Thegreaterpartofmankindmaybedividedintotwoclasses;
thatofshallowthinkers，whofallshortofthetruth;andthatofabstrusethinkers，whogobeyondit。Thelatterclassarebyfarthemostrare:andImayadd，byfarthemostusefulandvaluable。Theysuggesthints，atleast，andstartdifficulties，whichtheywant，perhaps，skilltopursue;butwhichmayproducefinediscoveries，whenhandledbymenwhohaveamorejustwayofthinking。Atworst，whattheysayisuncommon;andifitshouldcostsomepainstocomprehendit，onehas，however，thepleasureofhearingsomethingthatisnew。Anauthorislittletobevalued，whotellsusnothingbutwhatwecanlearnfromeverycoffee—houseconversation。
Allpeopleofshallowthoughtareapttodecryeventhoseofsolidunderstanding，asabstrusethinkers，andmetaphysicians，andrefiners;andneverwillallowanythingtobejustwhichisbeyondtheirownweakconceptions。Therearesomecases，Iown，whereanextraordinaryrefinementaffordsastrongpresumptionoffalsehood，andwherenoreasoningistobetrustedbutwhatisnaturalandeasy。Whenamandeliberatesconcerninghisconductinanyparticularaffair，andformsschemesinpolitics，trade，oeconomy，oranybusinessinlife，heneveroughttodrawhisargumentstoofine，orconnecttoolongachainofconsequencestogether。Somethingissuretohappen，thatwilldisconcerthisreasoning，andproduceaneventdifferentfromwhatheexpected。
Butwhenwereasonupongeneralsubjects，onemayjustlyaffirm，thatourspeculationscanscarcelyeverbetoofine，providedtheybejust;andthatthedifferencebetweenacommonmanandamanofgeniusischieflyseenintheshallownessordepthoftheprinciplesuponwhichtheyproceed。Generalreasoningsseemintricate，merelybecausetheyaregeneral;norisiteasyforthebulkofmankindtodistinguish，inagreatnumberofparticulars，thatcommoncircumstanceinwhichtheyallagree，ortoextractit，pureandunmixed，fromtheothersuperfluouscircumstances。Everyjudgmentorconclusion，withthem，isparticular。Theycannotenlargetheirviewtothoseuniversalpropositions，whichcomprehendunderthemaninfinitenumberofindividuals，andincludeawholescienceinasingletheorem。
Theireyeisconfoundedwithsuchanextensiveprospect;andtheconclusions，derivedfromit，eventhoughclearlyexpressed，seemintricateandobscure。Buthoweverintricatetheymayseem，itiscertain，thatgeneralprinciples，ifjustandsound，mustalwaysprevailinthegeneralcourseofthings，thoughtheymayfailinparticularcases;anditisthechiefbusinessofphilosopherstoregardthegeneralcourseofthings。Imayadd，thatitisalsothechiefbusinessofpoliticians;especiallyinthedomesticgovernmentofthestate，wherethepublicgood，whichis，oroughttobetheirobject，dependsontheconcurrenceofamultitudeofcauses;not，asinforeignpolitics，onaccidentsandchances，andthecapricesofafewpersons。Thisthereforemakesthedifferencebetweenparticulardeliberationsandgeneralreasonings，andrenderssubtiltyandrefinementmuchmoresuitabletothelatterthantotheformer。
Ithoughtthisintroductionnecessarybeforethefollowingdiscoursesoncommerce，money，interest，balanceoftrade，&c。
where，perhaps，therewilloccursomeprincipleswhichareuncommon，andwhichmayseemtoorefinedandsubtileforsuchvulgarsubjects。Iffalse，letthemberejected:Butnooneoughttoentertainaprejudiceagainstthem，merelybecausetheyareoutofthecommonroad。
Thegreatnessofastate，andthehappinessofitssubjects，howindependentsoevertheymaybesupposedinsomerespects，arecommonlyallowedtobeinseparablewithregardtocommerce;andasprivatemenreceivegreatersecurity，inthepossessionoftheirtradeandriches，fromthepowerofthepublic，sothepublicbecomespowerfulinproportiontotheopulenceandextensivecommerceofprivatemen。Thismaximistrueingeneral;
thoughIcannotforbearthinking，thatitmaypossiblyadmitofexceptions，andthatweoftenestablishitwithtoolittlereserveandlimitation。Theremaybesomecircumstances，wherethecommerceandrichesandluxuryofindividuals，insteadofaddingstrengthtothepublic，willserveonlytothinitsarmies，anddiminishitsauthorityamongtheneighbouringnations。Manisaveryvariablebeing，andsusceptibleofmanydifferentopinions，principles，andrulesofconduct。Whatmaybetrue，whileheadherestoonewayofthinking，willbefoundfalse，whenhehasembracedanoppositesetofmannersandopinions。
