeignorant，thattheConstitutiononpaperisonething，andinfactandexperienceisanother。Wemustknowthatthecandidate，insteadoftrustingathiselectiontothetestimonyofhisbehaviourinparliament，mustbringthetestimonyofalargesumofmoney，thecapacityofliberalexpenseinentertainments，thepowerofservingandobligingtherulersofcorporations，ofwinningoverthepopularleadersofpoliticalclubs，associations，andneighbourhoods。Itistenthousandtimesmorenecessarytoshowhimselfamanofpower，thanamanofintegrity，inalmostalltheelectionswithwhichIhavebeenacquainted。Elections，therefore，becomeamatterofheavyexpense;andifcontestsarefrequent，tomanytheywillbecomeamatterofanexpensetotallyruinous，whichnofortunescanbear;butleastofallthelandedfortunes，encumberedastheyoften，indeedastheymostlyare，withdebts，withportions，withjointures;andtiedupinthehandsofthepossessorbythelimitationsofsettlement。Itisamaterial，itisinmyopinionalasting，consideration，inallthequestionsconcerningelection。Letnoonethinkthechargesofelectionatrivialmatter。
Thecharge，therefore，ofelectionsoughtnevertobelostsightof，inaquestionconcerningtheirfrequency，becausethegrandobjectyouseekisindependence。Independenceofmindwilleverbemoreorlessinfluencedbyindependenceoffortune;andif，everythreeyears，theexhaustingsluicesofentertainments，drinkings，openhouses，tosaynothingofbribery，aretobeperiodicallydrawnupandrenewed——ifgovernmentfavours，forwhichnow，insomeshapeorother，thewholeraceofmenarecandidates，aretobecalledforuponeveryoccasion，Iseethatprivatefortuneswillbewashedaway，andevery，eventotheleast，traceofindependence，bornedownbythetorrent。IdonotseriouslythinkthisConstitution，eventothewrecksofit，couldsurvivefivetriennialelections。
Ifyouaretofightthebattle，youmustputonthearmouroftheMinistry;youmustcallinthepublic，totheaidofprivate，money。
Theexpenseofthelastelectionhasbeencomputed（andIampersuadedthatithasnotbeenoverrated）at1，500，000pounds;threeshillingsinthepoundmoreontheLandTax。AboutthecloseofthelastParliament，andthebeginningofthis，severalagentsforboroughswentabout，andIrememberwellthatitwasineveryoneoftheirmouths——\"Sir，yourelectionwillcostyouthreethousandpounds，ifyouareindependent;butiftheMinistrysupportsyou，itmaybedonefortwo，andperhapsforless;\"and，indeed，thethingspokeitself。Wherealivingwastobegotforone，acommissioninthearmyforanother，apostinthenavyforathird，andCustom—
houseofficesscatteredaboutwithoutmeasureornumber，whodoubtsbutmoneymaybesaved？TheTreasurymayevenaddmoney;but，indeed，itissuperfluous。Agentlemanoftwothousandayear，whomeetsanotherofthesamefortune，fightswithequalarms;butiftooneofthecandidatesyouaddathousandayearinplacesforhimself，andapowerofgivingawayasmuchamongothers，onemust，orthereisnotruthinarithmeticaldemonstration，ruinhisadversary，ifheistomeethimandtofightwithhimeverythirdyear。Itwillbesaid，Idonotallowfortheoperationofcharacter;butIdo;andIknowitwillhaveitsweightinmostelections;perhapsitmaybedecisiveinsome。Buttherearefewinwhichitwillpreventgreatexpenses。
Thedestructionofindependentfortuneswillbetheconsequenceonthepartofthecandidate。Whatwillbetheconsequenceoftriennialcorruption，triennialdrunkenness，triennialidleness，trienniallaw—suits，litigations，prosecutions，triennialfrenzy;ofsocietydissolved，industryinterrupted，ruined;ofthosepersonalhatredsthatwillneverbesufferedtosoften;thoseanimositiesandfeuds，whichwillberenderedimmortal;thosequarrels，whicharenevertobeappeased;moralsvitiatedandgangrenedtothevitals？
Ithinknostableandusefuladvantageswereevermadebythemoneygotatelectionsbythevoter，butallhegetsisdoublylosttothepublic;itismoneygiventodiminishthegeneralstockofthecommunity，whichistheindustryofthesubject。Iamsurethatitisagoodwhilebeforeheorhisfamilysettleagaintotheirbusiness。Theirheadswillnevercool;thetemptationsofelectionswillbeforeverglitteringbeforetheireyes。Theywillallgrowpoliticians;everyone，quittinghisbusiness，willchoosetoenrichhimselfbyhisvote。Theywilltakethegauging—rod;newplaceswillbemadeforthem;theywillruntotheCustom—housequay，theirloomsandploughswillbedeserted。
