But，atanyrate，ithascomeaboutthatthemembersofthegoverningclassarequiteafraidofenlargingonmilitarytopics，ordosoonlyinashamefacedmanner.Ifanyareboldenoughtodiscussthesubject，theyareatoncesetdownaseccentricindividualsofcoarseandbrutalpropensities.
Thisisanextraordinaryinstanceinwhich，throughsheerlackofreasoning，menunhappilylosesightoffundamentalprinciples.
WhentheDukeofChouwasministerunderCh`engWang，heregulatedceremoniesandmademusic，andveneratedtheartsofscholarshipandlearning;yetwhenthebarbariansoftheRiverHuairevolted，[60]hesalliedforthandchastisedthem.WhenConfuciusheldofficeundertheDukeofLu，andameetingwasconvenedatChia—ku，[61]hesaid：\"Ifpacificnegotiationsareinprogress，warlikepreparationsshouldhavebeenmadebeforehand.\"HerebukedandshamedtheMarquisofCh`i，whocoweredunderhimanddarednotproceedtoviolence.HowcanitbesaidthatthesetwogreatSageshadnoknowledgeofmilitarymatters？
WehaveseenthatthegreatChuHsiheldSunTzuinhighesteem.HealsoappealstotheauthorityoftheClassics：——
OurMasterConfucius，answeringDukeLingofWei，said：
\"Ihaveneverstudiedmattersconnectedwitharmiesandbattalions.\"[62]ReplyingtoK`ungWen—tzu，hesaid：I
havenotbeeninstructedaboutbuff—coatsandweapons.\"ButifweturntothemeetingatChia—ku，wefindthatheusedarmedforceagainstthemenofLai，sothatthemarquisofCh`iwasoverawed.Again，whentheinhabitantsofPirevolted，theorderedhisofficerstoattackthem，whereupontheyweredefeatedandfledinconfusion.Heonceutteredthewords：\"IfIfight，Iconquer.\"[63]AndJanYualsosaid：\"TheSageexercisesbothcivilandmilitaryfunctions.\"[64]CanitbeafactthatConfuciusneverstudiedorreceivedinstructionintheartofwar？Wecanonlysaythathedidnotspeciallychoosemattersconnectedwitharmiesandfightingtobethesubjectofhisteaching.
SunHsing—yen，theeditorofSunTzu，writesinsimilarstrain：——
Confuciussaid：\"Iamunversedinmilitarymatters.\"
[65]Healsosaid：\"IfIfight，Iconquer.\"Confuciusorderedceremoniesandregulatedmusic.NowwarconstitutesoneofthefiveclassesofStateceremonial，[66]andmustnotbetreatedasanindependentbranchofstudy.Hence，thewords\"Iamunversedin\"mustbetakentomeanthattherearethingswhichevenaninspiredTeacherdoesnotknow.Thosewhohavetoleadanarmyanddevisestratagems，mustlearntheartofwar.ButifonecancommandtheservicesofagoodgenerallikeSunTzu，whowasemployedbyWuTzu—hsu，thereisnoneedtolearnitoneself.HencetheremarkaddedbyConfucius：\"IfIfight，Iconquer.\"
Themenofthepresentday，however，willfullyinterpretthesewordsofConfuciusintheirnarrowestsense，asthoughhemeantthatbooksontheartofwarwerenotworthreading.
Withblindpersistency，theyadducetheexampleofChaoKua，whoporedoverhisfather’sbookstonopurpose，[67]asaproofthatallmilitarytheoryisuseless.Again，seeingthatbooksonwarhavetodowithsuchthingsasopportunismindesigningplans，andtheconversionofspies，theyholdthattheartisimmoralandunworthyofasage.Thesepeopleignorethefactthatthestudiesofourscholarsandtheciviladministrationofourofficialsalsorequiresteadyapplicationandpracticebeforeefficiencyisreached.Theancientswereparticularlycharyofallowingmerenovicestobotchtheirwork.[68]Weaponsarebaneful[69]andfightingperilous;anduselessunlessageneralisinconstantpractice，heoughtnottohazardothermen’slivesinbattle.
[70]HenceitisessentialthatSunTzu’s13chaptersshouldbestudied.
HsiangLiangusedtoinstructhisnephewChi[71]intheartofwar.Chigotaroughideaoftheartinitsgeneralbearings，butwouldnotpursuehisstudiestotheirproperoutcome，theconsequencebeingthathewasfinallydefeatedandoverthrown.Hedidnotrealizethatthetricksandartificesofwararebeyondverbalcomputation.DukeHsiangofSungandKingYenofHsuwerebroughttodestructionbytheirmisplacedhumanity.Thetreacherousandunderhandnatureofwarnecessitatestheuseofguileandstratagemsuitedtotheoccasion.ThereisacaseonrecordofConfuciushimselfhavingviolatedanextortedoath，[72]andalsoofhishavinglefttheSungStateindisguise.[73]CanwethenrecklesslyarraignSunTzufordisregardingtruthandhonesty？
Bibliography————
ThefollowingaretheoldestChinesetreatisesonwar，afterSunTzu.ThenotesoneachhavebeendrawnprincipallyfromtheSSUK`UCH`UANSHUCHIENMINGMULU，ch.9，fol.22sqq.