Thebulkofeverystatemaybedividedintohusbandmenandmanufacturers。Theformerareemployedinthecultureoftheland;thelatterworkupthematerialsfurnishedbytheformer，intoallthecommoditieswhicharenecessaryorornamentaltohumanlife。Assoonasmenquittheirsavagestate，wheretheylivechieflybyhuntingandfishing，theymustfallintothesetwoclasses;thoughtheartsofagricultureemployatfirstthemostnumerouspartofthesociety。Timeandexperienceimprovesomuchthesearts，thatthelandmayeasilymaintainamuchgreaternumberofmen，thanthosewhoareimmediatelyemployedinitsculture，orwhofurnishthemorenecessarymanufacturestosuchasaresoemployed。
Ifthesesuperfluoushandsapplythemselvestothefinerarts，whicharecommonlydenominatedtheartsofluxury，theyaddtothehappinessofthestate;sincetheyaffordtomanytheopportunityofreceivingenjoyments，withwhichtheywouldotherwisehavebeenunacquainted。Butmaynotanotherschemebeproposedfortheemploymentofthesesuperfluoushands？Maynotthesovereignlayclaimtothem，andemploytheminfleetsandarmies，toencreasethedominionsofthestateabroad。andspreaditsfameoverdistantnations？Itiscertainthatthefewerdesiresandwantsarefoundintheproprietorsandlabourersofland，thefewerhandsdotheyemploy;andconsequentlythesuperfluitiesoftheland，insteadofmaintainingtradesmenandmanufacturers，maysupportfleetsandarmiestoamuchgreaterextent，thanwhereagreatmanyartsarerequiredtoministertotheluxuryofparticularpersons。Herethereforeseemstobeakindofoppositionbetweenthegreatnessofthestateandthehappinessofthesubject。Astateisnevergreaterthanwhenallitssuperfluoushandsareemployedintheserviceofthepublic。
Theeaseandconvenienceofprivatepersonsrequire，thatthesehandsshouldbeemployedintheirservice。Theonecanneverbesatisfied，butattheexpenceoftheother。Astheambitionofthesovereignmustentrenchontheluxuryofindividuals;sotheluxuryofindividualsmustdiminishtheforce，andchecktheambitionofthesovereign。
Noristhisreasoningmerelychimerical;butisfoundedonhistoryandexperience。TherepublicofSPARTAwascertainlymorepowerfulthananystatenowintheworld，consistingofanequalnumberofpeople;andthiswasowingentirelytothewantofcommerceandluxury。TheHELOTESwerethelabourers:TheSPARTANS
werethesoldiersorgentlemen。Itisevident，thatthelabouroftheHELOTEScouldnothavemaintainedsogreatanumberofSPARTANS，hadtheselatterlivedineaseanddelicacy，andgivenemploymenttoagreatvarietyoftradesandmanufactures。ThelikepolicymayberemarkedinROME。Andindeed，throughoutallancienthistory，itisobservable，thatthesmallestrepublicsraisedandmaintainedgreaterarmies，thanstatesconsistingoftriplethenumberofinhabitants，areabletosupportatpresent。
Itiscomputed，that，inallEUROPEANnations，theproportionbetweensoldiersandpeopledoesnotexceedonetoahundred。Butweread，thatthecityofROMEalone，withitssmallterritory，raisedandmaintained，inearlytimes，tenlegionsagainsttheLATINS。ATHENS，thewholeofwhosedominionswasnotlargerthanYORKSHIRE，senttotheexpeditionagainstSICILYnearfortythousandmen。DIONYSIUStheelder，itissaid，maintainedastandingarmyofahundredthousandfootandtenthousandhorse，besidesalargefleetoffourhundredsail;thoughhisterritoriesextendednofartherthanthecityofSYRACUSE，aboutathirdoftheislandofSICILY，andsomesea—porttownsandgarrisonsonthecoastofITALYandILLYRICUM。Itistrue，theancientarmies，intimeofwar，subsistedmuchuponplunder:Butdidnottheenemyplunderintheirturn？whichwasamoreruinouswayoflevyingatax，thananyotherthatcouldbedevised。Inshort，noprobablereasoncanbeassignedforthegreatpowerofthemoreancientstatesabovethemodern，buttheirwantofcommerceandluxury。Fewartizansweremaintainedbythelabourofthefarmers，andthereforemoresoldiersmightliveuponit。