SowasRomedestroyedbythedisordersofcontinualelections，thoughthoseofRomeweresoberdisorders。Theyhadnothingbutfaction，bribery，bread，andstageplaystodebauchthem。Wehavetheinflammationofliquorsuperadded，afuryhotterthananyofthem。Therethecontestwasonlybetweencitizenandcitizen;hereyouhavethecontestsofambitiouscitizensononeside，supportedbytheCrown，toopposetotheefforts（letitbeso）ofprivateandunsupportedambitionontheother。YetRomewasdestroyedbythefrequencyandchargeofelections，andthemonstrousexpenseofanunremittedcourtshiptothepeople。Ithink，therefore，theindependentcandidateandelectormayeachbedestroyedbyit，thewholebodyofthecommunitybeaninfinitesufferer，andaviciousMinistrytheonlygainer。Gentlemen，Iknow，feeltheweightofthisargument;theyagreethatthiswouldbetheconsequenceofmorefrequentelections，ifthingsweretocontinueastheyare。Buttheythinkthegreatnessandfrequencyoftheevilwoulditselfbearemedyforit;that，sittingbutforashorttime，thememberwouldnotfinditworthwhiletomakesuchvastexpenses，whilethefearoftheirconstituentswillholdthemthemoreeffectuallytotheirduty。
TothisIanswer，thatexperienceisfullagainstthem。Thisisnonewthing;wehavehadtriennialparliaments;atnoperiodoftimewereseatsmoreeagerlycontested。Theexpensesofelectionsranhigher，takingthestateofallcharges，thantheydonow。Theexpenseofentertainmentswassuch，thatanAct，equallysevereandineffectual，wasmadeagainstit;everymonumentofthetimebearswitnessoftheexpense，andmostoftheActsagainstcorruptioninelectionswerethenmade;allthewriterstalkedofitandlamentedit。Willanyonethinkthatacorporationwillbecontentedwithabowlofpunch，orapieceofbeeftheless，becauseelectionsareeverythree，insteadofeverysevenyears？Willtheychangetheirwineforale，becausetheyaretogetmorealethreeyearshence？
Donotthinkit。Willtheymakefewerdemandsfortheadvantagesofpatronageinfavoursandoffices，becausetheirmemberisbroughtmoreundertheirpower？WehavenotonlyourownhistoricalexperienceinEnglanduponthissubject，butwehavetheexperienceco—existingwithusinIreland，where，sincetheirParliamenthasbeenshortened，theexpenseofelectionshasbeensofarfrombeingloweredthatithasbeenveryneardoubled。Formerlytheysatfortheking’slife;theordinarychargeofaseatinParliamentwasthen1，500pounds。Theynowsiteightyears，foursessions：itisnow2，500poundsandupwards。Thespiritofemulationhasalsobeenextremelyincreased，andallwhoareacquaintedwiththetoneofthatcountryhavenodoubtthatthespiritisstillgrowing，thatnewcandidateswilltakethefield，thatthecontestswillbemoreviolent，andtheexpensesofelectionslargerthanever。
Itnevercanbeotherwise。AseatinthisHouse，forgoodpurposes，forbadpurposes，fornopurposeatall（exceptthemereconsiderationderivedfrombeingconcernedinthepubliccouncils）
willeverbeafirst—rateobjectofambitioninEngland。Ambitionisnoexactcalculator。Avariceitselfdoesnotcalculatestrictlywhenitgames。Onethingiscertain，thatinthispoliticalgamethegreatlotteryofpoweristhatintowhichmenwillpurchasewithmillionsofchancesagainstthem。InTurkey，wheretheplace，wherethefortune，wheretheheaditself，aresoinsecure，thatscarcelyanyhavediedintheirbedsforages，sothatthebowstringisthenaturaldeathofBashaws，yetinnocountryispoweranddistinction（precariousenough，Godknows，inall）soughtforwithsuchboundlessavidity，asifthevalueofplacewasenhancedbythedangerandinsecurityofitstenure。NothingwillevermakeaseatinthisHousenotanobjectofdesiretonumbersbyanymeansoratanycharge，butthedeprivingitofallpowerandalldignity。Thiswoulddoit。Thisisthetrueandonlynostrumforthatpurpose。
ButaHouseofCommonswithoutpowerandwithoutdignity，eitherinitselforitsmembers，isnoHouseofCommonsforthepurposesofthisConstitution。
Buttheywillbeafraidtoactill，iftheyknowthatthedayoftheiraccountisalwaysnear。Iwishitweretrue，butitisnot;
hereagainwehaveexperience，andexperienceisagainstus。Thedistemperofthisageisapovertyofspiritandofgenius;itistrifling，itisfutile，worsethanignorant，superficiallytaught，withthepoliticsandmoralsofgirlsataboarding—school，ratherthanofmenandstatesmen;butitisnotyetdesperatelywicked，orsoscandalouslyvenalasinformertimes。Didnotatriennialparliamentgiveupthenationaldignity，approvethePeaceofUtrecht，andalmostgiveupeverythingelseintakingeverysteptodefeattheProtestantsuccession？WasnottheConstitutionsavedbythosewhohadnoelectionatalltogoto，theLords，becausetheCourtappliedtoelectors，andbyvariousmeanscarriedthemfromtheirtrueinterests;sothattheToryMinistryhadamajoritywithoutanapplicationtoasinglemember？Now，astotheconductofthemembers，itwasthenfarfrompureandindependent。Briberywasinfinitelymoreflagrant。Apredecessorofyours，Mr。Speaker，putthequestionofhisownexpulsionforbribery。SirWilliamMusgravewasawiseman，agraveman，anindependentman，amanofgoodfortuneandgoodfamily;however，hecarriedonwhileinoppositionatraffic，ashamefultrafficwiththeMinistry。BishopBurnetknewof6，000poundswhichhehadreceivedatonepayment。I