1.WUTZU，in1CHUANor6chapters.ByWuCh`i（d.381
B.C.）.Agenuinework.SeeSHIHCHI，ch.65.
2.SSU—MAFA，in1CHUANor5chapters.WronglyattributedtoSsu—maJang—chuofthe6thcenturyB.C.Itsdate，however，mustbeearly，asthecustomsofthethreeancientdynastiesareconstantlytobemetwithinitspages.SeeSHIHCHI，ch.64.
TheSSUK`UCH`UANSHU（ch.99，f.1）remarksthattheoldestthreetreatisesonwar，SUNTZU，WUTZUandSSU—MAFA，are，generallyspeaking，onlyconcernedwiththingsstrictlymilitary——theartofproducing，collecting，traininganddrillingtroops，andthecorrecttheorywithregardtomeasuresofexpediency，layingplans，transportofgoodsandthehandlingofsoldiers——instrongcontrasttolaterworks，inwhichthescienceofwarisusuallyblendedwithmetaphysics，divinationandmagicalartsingeneral.
3.LIUT`AO，in6CHUAN，or60chapters.AttributedtoLuWang（orLuShang，alsoknownasT`aiKung）ofthe12thcenturyB.C.[74]ButitsstyledoesnotbelongtotheeraoftheThreeDynasties.LuTe—ming（550—625A.D.）mentionsthework，andenumeratestheheadingsofthesixsectionssothattheforgerycannothavebeenlaterthanSuidynasty.
4.WEILIAOTZU，in5CHUAN.AttributedtoWeiLiao（4thcent.B.C.），whostudiedunderthefamousKuei—kuTzu.Theworkappearstohavebeenoriginallyin31chapters，whereasthetextwepossesscontainsonly24.Itsmatterissoundenoughinthemain，thoughthestrategicaldevicesdifferconsiderablyfromthoseoftheWarringStatesperiod.Itisbeenfurnishedwithacommentarybythewell—knownSungphilosopherChangTsai.
5.SANLUEH，in3CHUAN.AttributedtoHuang—shihKung，alegendarypersonagewhoissaidtohavebestoweditonChangLiang（d.187B.C.）inaninterviewonabridge.Buthereagain，thestyleisnotthatofworksdatingfromtheCh`inorHanperiod.TheHanEmperorKuangWu[25—57A.D.]apparentlyquotesfromitinoneofhisproclamations;butthepassageinquestionmayhavebeeninsertedlateron，inordertoprovethegenuinenessofthework.WeshallnotbefaroutifwereferittotheNorthernSungperiod[420—478A.D.]，orsomewhatearlier.
6.LIWEIKUNGWENTUI，in3sections.WrittenintheformofadialoguebetweenT`aiTsungandhisgreatgeneralLiChing，itisusuallyascribedtothelatter.Competentauthoritiesconsideritaforgery，thoughtheauthorwasevidentlywellversedintheartofwar.
7.LICHINGPINGFA（nottobeconfoundedwiththeforegoing）isashorttreatisein8chapters，preservedintheT`ungTien，butnotpublishedseparately.ThisfactexplainsitsomissionfromtheSSUK`UCH`UANSHU.
8.WUCH`ICHING，in1CHUAN.AttributedtothelegendaryministerFengHou，withexegeticalnotesbyKung—sunHungoftheHandynasty（d.121B.C.），andsaidtohavebeeneulogizedbythecelebratedgeneralMaLung（d.300A.D.）.YettheearliestmentionofitisintheSUNGCHIH.Althoughaforgery，theworkiswellputtogether.
ConsideringthehighpopularestimationinwhichChu—koLianghasalwaysbeenheld，itisnotsurprisingtofindmorethanoneworkonwarascribedtohispen.Suchare（1）theSHIH
LIUTS`E（1CHUAN），preservedintheYUNGLOTATIEN;（2）CHIANG
YUAN（1CHUAN）;and（3）HSINSHU（1CHUAN），whichstealswholesalefromSunTzu.Noneofthesehastheslightestclaimtobeconsideredgenuine.
MostofthelargeChineseencyclopediascontainextensivesectionsdevotedtotheliteratureofwar.Thefollowingreferencesmaybefounduseful：——
T`UNGTIEN（circa800A.D.），ch.148—162.
T`AIP`INGYULAN（983），ch.270—359.
WENHSIENTUNGK`AO（13thcent.），ch.221.
YUHAI（13thcent.），ch.140，141.
SANTS`AIT`UHUI（16thcent）.
KUANGPOWUCHIH（1607），ch.31，32.
CH`IENCH`IOLEISHU（1632），ch.75.