LIVYsays，thatROME，inhistime，wouldfinditdifficulttoraiseaslargeanarmyasthatwhich，inherearlydays，shesentoutagainsttheGAULSandLATINS。InsteadofthosesoldierswhofoughtforlibertyandempireinCAMILLUS’Stime，therewere，inAUGUSTUS’Sdays，musicians，painters，cooks，players，andtailors;andifthelandwasequallycultivatedatbothperiods，itcouldcertainlymaintainequalnumbersintheoneprofessionasintheother。Theyaddednothingtothemerenecessariesoflife，inthelatterperiodmorethanintheformer。
Itisnaturalonthisoccasiontoask，whethersovereignsmaynotreturntothemaximsofancientpolicy，andconsulttheirowninterestinthisrespect，morethanthehappinessoftheirsubjects？Ianswer，thatitappearstome，almostimpossible;andthatbecauseancientpolicywasviolent，andcontrarytothemorenaturalandusualcourseofthings。ItiswellknownwithwhatpeculiarlawsSPARTAwasgoverned，andwhataprodigythatrepublicisjustlyesteemedbyeveryone，whohasconsideredhumannatureasithasdisplayeditselfinothernations，andotherages。Werethetestimonyofhistorylesspositiveandcircumstantial，suchagovernmentwouldappearamerephilosophicalwhimorfiction，andimpossibleevertobereducedtopractice。AndthoughtheROMANandotherancientrepublicsweresupportedonprinciplessomewhatmorenatural，yetwasthereanextraordinaryconcurrenceofcircumstancestomakethemsubmittosuchgrievousburthens。Theywerefreestates;theyweresmallones;andtheagebeingmartial，alltheirneighbourswerecontinuallyinarms。Freedomnaturallybegetspublicspirit，especiallyinsmallstates;andthispublicspirit，thisamorpatriae，mustencrease，whenthepublicisalmostincontinualalarm，andmenareobliged，everymoment，toexposethemselvestothegreatestdangersforitsdefence。Acontinualsuccessionofwarsmakeseverycitizenasoldier:Hetakesthefieldinhisturn:Andduringhisserviceheischieflymaintainedbyhimself。
Thisserviceisindeedequivalenttoaheavytax;yetisitlessfeltbyapeopleaddictedtoarms，whofightforhonourandrevengemorethanpay，andareunacquaintedwithgainandindustryaswellaspleasure。Nottomentionthegreatequalityoffortunesamongtheinhabitantsoftheancientrepublics，whereeveryfield，belongingtoadifferentproprietor，wasabletomaintainafamily，andrenderedthenumbersofcitizensveryconsiderable，evenwithouttradeandmanufactures。
Butthoughthewantoftradeandmanufactures，amongafreeandverymartialpeople，maysometimeshavenoothereffectthantorenderthepublicmorepowerful，itiscertain，that，inthecommoncourseofhumanaffairs，itwillhaveaquitecontrarytendency。Sovereignsmusttakemankindastheyfindthem，andcannotpretendtointroduceanyviolentchangeintheirprinciplesandwaysofthinking。Alongcourseoftime，withavarietyofaccidentsandcircumstances，arerequisitetoproducethosegreatrevolutions，whichsomuchdiversifythefaceofhumanaffairs。Andthelessnaturalanysetofprinciplesare，whichsupportaparticularsociety，themoredifficultywillalegislatormeetwithinraisingandcultivatingthem。Itishisbestpolicytocomplywiththecommonbentofmankind，andgiveitalltheimprovementsofwhichitissusceptible。Now，accordingtothemostnaturalcourseofthings，industryandartsandtradeencreasethepowerofthesovereignaswellasthehappinessofthesubjects;andthatpolicyisviolent，whichaggrandizesthepublicbythepovertyofindividuals。Thiswilleasilyappearfromafewconsiderations，whichwillpresenttoustheconsequencesofslothandbarbarity。
Wheremanufacturesandmechanicartsarenotcultivated，thebulkofthepeoplemustapplythemselvestoagriculture;andiftheirskillandindustryencrease，theremustariseagreatsuperfluityfromtheirlabourbeyondwhatsufficestomaintainthem。Theyhavenotemptation，therefore，toencreasetheirskillandindustry;sincetheycannotexchangethatsuperfluityforanycommodities，whichmayserveeithertotheirpleasureorvanity。
Ahabitofindolencenaturallyprevails。Thegreaterpartofthelandliesuncultivated。Whatiscultivated，yieldsnotitsutmostforwantofskillandassiduityinthefarmers。Ifatanytimethepublicexigenciesrequire，thatgreatnumbersshouldbeemployedinthepublicservice，thelabourofthepeoplefurnishesnownosuperfluities，bywhichthesenumberscanbemaintained。Thelabourerscannotencreasetheirskillandindustryonasudden。Landsuncultivatedcannotbebroughtintotillageforsomeyears。Thearmies，meanwhile，musteithermakesuddenandviolentconquests，ordisbandforwantofsubsistence。