believethepaymentofsumsinhardmoney——plain，nakedbribery——israreamongstus。Itwasthenfarfromuncommon。
Atriennialwasnearruining，aseptennialparliamentsaved，yourConstitution;norperhapshaveyoueverknownamoreflourishingperiodfortheunionofnationalprosperity，dignity，andliberty，thanthesixtyyearsyouhavepassedunderthatConstitutionofparliament。
Theshortnessoftime，inwhichtheyaretoreaptheprofitsofiniquity，isfarfromcheckingtheavidityofcorruptmen;itrenderstheminfinitelymoreravenous。Theyrushviolentlyandprecipitatelyontheirobject，theyloseallregardtodecorum。Themomentsofprofitareprecious;neveraremensowickedasduringageneralmortality。ItwassointhegreatplagueatAthens，everysymptomofwhich（andthisitsworstamongsttherest）issofinelyrelatedbyagreathistorianofantiquity。ItwassointheplagueofLondonin1665。Itappearsinsoldiers，sailors，&c。Whoeverwouldcontrivetorenderthelifeofmanmuchshorterthanitis，would，Iamsatisfied，findthesurestrecipeforincreasingthewickednessofournature。
Thus，inmyopinion，theshortnessofatriennialsittingwouldhavethefollowingilleffects：—Itwouldmakethemembermoreshamelesslyandshockinglycorrupt，itwouldincreasehisdependenceonthosewhocouldbestsupporthimathiselection，itwouldwrackandteartopiecesthefortunesofthosewhostoodupontheirownfortunesandtheirprivateinterest，itwouldmaketheelectorsinfinitelymorevenal，anditwouldmakethewholebodyofthepeople，whoare，whethertheyhavevotesornot，concernedinelections，morelawless，moreidle，moredebauched;itwouldutterlydestroythesobriety，theindustry，theintegrity，thesimplicityofallthepeople，andundermine，Iammuchafraid，thedeepestandbestlaidfoundationsofthecommonwealth。
Thosewhohavespokenandwrittenuponthissubjectwithoutdoors，donotsomuchdenytheprobableexistenceoftheseinconveniencesintheirmeasure，astheytrustforthepreventiontoremediesofvarioussorts，whichtheypropose。First，aplacebill;butifthiswillnotdo，astheyfearitwillnot，then，theysay，wewillhavearotation，andacertainnumberofyoushallberenderedincapableofbeingelectedfortenyears。Then，fortheelectors，theyshallballot;themembersofparliamentalsoshalldecidebyballot;andafifthprojectisthechangeofthepresentlegalrepresentationofthekingdom。OnallthisIshallobserve，thatitwillbeveryunsuitabletoyourwisdomtoadopttheprojectofabill，towhichthereareobjectionsinsuperablebyanythinginthebillitself，uponthehopethatthoseobjectionsmayberemovedbysubsequentprojects;everyoneofwhichisfullofdifficultiesofitsown，andwhichareallofthemveryessentialalterationsintheConstitution。Thisseemsveryirregularandunusual。Ifanythingshouldmakethisaverydoubtfulmeasure，whatcanmakeitmoresothanthat，intheopinionofitsadvocates，itwouldaggravateallouroldinconveniencesinsuchamannerastorequireatotalalterationintheConstitutionofthekingdom？Iftheremediesareproperinatriennial，theywillnotbelesssoinseptennialelections;letustrythemfirst，seehowtheHouserelishesthem，seehowtheywilloperateinthenation;andthen，havingfeltyourway，youwillbepreparedagainsttheseinconveniences。
ThehonourablegentlemanseesthatIrespecttheprincipleuponwhichhegoes，aswellashisintentionsandhisabilities。HewillbelievethatIdonotdifferfromhimwantonly，andontrivialgrounds。Heisverysurethatitwasnothisembracingonewaywhichdeterminedmetotaketheother。Ihavenot，innewspapers，toderogatefromhisfairfamewiththenation，printedthefirstrudesketchofhisbillwithungenerousandinvidiouscomments。I
havenot，inconversationsindustriouslycirculatedaboutthetown，andtalkedonthebenchesofthisHouse，attributedhisconducttomotiveslowandunworthy，andasgroundlessastheyareinjurious。
Idonotaffecttobefrightenedwiththisproposition，asifsomehideousspectrehadstartedfromhell，whichwastobesentbackagainbyeveryformofexorcism，andeverykindofincantation。I