YUANCHIENLEIHAN（1710），ch.206—229.
KUCHINT`USHUCHICH`ENG（1726），sectionXXX，esp.ch.81—
90.
HSUWENHSIENT`UNGK`AO（1784），ch.121—134.
HUANGCH`AOCHINGSHIHWENPIEN（1826），ch.76，77.
Thebibliographicalsectionsofcertainhistoricalworksalsodeservemention：——
CH`IENHANSHU，ch.30.
SUISHU，ch.32—35.
CHIUT`ANGSHU，ch.46，47.
HSINT`ANGSHU，ch.57，60.
SUNGSHIH，ch.202—209.
T`UNGCHIH（circa1150），ch.68.
TotheseofcoursemustbeaddedthegreatCatalogueoftheImperialLibrary：——
SSUK`UCH`UANSHUTSUNGMUT`IYAO（1790），ch.99，100.
Footnotes—
1.SHICHI，ch.65.
2.Hereignedfrom514to496B.C.
3.SHICHI，ch.130.
4.TheappellationofNangWa.
5.SHICHI，ch.31.
6.SHICHI，ch.25.
7.TheappellationofHuYen，mentionedinch.39undertheyear637.
8.Wang—tzuCh`eng—fu，ch.32，year607.
9.Themistakeisnaturalenough.NativecriticsrefertoaworkoftheHandynasty，whichsays：\"TenLIoutsidetheWUgate[ofthecityofWu，nowSoochowinKiangsu]thereisagreatmound，raisedtocommemoratetheentertainmentofSunWuofCh`i，whoexcelledintheartofwar，bytheKingofWu.\"
10.\"Theyattachedstringstowoodtomakebows，andsharpenedwoodtomakearrows.TheuseofbowsandarrowsistokeeptheEmpireinawe.\"
11.ThesonandsuccessorofHoLu.HewasfinallydefeatedandoverthrownbyKouchien，KingofYueh，in473B.C.Seepost.
12.KingYenofHsu，afabulousbeing，ofwhomSunHsing—yensaysinhispreface：\"Hishumanitybroughthimtodestruction.\"
13.ThepassageIhaveputinbracketsisomittedintheT`U
SHU，andmaybeaninterpolation.Itwasknown，howevertoChangShou—chiehoftheT`angdynasty，andappearsintheT`AIP`INGYU
LAN.
14.Ts`aoKungseemstobethinkingofthefirstpartofchap.
II，perhapsespeciallyofss.8.
15.Seechap.XI.
16.Ontheotherhand，itisnoteworthythatWUTZU，whichisnotin6chapters，has48assignedtoitintheHANCHIH.
Likewise，theCHUNGYUNGiscreditedwith49chapters，thoughnowonlyinoneonly.Inthecaseofveryshortworks，oneistemptedtothinkthatP`IENmightsimplymean\"leaves.\"
17.YehShihoftheSungdynasty[1151—1223].
18.Hehardlydeservestobebracketedwithassassins.
19.SeeChapter7，ss.27andChapter11，ss.28.
20.SeeChapter11，ss.28.ChuanChuistheabbreviatedformofhisname.
21.I.e.PoP`ei.Seeante.
22.Thenucleusofthisworkisprobablygenuine，thoughlargeadditionshavebeenmadebylaterhands.Kuanchungdiedin645
B.C.
23.Seeinfra，beginningofINTRODUCTION.
24.Idonotknowwhatthiswork，unlessitbethelastchapterofanotherwork.Whythatchaptershouldbesingledout，however，isnotclear.
25.About480B.C.
26.Thatis，Isuppose，theageofWuWangandChouKung.
27.Inthe3rdcenturyB.C.
28.Ssu—maJang—chu，whosefamilynamewasT`ien，livedinthelatterhalfofthe6thcenturyB.C.，andisalsobelievedtohavewrittenaworkonwar.SeeSHIHCHI，ch.64，andinfraatthebeginningoftheINTRODUCTION.
29.SeeLegge’sClassics，vol.V，Prolegomenap.27.LeggethinksthattheTSOCHUANmusthavebeenwritteninthe5thcentury，butnotbefore424B.C.
30.SeeMENCIUSIII.1.iii.13—20.
31.WhenWufirstappearsintheCH`UNCH`IUin584，itisalreadyatvariancewithitspowerfulneighbor.TheCH`UNCH`IU
firstmentionsYuehin537，theTSOCHUANin601.
32.ThisisexplicitlystatedintheTSOCHUAN，XXXII，2.
33.Thereisthistobesaidforthelaterperiod，thatthefeudwouldtendtogrowmorebitteraftereachencounter，andthusmorefullyjustifythelanguageusedinXI.ss.30.
34.WithWuYuanhimselfthecaseisjustthereverse：——aspurioustreatiseonwarhasbeenfatheredonhimsimplybecausehewasagreatgeneral.Herewehaveanobviousinducementtoforgery.SunWu，ontheotherhand，cannothavebeenwidelyknowntofameinthe5thcentury.
35.FromTSOCHUAN：\"FromthedateofKingChao’saccession[515]therewasnoyearinwhichCh`uwasnotattackedbyWu.\"
36.Prefaceadfin：\"MyfamilycomesfromLo—an，andwearereallydescendedfromSunTzu.IamashamedtosaythatIonlyreadmyancestor’sworkfromaliterarypointofview，withoutcomprehendingthemilitarytechnique.Solonghavewebeenenjoyingtheblessingsofpeace！\"
37.Hoa—yinisabout14milesfromT`ung—kuanontheeasternborderofShensi.ThetempleinquestionisstillvisitedbythoseabouttheascentoftheWesternSacredMountain.Itismentionedinatextasbeing\"situatedfiveLIeastofthedistrictcityofHua—yin.ThetemplecontainstheHua—shantabletinscribedbytheT`angEmperorHsuanTsung[713—755].\"
38.Seemy\"CatalogueofChineseBooks\"（Luzac&Co.，1908），no.
40.
39.Thisisadiscussionof29difficultpassagesinSunTzu.
40.Cf.CatalogueofthelibraryofFanfamilyatNingpo：\"Hiscommentaryisfrequentlyobscure;itfurnishesaclue，butdoesnotfullydevelopthemeaning.\"
41.WENHSIENT`UNGK`AO，ch.221.
42.ItisinterestingtonotethatM.Pelliothasrecentlydiscoveredchapters1，4and5ofthislostworkinthe\"GrottosoftheThousandBuddhas.\"SeeB.E.F.E.O.，t.VIII，nos.3—4，p.
525.
43.TheHsia，theShangandtheChou.Althoughthelast—namedwasnominallyexistentinSunTzu’sday，itretainedhardlyavestigeofpower，andtheoldmilitaryorganizationhadpracticallygonebytheboard.Icansuggestnootherexplanationofthepassage.
44.SeeCHOULI，xxix.6—10.
45.T`UNGK`AO，ch.221.
46.Thisappearstobestillextant.SeeWylie’s\"Notes，\"p.91
（newedition）.
47.T`UNGK`AO，loc.cit.
48.Anotablepersoninhisday.HisbiographyisgivenintheSANKUOCHIH，ch.10.
49.SeeXI.ss.58，note.
50.HOUHANSHU，ch.17adinit.
51.SANKUOCHIH，ch.54.
52.SUNGSHIH，ch.365adinit.
53.ThefewEuropeanswhohaveyethadanopportunityofacquaintingthemselveswithSunTzuarenotbehindhandintheirpraise.Inthisconnection，ImayperhapsbeexcusedforquotingfromaletterfromLordRoberts，towhomthesheetsofthepresentworkweresubmittedprevioustopublication：\"ManyofSunWu’smaximsareperfectlyapplicabletothepresentday，andno.11[inChapterVIII]isonethatthepeopleofthiscountrywoulddowelltotaketoheart.\"
54.Ch.140.
55.SeeIV.ss.3.
56.TheallusionmaybetoMenciusVI.2.ix.2.
57.TheTSOCHUAN.
58.SHIHCHI，ch.25，fol.I.
59.Cf.SHIHCHI，ch47.
60.SeeSHUCHING，prefacess.55.
61.SeeSHIHCHI，ch.47.
62.LunYu，XV.1.
63.Ifailedtotracethisutterance.
64.Supra.
65.Supra.
66.Theotherfourbeingworship，mourning，entertainmentofguests，andfestiverites.SeeSHUCHING，ii.1.III.8，andCHOULI，IX.fol.49.
67.SeeXIII.ss.11，note.
68.ThisisaratherobscureallusiontotheTSOCHUAN，whereTzu—ch`ansays：\"Ifyouhaveapieceofbeautifulbrocade，youwillnotemployamerelearnertomakeitup.\"
69.Cf.TAOTECHING，ch.31.
70.SunHsing—yenmighthavequotedConfuciusagain.SeeLUN
YU，XIII.29，30.
71.BetterknownasHsiangYu[233—202B.C.].
72.SHIHCHI，ch.47.
73.SHIHCHI，ch.38.
74.SeeXIII.ss.27，note.FurtherdetailsonT`aiKungwillbefoundintheSHIHCHI，ch.32adinit.BesidesthetraditionwhichmakeshimaformerministerofChouHsin，twootheraccountsofhimaretheregiven，accordingtowhichhewouldappeartohavebeenfirstraisedfromahumbleprivatestationbyWenWang.
I.LAYINGPLANS
[Ts`aoKung，indefiningthemeaningoftheChineseforthetitleofthischapter，saysitreferstothedeliberationsinthetempleselectedbythegeneralforhistemporaryuse，orasweshouldsay，inhistent.See.ss.26.]
1.SunTzusaid：TheartofwarisofvitalimportancetotheState.