invokenoAcherontooverwhelmhiminthewhirlpoolsofhismuddygulf。Idonottelltherespectablemoverandseconder，byaperversionoftheirsenseandexpressions，thattheirpropositionhaltsbetweentheridiculousandthedangerous。Iamnotoneofthosewhostartupthreeatatime，andfalluponandstrikeathimwithsomucheagerness，thatourdaggershackoneanotherinhissides。Myhonourablefriendhasnotbroughtdownaspiritedimpofchivalry，towinthefirstachievementandblazonofarmsonhismilk—whiteshieldinafieldlistedagainsthim，norbroughtoutthegenerousoffspringoflions，andsaidtothem，\"Notagainstthatsideoftheforest，bewareofthat——hereisthepreywhereyouaretofastenyourpaws;\"andseasoninghisunpractisedjawswithblood，tellhim，\"Thisisthemilkforwhichyouaretothirsthereafter。\"
Wefurnishathisexpensenoholiday，norsuspendhellthatacraftyIxionmayhaverestfromhiswheel;norgivethecommonadversary，ifhebeacommonadversary，reasontosay，\"Iwouldhaveputinmywordtooppose，buttheeagernessofyouralliesinyoursocialwarwassuchthatIcouldnotbreakinuponyou。\"Ihopeheseesandfeels，andthateverymemberseesandfeelsalongwithhim，thedifferencebetweenamicabledissentandcivildiscord。
SPEECHONREFORMOFREPRESENTATIONINTHEHOUSEOFCOMMONS
June，1784
Mr。Speaker，——Wehavenowdiscovered，atthecloseoftheeighteenthcentury，thattheConstitutionofEngland，whichforaseriesofageshadbeentheprouddistinctionofthiscountry，alwaystheadmiration，andsometimestheenvy，ofthewiseandlearnedineveryothernation——wehavediscoveredthatthisboastedConstitution，inthemostboastedpartofit，isagrossimpositionupontheunderstandingofmankind，aninsulttotheirfeelings，andactingbycontrivancesdestructivetothebestandmostvaluableinterestsofthepeople。OurpoliticalarchitectshavetakenasurveyofthefabricoftheBritishConstitution。ItissingularthattheyreportnothingagainsttheCrown，nothingagainsttheLords;butintheHouseofCommonseverythingisunsound;itisruinousineverypart。
Itisinfestedbythedryrot，andreadytotumbleaboutourearswithouttheirimmediatehelp。Youknowbythefaultstheyfindwhataretheirideasofthealteration。Asallgovernmentstandsuponopinion，theyknowthatthewayutterlytodestroyitistoremovethatopinion，totakeawayallreverence，allconfidencefromit;
andthen，atthefirstblastofpublicdiscontentandpopulartumult，ittumblestotheground。
Inconsideringthisquestion，theywhoopposeit，opposeitondifferentgrounds;oneisinthenatureofapreviousquestion——thatsomealterationsmaybeexpedient，butthatthisisnotthetimeformakingthem。Theotheris，thatnoessentialalterationsareatallwanting，andthatneithernow，noratanytime，isitprudentorsafetobemeddlingwiththefundamentalprinciplesandancienttriedusagesofourConstitution——thatourrepresentationisasnearlyperfectasthenecessaryimperfectionofhumanaffairsandofhumancreatureswillsufferittobe;andthatitisasubjectofprudentandhonestuseandthankfulenjoyment，andnotofcaptiouscriticismandrashexperiment。
Ontheotherside，therearetwoparties，whoproceedontwogrounds——inmyopinion，astheystatethem，utterlyirreconcilable。
Theoneisjuridical，theotherpolitical。Theoneisinthenatureofaclaimofright，onthesupposedrightsofmanasman;thispartydesirethedecisionofasuit。Theotherground，asfarasI
candivinewhatitdirectlymeans，is，thattherepresentationisnotsopoliticallyframedastoanswerthetheoryofitsinstitution。Astotheclaimofright，themeanestpetitioner，themostgrossandignorant，isasgoodasthebest;insomerespectshisclaimismorefavourableonaccountofhisignorance;hisweakness，hispovertyanddistressonlyaddtohistitles;hesuesinformapauperis：heoughttobeafavouriteoftheCourt。Butwhentheothergroundistaken，whenthequestionispolitical，whenanewConstitutionistobemadeonasoundtheoryofgovernment，thenthepresumptuousprideofdidacticignoranceistobeexcludedfromthecouncilinthishighandarduousmatter，whichoftenbidsdefiancetotheexperienceofthewisest。Thefirstclaimsapersonalrepresentation;thelatterrejectsitwithscornandfervour。Thelanguageofthefirstpartyisplainandintelligible;