2.Itisamatteroflifeanddeath，aroadeithertosafetyortoruin.Henceitisasubjectofinquirywhichcanonnoaccountbeneglected.
3.Theartofwar，then，isgovernedbyfiveconstantfactors，tobetakenintoaccountinone’sdeliberations，whenseekingtodeterminetheconditionsobtaininginthefield.
4.Theseare：（1）TheMoralLaw;（2）Heaven;（3）Earth;
（4）TheCommander;（5）Methodanddiscipline.
[ItappearsfromwhatfollowsthatSunTzumeansby\"MoralLaw\"aprincipleofharmony，notunliketheTaoofLaoTzuinitsmoralaspect.Onemightbetemptedtorenderitby\"morale，\"
wereitnotconsideredasanattributeoftherulerinss.13.]
5，6.TheMORALLAWcausesthepeopletobeincompleteaccordwiththeirruler，sothattheywillfollowhimregardlessoftheirlives，undismayedbyanydanger.
[TuYuquotesWangTzuassaying：\"Withoutconstantpractice，theofficerswillbenervousandundecidedwhenmusteringforbattle;withoutconstantpractice，thegeneralwillbewaveringandirresolutewhenthecrisisisathand.\"]
7.HEAVENsignifiesnightandday，coldandheat，timesandseasons.
[Thecommentators，Ithink，makeanunnecessarymysteryoftwowordshere.MengShihrefersto\"thehardandthesoft，waxingandwaning\"ofHeaven.WangHsi，however，mayberightinsayingthatwhatismeantis\"thegeneraleconomyofHeaven，\"
includingthefiveelements，thefourseasons，windandclouds，andotherphenomena.]
8.EARTHcomprisesdistances，greatandsmall;dangerandsecurity;opengroundandnarrowpasses;thechancesoflifeanddeath.
9.TheCOMMANDERstandsforthevirtuesofwisdom，sincerely，benevolence，courageandstrictness.
[ThefivecardinalvirtuesoftheChineseare（1）humanityorbenevolence;（2）uprightnessofmind;（3）self—respect，self—
control，or\"properfeeling;\"（4）wisdom;（5）sincerityorgoodfaith.Here\"wisdom\"and\"sincerity\"areputbefore\"humanityorbenevolence，\"andthetwomilitaryvirtuesof\"courage\"and\"strictness\"substitutedfor\"uprightnessofmind\"and\"self—
respect，self—control，or’properfeeling.’\"]
10.ByMETHODANDDISCIPLINEaretobeunderstoodthemarshalingofthearmyinitspropersubdivisions，thegraduationsofrankamongtheofficers，themaintenanceofroadsbywhichsuppliesmayreachthearmy，andthecontrolofmilitaryexpenditure.
11.Thesefiveheadsshouldbefamiliartoeverygeneral：
hewhoknowsthemwillbevictorious;hewhoknowsthemnotwillfail.
12.Therefore，inyourdeliberations，whenseekingtodeterminethemilitaryconditions，letthembemadethebasisofacomparison，inthiswise：——
13.（1）WhichofthetwosovereignsisimbuedwiththeMorallaw？
[I.e.，\"isinharmonywithhissubjects.\"Cf.ss.5.]
（2）Whichofthetwogeneralshasmostability？
（3）WithwhomlietheadvantagesderivedfromHeavenandEarth？
[Seess.7，8]
（4）Onwhichsideisdisciplinemostrigorouslyenforced？
[TuMualludestotheremarkablestoryofTs`aoTs`ao（A.D.
155—220），whowassuchastrictdisciplinarianthatonce，inaccordancewithhisownsevereregulationsagainstinjurytostandingcrops，hecondemnedhimselftodeathforhavingallowedhimhorsetoshyintoafieldofcorn！However，inlieuoflosinghishead，hewaspersuadedtosatisfyhissenseofjusticebycuttingoffhishair.Ts`aoTs`ao’sowncommentonthepresentpassageischaracteristicallycurt：\"whenyoulaydownalaw，seethatitisnotdisobeyed;ifitisdisobeyedtheoffendermustbeputtodeath.\"]
（5）Whicharmyisstronger？
[Morallyaswellasphysically.AsMeiYao—ch`enputsit，freelyrendered，\"ESPIRITDECORPSand’bigbattalions.’\"]
（6）Onwhichsideareofficersandmenmorehighlytrained？
[TuYuquotesWangTzuassaying：\"Withoutconstantpractice，theofficerswillbenervousandundecidedwhenmusteringforbattle;withoutconstantpractice，thegeneralwillbewaveringandirresolutewhenthecrisisisathand.\"]
（7）Inwhicharmyistherethegreaterconstancybothinrewardandpunishment？
[Onwhichsideistherethemostabsolutecertaintythatmeritwillbeproperlyrewardedandmisdeedssummarilypunished？]
14.BymeansofthesesevenconsiderationsIcanforecastvictoryordefeat.