theywhopleadanabsoluteright，cannotbesatisfiedwithanythingshortofpersonalrepresentation，becauseallnaturalrightsmustbetherightsofindividuals：asbynaturethereisnosuchthingaspoliticorcorporatepersonality;alltheseideasaremerefictionsoflaw，theyarecreaturesofvoluntaryinstitution;menasmenareindividuals，andnothingelse。They，therefore，whorejecttheprincipleofnaturalandpersonalrepresentation，areessentiallyandeternallyatvariancewiththosewhoclaimit。Astothefirstsortofreformers，itisridiculoustotalktothemoftheBritishConstitutionuponanyorallofitsbases;fortheylayitdown，thateverymanoughttogovernhimself，andthatwherehecannotgohimselfhemustsendhisrepresentative;thatallothergovernmentisusurpation，andissofarfromhavingaclaimtoourobedience，thatitisnotonlyourright，butourduty，toresistit。Nine—
tenthsofthereformersarguethus——thatis，onthenaturalright。
Itisimpossiblenottomakesomereflectiononthenatureofthisclaim，oravoidacomparisonbetweentheextentoftheprincipleandthepresentobjectofthedemand。Ifthisclaimbefounded，itiscleartowhatitgoes。TheHouseofCommons，inthatlight，undoubtedlyisnorepresentativeofthepeopleasacollectionofindividuals。Nobodypretendsit，nobodycanjustifysuchanassertion。Whenyoucometoexamineintothisclaimofright，foundedontherightofself—governmentineachindividual，youfindthethingdemandedinfinitelyshortoftheprincipleofthedemand。
What！one—thirdonlyofthelegislature，ofthegovernmentnoshareatall？Whatsortoftreatyofpartitionisthisforthosewhohavenoinherentrighttothewhole？Givethemalltheyask，andyourgrantisstillacheat;forhowcomesonlyathirdtobetheiryoungerchildren’sfortuneinthissettlement？Howcametheyneithertohavethechoiceofkings，orlords，orjudges，orgenerals，oradmirals，orbishops，orpriests，orministers，orjusticesofpeace？Why，whathaveyoutoanswerinfavourofthepriorrightsoftheCrownandpeeragebutthis——ourConstitutionisaproscriptiveConstitution;itisaConstitutionwhosesoleauthorityis，thatithasexistedtimeoutofmind。Itissettledinthesetwoportionsagainstone，legislatively;andinthewholeofthejudicature，thewholeofthefederalcapacity，oftheexecutive，theprudentialandthefinancialadministration，inonealone。NorwereyourHouseofLordsandtheprerogativesoftheCrownsettledonanyadjudicationinfavourofnaturalrights，fortheycouldneverbesoportioned。Yourking，yourlords，yourjudges，yourjuries，grandandlittle，allareprescriptive;andwhatprovesitisthedisputesnotyetconcluded，andnevernearbecomingso，whenanyofthemfirstoriginated。Prescriptionisthemostsolidofalltitles，notonlytoproperty，but，whichistosecurethatproperty，togovernment。Theyharmonisewitheachother，andgivemutualaidtooneanother。Itisaccompaniedwithanothergroundofauthorityintheconstitutionofthehumanmind——
presumption。Itisapresumptioninfavourofanysettledschemeofgovernmentagainstanyuntriedproject，thatanationhaslongexistedandflourishedunderit。Itisabetterpresumptionevenofthechoiceofanation，farbetterthananysuddenandtemporaryarrangementbyactualelection。Becauseanationisnotanideaonlyoflocalextent，andindividualmomentaryaggregation，butitisanideaofcontinuity，whichextendsintimeaswellasinnumbersandinspace。Andthisisachoicenotofoneday，oronesetofpeople，notatumultuaryandgiddychoice;itisadeliberateelectionofagesandofgenerations;itisaConstitutionmadebywhatistenthousandtimesbetterthanchoice——itismadebythepeculiarcircumstances，occasions，tempers，dispositions，andmoral，civil，andsocialhabitudesofthepeople，whichdisclosethemselvesonlyinalongspaceoftime。Itisavestment，whichaccommodatesitselftothebody。Norisprescriptionofgovernmentformeduponblind，unmeaningprejudices——formanisamostunwise，andamostwisebeing。Theindividualisfoolish。Themultitude，forthemoment，arefoolish，whentheyactwithoutdeliberation;butthespeciesiswise，andwhentimeisgiventoit，asaspeciesitalmostalwaysactsright。
ThereasonfortheCrownasitis，fortheLordsastheyare，ismyreasonfortheCommonsastheyare，theelectorsastheyare。Now，iftheCrownandtheLords，andthejudicatures，areallprescriptive，soistheHouseofCommonsoftheverysameorigin，andofnoother。Weandourelectorshavepowersandprivilegesbothmadeandcircumscribedbyprescription，asmuchtothefullastheotherparts;andassuchwehavealwaysclaimedthem，andonnoothertitle。TheHouseofCommonsisalegislativebodycorporatebyprescription，notmadeuponanygiventheory，butexistingprescriptively——justliketherest。Thisprescriptionhasmadeitessentiallywhatitis——anaggregatecollectionofthreeparts——