15.Thegeneralthathearkenstomycounselandactsuponit，willconquer：——letsuchaoneberetainedincommand！Thegeneralthathearkensnottomycounselnoractsuponit，willsufferdefeat：——letsuchaonebedismissed！
[TheformofthisparagraphremindsusthatSunTzu’streatisewascomposedexpresslyforthebenefitofhispatronHoLu，kingoftheWuState.]
16.Whileheadingtheprofitofmycounsel，availyourselfalsoofanyhelpfulcircumstancesoverandbeyondtheordinaryrules.
17.Accordingascircumstancesarefavorable，oneshouldmodifyone’splans.
[SunTzu，asapracticalsoldier，willhavenoneofthe\"bookishtheoric.\"Hecautionsusherenottopinourfaithtoabstractprinciples;\"for，\"asChangYuputsit，\"whilethemainlawsofstrategycanbestatedclearlyenoughforthebenefitofallandsundry，youmustbeguidedbytheactionsoftheenemyinattemptingtosecureafavorablepositioninactualwarfare.\"OntheeveofthebattleofWaterloo，LordUxbridge，commandingthecavalry，wenttotheDukeofWellingtoninordertolearnwhathisplansandcalculationswereforthemorrow，because，asheexplained，hemightsuddenlyfindhimselfCommander—in—chiefandwouldbeunabletoframenewplansinacriticalmoment.TheDukelistenedquietlyandthensaid：\"Whowillattackthefirsttomorrow——IorBonaparte？\"\"Bonaparte，\"repliedLordUxbridge.
\"Well，\"continuedtheDuke，\"Bonapartehasnotgivenmeanyideaofhisprojects;andasmyplanswilldependuponhis，howcanyouexpectmetotellyouwhatmineare？\"[1]]
18.Allwarfareisbasedondeception.
[Thetruthofthispithyandprofoundsayingwillbeadmittedbyeverysoldier.Col.HendersontellsusthatWellington，greatinsomanymilitaryqualities，wasespeciallydistinguishedby\"theextraordinaryskillwithwhichheconcealedhismovementsanddeceivedbothfriendandfoe.\"]
19.Hence，whenabletoattack，wemustseemunable;whenusingourforces，wemustseeminactive;whenwearenear，wemustmaketheenemybelievewearefaraway;whenfaraway，wemustmakehimbelievewearenear.
20.Holdoutbaitstoenticetheenemy.Feigndisorder，andcrushhim.
[Allcommentators，exceptChangYu，say，\"Whenheisindisorder，crushhim.\"ItismorenaturaltosupposethatSunTzuisstillillustratingtheusesofdeceptioninwar.]
21.Ifheissecureatallpoints，bepreparedforhim.Ifheisinsuperiorstrength，evadehim.
22.Ifyouropponentisofcholerictemper，seektoirritatehim.Pretendtobeweak，thathemaygrowarrogant.
[WangTzu，quotedbyTuYu，saysthatthegoodtacticianplayswithhisadversaryasacatplayswithamouse，firstfeigningweaknessandimmobility，andthensuddenlypouncinguponhim.]
23.Ifheistakinghisease，givehimnorest.
[ThisisprobablythemeaningthoughMeiYao—ch`enhasthenote：\"whilewearetakingourease，waitfortheenemytotirehimselfout.\"TheYULANhas\"Lurehimonandtirehimout.\"]
Ifhisforcesareunited，separatethem.
[Lessplausibleistheinterpretationfavoredbymostofthecommentators：\"Ifsovereignandsubjectareinaccord，putdivisionbetweenthem.\"]
24.Attackhimwhereheisunprepared，appearwhereyouarenotexpected.
25.Thesemilitarydevices，leadingtovictory，mustnotbedivulgedbeforehand.
26.Nowthegeneralwhowinsabattlemakesmanycalculationsinhistempleerethebattleisfought.
[ChangYutellsusthatinancienttimesitwascustomaryforatempletobesetapartfortheuseofageneralwhowasabouttotakethefield，inorderthathemightthereelaboratehisplanofcampaign.]
Thegeneralwholosesabattlemakesbutfewcalculationsbeforehand.Thusdomanycalculationsleadtovictory，andfewcalculationstodefeat：howmuchmorenocalculationatall！ItisbyattentiontothispointthatIcanforeseewhoislikelytowinorlose.
[1]\"WordsonWellington，\"bySir.W.Fraser.
II.WAGINGWAR
[Ts`aoKunghasthenote：\"Hewhowishestofightmustfirstcountthecost，\"whichpreparesusforthediscoverythatthesubjectofthechapterisnotwhatwemightexpectfromthetitle，butisprimarilyaconsiderationofwaysandmeans.]
1.SunTzusaid：Intheoperationsofwar，wherethereareinthefieldathousandswiftchariots，asmanyheavychariots，andahundredthousandmail—cladsoldiers，[The\"swiftchariots\"werelightlybuiltand，accordingtoChangYu，usedfortheattack;the\"heavychariots\"wereheavier，anddesignedforpurposesofdefense.LiCh`uan，itistrue，saysthatthelatterwerelight，butthisseemshardlyprobable.