knights，citizens，burgesses。Thequestionis，whetherthishasbeenalwaysso，sincetheHouseofCommonshastakenitspresentshapeandcircumstances，andhasbeenanessentialoperativepartoftheConstitution;which，Itakeit，ithasbeenforatleastfivehundredyears。
ThisIresolvetomyselfintheaffirmative：andthenanotherquestionarises;whetherthisHousestandsfirmuponitsancientfoundations，andisnot，bytimeandaccidents，sodeclinedfromitsperpendicularastowantthehandofthewiseandexperiencedarchitectsofthedaytosetituprightagain，andtopropandbuttressitupforduration;——whetheritcontinuestruetotheprinciplesuponwhichithashithertostood;——whetherthisbedefactotheConstitutionoftheHouseofCommonsasithasbeensincethetimethattheHouseofCommonshas，withoutdispute，becomeanecessaryandanefficientpartoftheBritishConstitution？Toaskwhetherathing，whichhasalwaysbeenthesame，standstoitsusualprinciple，seemstometobeperfectlyabsurd;forhowdoyouknowtheprinciplesbutfromtheconstruction？andifthatremainsthesame，theprinciplesremainthesame。Itistrue，thattosayyourConstitutioniswhatithasbeen，isnosufficientdefenceforthosewhosayitisabadConstitution。ItisananswertothosewhosaythatitisadegenerateConstitution。Tothosewhosayitisabadone，Ianswer，Looktoitseffects。Inallmoralmachinerythemoralresultsareitstest。
OnwhatgroundsdowegotorestoreourConstitutiontowhatithasbeenatsomegivenperiod，ortoreformandreconstructituponprinciplesmoreconformabletoasoundtheoryofgovernment？A
prescriptivegovernment，suchasours，neverwastheworkofanylegislator，neverwasmadeuponanyforegonetheory。Itseemstomeapreposterouswayofreasoning，andaperfectconfusionofideas，totakethetheories，whichlearnedandspeculativemenhavemadefromthatgovernment，andthen，supposingitmadeonthesetheories，whichweremadefromit，toaccusethegovernmentasnotcorrespondingwiththem。Idonotvilifytheoryandspeculation——
no，becausethatwouldbetovilifyreasonitself。\"Nequedecipiturratio，nequedecipitunquam。\"No;wheneverIspeakagainsttheory，Imeanalwaysaweak，erroneous，fallacious，unfounded，orimperfecttheory;andoneofthewaysofdiscoveringthatitisafalsetheoryisbycomparingitwithpractice。Thisisthetruetouchstoneofalltheorieswhichregardmanandtheaffairsofmen：Doesitsuithisnatureingeneral？——doesitsuithisnatureasmodifiedbyhishabits？
Themorefrequentlythisaffairisdiscussed，thestrongerthecaseappearstothesenseandthefeelingsofmankind。IhavenomoredoubtthanIentertainofmyexistence，thatthisverything，whichisstatedasahorriblething，isthemeansofthepreservationofourConstitutionwhilstitlasts：ofcuringitofmanyofthedisorderswhich，attendingeveryspeciesofinstitution，wouldattendtheprincipleofanexactlocalrepresentation，orarepresentationontheprincipleofnumbers。Ifyourejectpersonalrepresentation，youarepusheduponexpedience;andthenwhattheywishustodois，toprefertheirspeculationsonthatsubjecttothehappyexperienceofthiscountryofagrowinglibertyandagrowingprosperityforfivehundredyears。WhateverrespectIhavefortheirtalents，this，forone，Iwillnotdo。Thenwhatisthestandardofexpedience？Expedienceisthatwhichisgoodforthecommunity，andgoodforeveryindividualinit。Nowthisexpedienceisthedesideratumtobesought，eitherwithouttheexperienceofmeans，orwiththatexperience。Ifwithout，asinthecaseofthefabricationofanewcommonwealth，Iwillhearthelearnedarguingwhatpromisestobeexpedient;butifwearetojudgeofacommonwealthactuallyexisting，thefirstthingIinquireis，Whathasbeenfoundexpedientorinexpedient？AndIwillnottaketheirpromiseratherthantheperformanceoftheConstitution。
Butno;thiswasnotthecauseofthediscontents。Iwentthroughmostofthenorthernparts——theYorkshireelectionwasthenraging;
theyearbefore，throughmostofthewesterncounties——Bath，Bristol，Gloucester——notoneword，eitherinthetownsorcountry，onthesubjectofrepresentation;muchonthereceipttax，somethingonMr。Fox’sambition;muchgreaterapprehensionofdangerfromthencethanfromwantofrepresentation。Onewouldthinkthattheballastoftheshipwasshiftedwithus，andthatourConstitutionhadthegunnelunderwater。Butcanyoufairlyanddistinctlypointoutwhatoneevilorgrievancehashappened，whichyoucanrefertotherepresentativenotfollowingtheopinionofhisconstituents？
Whatonesymptomdowefindofthisinequality？Butitisnotanarithmeticalinequalitywithwhichweoughttotroubleourselves。
Iftherebeamoral，apoliticalequality，thisisthedesideratuminourConstitution，andineveryConstitutionintheworld。Moralinequalityisasbetweenplacesandbetweenclasses。Now，Iask，whatadvantagedoyoufind，thattheplaceswhichaboundinrepresentationpossessoverothersinwhichitismorescanty，insecurityforfreedom，insecurityforjustice，orinanyoneofthosemeansofprocuringtemporalprosperityandeternalhappiness，theendsforwhichsocietywasformed？ArethelocalinterestsofCornwallandWiltshire，forinstance——theirroads，canals，theirprisons，theirpolice——betterthanYorkshire，Warwickshire，orStaffordshire？Warwickhasmembers;isWarwickorStaffordmoreopulent，happy，orfree，thanNewcastleorthanBirmingham？IsWiltshirethepamperedfavourite，whilstYorkshire，likethechildofthebondwoman，isturnedouttothedesert？Thisisliketheunhappypersonswholive，iftheycanbesaidtolive，inthestaticalchair;whoareeverfeelingtheirpulse，andwhodonotjudgeofhealthbytheaptitudeofthebodytoperformitsfunctions，butbytheirideasofwhatoughttobethetruebalancebetweentheseveralsecretions。IsacommitteeofCornwall，&c。，thronged，andtheothersdeserted？No。Youhaveanequalrepresentation，becauseyouhavemenequallyinterestedintheprosperityofthewhole，whoareinvolvedinthegeneralinterestandthegeneralsympathy;andperhapstheseplaces，furnishingasuperfluityofpublicagentsandadministrators（whether，instrictness，theyarerepresentativesornot，Idonotmeantoinquire，buttheyareagentsandadministrators），willstandcleareroflocalinterests，passions，prejudices，andcabalsthantheothers，andthereforepreservethebalanceoftheparts，andwithamoregeneralviewandamoresteadyhandthantherest。
Ineverypoliticalproposalwemustnotleaveoutofthequestionthepoliticalviewsandobjectoftheproposer;andthesewediscover，notbywhathesays，butbytheprincipleshelaysdown。
\"Imean，\"sayshe，\"amoderateandtemperatereform;\"thatis，\"I
meantodoaslittlegoodaspossible。IftheConstitutionbewhatyourepresentit，andtherebenodangerinthechange，youdowrongnottomakethereformcommensuratetotheabuse。\"Finereformer，indeed！generousdonor！Whatisthecauseofthisparsimonyofthelibertywhichyoudoleouttothepeople？Whyallthislimitationingivingblessingsandbenefitstomankind？Youadmitthatthereisanextremeinliberty，whichmaybeinfinitelynoxioustothosewhoaretoreceiveit，andwhichintheendwillleavethemnolibertyatall。Ithinksotoo;theyknowit，andtheyfeelit。
Thequestionis，then，Whatisthestandardofthatextreme？Whatthatgentleman，andtheassociations，orsomepartsoftheirphalanxes，thinkproper。Thenourlibertiesareintheirpleasure;
itdependsontheirarbitrarywillhowfarIshallbefree。Iwillhavenoneofthatfreedom。If，therefore，thestandardofmoderationbesoughtfor，Iwillseekforit。Where？Notintheirfancies，norinmyown：IwillseekforitwhereIknowitistobefound——intheConstitutionIactuallyenjoy。Hereitsaystoanencroachingprerogative——\"Yoursceptrehasitslength;youcannotaddahairtoyourhead，oragemtoyourcrown，butwhataneternallawhasgiventoit。\"Hereitsaystoanoverweeningpeerage——\"Yourpridefindsbanksthatitcannotoverflow;\"heretoatumultuousandgiddypeople——\"Thereisaboundtotheragingofthesea。\"OurConstitutionislikeourisland，whichusesandrestrainsitssubjectsea;invainthewavesroar。InthatConstitutionIknow，andexultinglyIfeel，boththatIamfreeandthatIamnotfreedangerouslytomyselfortoothers。Iknowthatnopoweronearth，actingasIoughttodo，cantouchmylife，myliberty，ormyproperty。Ihavethatinwardanddignifiedconsciousnessofmyownsecurityandindependence，whichconstitutes，andistheonlythingwhichdoesconstitute，theproudandcomfortablesentimentoffreedominthehumanbreast。Iknow，too，andIblessGodformysafemediocrity;IknowthatifIpossessedallthetalentsofthegentlemenonthesideoftheHouseIsit，andontheother，I
cannot，byroyalfavour，orbypopulardelusion，orbyoligarchicalcabal，elevatemyselfaboveacertainverylimitedpoint，soastoendangermyownfallortheruinofmycountry。Iknowthereisanorderthatkeepsthingsfastintheirplace;itismadetous，andwearemadetoit。Whynotaskanotherwife，otherchildren，anotherbody，anothermind？