ItisinterestingtonotetheanalogiesbetweenearlyChinesewarfareandthatoftheHomericGreeks.Ineachcase，thewar—
chariotwastheimportantfactor，formingasitdidthenucleusroundwhichwasgroupedacertainnumberoffoot—soldiers.Withregardtothenumbersgivenhere，weareinformedthateachswiftchariotwasaccompaniedby75footmen，andeachheavychariotby25footmen，sothatthewholearmywouldbedividedupintoathousandbattalions，eachconsistingoftwochariotsandahundredmen.]
withprovisionsenoughtocarrythemathousandLI，[2.78modernLIgotoamile.ThelengthmayhavevariedslightlysinceSunTzu’stime.]
theexpenditureathomeandatthefront，includingentertainmentofguests，smallitemssuchasglueandpaint，andsumsspentonchariotsandarmor，willreachthetotalofathousandouncesofsilverperday.Suchisthecostofraisinganarmyof100，000
men.
2.Whenyouengageinactualfighting，ifvictoryislongincoming，thenmen’sweaponswillgrowdullandtheirardorwillbedamped.Ifyoulaysiegetoatown，youwillexhaustyourstrength.
3.Again，ifthecampaignisprotracted，theresourcesoftheStatewillnotbeequaltothestrain.
4.Now，whenyourweaponsaredulled，yourardordamped，yourstrengthexhaustedandyourtreasurespent，otherchieftainswillspringuptotakeadvantageofyourextremity.Thennoman，howeverwise，willbeabletoaverttheconsequencesthatmustensue.
5.Thus，thoughwehaveheardofstupidhasteinwar，clevernesshasneverbeenseenassociatedwithlongdelays.
[Thisconciseanddifficultsentenceisnotwellexplainedbyanyofthecommentators.Ts`aoKung，LiCh`uan，MengShih，TuYu，TuMuandMeiYao—ch`enhavenotestotheeffectthatageneral，thoughnaturallystupid，mayneverthelessconquerthroughsheerforceofrapidity.HoShihsays：\"Hastemaybestupid，butatanyrateitsavesexpenditureofenergyandtreasure;protractedoperationsmaybeveryclever，buttheybringcalamityintheirtrain.\"WangHsievadesthedifficultybyremarking：\"Lengthyoperationsmeananarmygrowingold，wealthbeingexpended，anemptyexchequeranddistressamongthepeople;trueclevernessinsuresagainsttheoccurrenceofsuchcalamities.\"ChangYusays：\"Solongasvictorycanbeattained，stupidhasteispreferabletocleverdilatoriness.\"
NowSunTzusaysnothingwhatever，exceptpossiblybyimplication，aboutill—consideredhastebeingbetterthaningeniousbutlengthyoperations.Whathedoessayissomethingmuchmoreguarded，namelythat，whilespeedmaysometimesbeinjudicious，tardinesscanneverbeanythingbutfoolish——ifonlybecauseitmeansimpoverishmenttothenation.InconsideringthepointraisedherebySunTzu，theclassicexampleofFabiusCunctatorwillinevitablyoccurtothemind.ThatgeneraldeliberatelymeasuredtheenduranceofRomeagainstthatofHannibals’sisolatedarmy，becauseitseemedtohimthatthelatterwasmorelikelytosufferfromalongcampaigninastrangecountry.Butitisquiteamootquestionwhetherhistacticswouldhaveprovedsuccessfulinthelongrun.Theirreversalitistrue，ledtoCannae;butthisonlyestablishesanegativepresumptionintheirfavor.]
6.Thereisnoinstanceofacountryhavingbenefitedfromprolongedwarfare.
7.Itisonlyonewhoisthoroughlyacquaintedwiththeevilsofwarthatcanthoroughlyunderstandtheprofitablewayofcarryingiton.
[Thatis，withrapidity.Onlyonewhoknowsthedisastrouseffectsofalongwarcanrealizethesupremeimportanceofrapidityinbringingittoaclose.Onlytwocommentatorsseemtofavorthisinterpretation，butitfitswellintothelogicofthecontext，whereastherendering，\"Hewhodoesnotknowtheevilsofwarcannotappreciateitsbenefits，\"isdistinctlypointless.]
8.Theskillfulsoldierdoesnotraiseasecondlevy，neitherarehissupply—wagonsloadedmorethantwice.
[Oncewarisdeclared，hewillnotwasteprecioustimeinwaitingforreinforcements，norwillhereturnhisarmybackforfreshsupplies，butcrossestheenemy’sfrontierwithoutdelay.
Thismayseemanaudaciouspolicytorecommend，butwithallgreatstrategists，fromJuliusCaesartoNapoleonBonaparte，thevalueoftime——thatis，beingalittleaheadofyouropponent——
hascountedformorethaneithernumericalsuperiorityorthenicestcalculationswithregardtocommissariat.]