ThegreatobjectofmostofthesereformersistopreparethedestructionoftheConstitution，bydisgracinganddiscreditingtheHouseofCommons。Fortheythink——prudently，inmyopinion——thatiftheycanpersuadethenationthattheHouseofCommonsissoconstitutedasnottosecurethepublicliberty;nottohaveaproperconnectionwiththepublicinterests;soconstitutedasnot，eitheractuallyorvirtually，tobetherepresentativeofthepeople，itwillbeeasytoprovethatagovernmentcomposedofamonarchy，anoligarchychosenbytheCrown，andsuchaHouseofCommons，whatevergoodcanbeinsuchasystem，canbynomeansbeasystemoffreegovernment。
TheConstitutionofEnglandisnevertohaveaquietus;itistobecontinuallyvilified，attacked，reproached，resisted;insteadofbeingthehopeandsureanchorinallstorms，insteadofbeingthemeansofredresstoallgrievances，itselfisthegrandgrievanceofthenation，ourshameinsteadofourglory。Iftheonlyspecificplanproposed——individual，personalrepresentation——isdirectlyrejectedbythepersonwhoislookedonasthegreatsupportofthisbusiness，thentheonlywayofconsideringitisasaquestionofconvenience。Anhonourablegentlemanpreferstheindividualtothepresent。Hethereforehimselfseesnomiddletermwhatsoever，andthereforeprefersofwhatheseestheindividual;thisistheonlythingdistinctandsensiblethathasbeenadvocated。Hehasthenascheme，whichistheindividualrepresentation;heisnotataloss，notinconsistent——whichschemetheotherrighthonourablegentlemanreprobates。Now，whatdoesthisgoto，buttoleaddirectlytoanarchy？Fortodiscredittheonlygovernmentwhichheeitherpossessesorcanproject，whatisthisbuttodestroyallgovernment;andthisisanarchy。Myrighthonourablefriend，insupportingthismotion，disgraceshisfriendsandjustifieshisenemies，inordertoblackentheConstitutionofhiscountry，evenofthatHouseofCommonswhichsupportedhim。Thereisadifferencebetweenamoralorpoliticalexposureofapublicevil，relativetotheadministrationofgovernment，whetherinmenorsystems，andadeclarationofdefects，realorsupposed，inthefundamentalConstitutionofyourcountry。Thefirstmaybecuredintheindividualbythemotivesofreligion，virtue，honour，fear，shame，orinterest。Menmaybemadetoabandon，also，falsesystemsbyexposingtheirabsurdityormischievoustendencytotheirownbetterthoughts，ortothecontemptorindignationofthepublic;andafterall，iftheyshouldexist，andexistuncorrected，theyonlydisgraceindividualsasfugitiveopinions。ButitisquiteotherwisewiththeframeandConstitutionoftheState;ifthatisdisgraced，patriotismisdestroyedinitsverysource。Nomanhaseverwillinglyobeyed，muchlesswasdesirousofdefendingwithhisblood，amischievousandabsurdschemeofgovernment。Ourfirst，ourdearest，mostcomprehensiverelation，ourcountry，isgone。
Itsuggestsmelancholyreflections，inconsequenceofthestrangecoursewehavelongheld，thatwearenownolongerquarrellingaboutthecharacter，orabouttheconductofmen，orthetenorofmeasures;butwearegrownoutofhumourwiththeEnglishConstitutionitself;thisisbecometheobjectoftheanimosityofEnglishmen。ThisConstitutioninformerdaysusedtobetheadmirationandtheenvyoftheworld;itwasthepatternforpoliticians;thethemeoftheeloquent;themeditationofthephilosopherineverypartoftheworld。AstoEnglishmen，itwastheirpride，theirconsolation。Byittheylived，forittheywerereadytodie。Itsdefects，ifithadany，werepartlycoveredbypartiality，andpartlybornebyprudence。Nowallitsexcellenciesareforgotten，itsfaultsarenowforciblydraggedintoday，exaggeratedbyeveryartificeofrepresentation。Itisdespisedandrejectedofmen;andeverydeviceandinventionofingenuity，oridleness，setupinoppositionorinpreferencetoit。Itistothishumour，anditistothemeasuresgrowingoutofit，thatIsetmyself（Ihopenotalone）inthemostdeterminedopposition。Neverbeforedidweatanytimeinthiscountrymeetuponthetheoryofourframeofgovernment，tositinjudgmentontheConstitutionofourcountry，tocallitasadelinquentbeforeus，andtoaccuseitofeverydefectandeveryvice;toseewhetherit，anobjectofourveneration，evenouradoration，didordidnotaccordwithapreconceivedschemeinthemindsofcertaingentlemen。CastyoureyesonthejournalsofParliament。Itisforfearoflosingtheinestimabletreasurewehave，thatIdonotventuretogameitoutofmyhandsforthevainhopeofimprovingit。IlookwithfilialreverenceontheConstitutionofmycountry，andneverwillcutitinpieces，andputitintothekettleofanymagician，inordertoboilit，withthepuddleoftheircompounds，intoyouthandvigour。
Onthecontrary，Iwilldriveawaysuchpretenders;Iwillnurseitsvenerableage，andwithlenientartsextendaparent’sbreath。