9.Bringwarmaterialwithyoufromhome，butforageontheenemy.Thusthearmywillhavefoodenoughforitsneeds.
[TheChinesewordtranslatedhereas\"warmaterial\"
literallymeans\"thingstobeused\"，andismeantinthewidestsense.Itincludesalltheimpedimentaofanarmy，apartfromprovisions.]
10.PovertyoftheStateexchequercausesanarmytobemaintainedbycontributionsfromadistance.Contributingtomaintainanarmyatadistancecausesthepeopletobeimpoverished.
[Thebeginningofthissentencedoesnotbalanceproperlywiththenext，thoughobviouslyintendedtodoso.Thearrangement，moreover，issoawkwardthatIcannothelpsuspectingsomecorruptioninthetext.ItneverseemstooccurtoChinesecommentatorsthatanemendationmaybenecessaryforthesense，andwegetnohelpfromthemthere.TheChinesewordsSunTzuusedtoindicatethecauseofthepeople’simpoverishmentclearlyhavereferencetosomesystembywhichthehusbandmensenttheircontributionsofcorntothearmydirect.Butwhyshoulditfallonthemtomaintainanarmyinthisway，exceptbecausetheStateorGovernmentistoopoortodoso？]
11.Ontheotherhand，theproximityofanarmycausespricestogoup;andhighpricescausethepeople’ssubstancetobedrainedaway.
[WangHsisayshighpricesoccurbeforethearmyhasleftitsownterritory.Ts`aoKungunderstandsitofanarmythathasalreadycrossedthefrontier.]
12.Whentheirsubstanceisdrainedaway，thepeasantrywillbeafflictedbyheavyexactions.
13，14.Withthislossofsubstanceandexhaustionofstrength，thehomesofthepeoplewillbestrippedbare，andthree—tenthsoftheirincomewillbedissipated;
[TuMuandWangHsiagreethatthepeoplearenotmulctednotof3/10，butof7/10，oftheirincome.Butthisishardlytobeextractedfromourtext.HoShihhasacharacteristictag：
\"ThePEOPLEbeingregardedastheessentialpartoftheState，andFOODasthepeople’sheaven，isitnotrightthatthoseinauthorityshouldvalueandbecarefulofboth？\"]
whilegovernmentexpensesforbrokenchariots，worn—outhorses，breast—platesandhelmets，bowsandarrows，spearsandshields，protectivemantles，draught—oxenandheavywagons，willamounttofour—tenthsofitstotalrevenue.
15.Henceawisegeneralmakesapointofforagingontheenemy.Onecartloadoftheenemy’sprovisionsisequivalenttotwentyofone’sown，andlikewiseasinglePICULofhisprovenderisequivalenttotwentyfromone’sownstore.
[Becausetwentycartloadswillbeconsumedintheprocessoftransportingonecartloadtothefront.APICULisaunitofmeasureequalto133.3pounds（65.5kilograms）.]
16.Nowinordertokilltheenemy，ourmenmustberousedtoanger;thattheremaybeadvantagefromdefeatingtheenemy，theymusthavetheirrewards.
[TuMusays：\"Rewardsarenecessaryinordertomakethesoldiersseetheadvantageofbeatingtheenemy;thus，whenyoucapturespoilsfromtheenemy，theymustbeusedasrewards，sothatallyourmenmayhaveakeendesiretofight，eachonhisownaccount.\"]
17.Thereforeinchariotfighting，whentenormorechariotshavebeentaken，thoseshouldberewardedwhotookthefirst.Ourownflagsshouldbesubstitutedforthoseoftheenemy，andthechariotsmingledandusedinconjunctionwithours.Thecapturedsoldiersshouldbekindlytreatedandkept.
18.Thisiscalled，usingtheconqueredfoetoaugmentone’sownstrength.
19.Inwar，then，letyourgreatobjectbevictory，notlengthycampaigns.
[AsHoShihremarks：\"Warisnotathingtobetrifledwith.\"SunTzuherereiteratesthemainlessonwhichthischapterisintendedtoenforce.\"]
20.Thusitmaybeknownthattheleaderofarmiesisthearbiterofthepeople’sfate，themanonwhomitdependswhetherthenationshallbeinpeaceorinperil.
III.ATTACKBYSTRATAGEM
1.SunTzusaid：Inthepracticalartofwar，thebestthingofallistotaketheenemy’scountrywholeandintact;toshatteranddestroyitisnotsogood.So，too，itisbettertorecaptureanarmyentirethantodestroyit，tocapturearegiment，adetachmentoracompanyentirethantodestroythem.
[Theequivalenttoanarmycorps，accordingtoSsu—maFa，consistednominallyof12500men;accordingtoTs`aoKung，theequivalentofaregimentcontained500men，theequivalenttoadetachmentconsistsfromanynumberbetween100and500，andtheequivalentofacompanycontainsfrom5to100men.Forthelasttwo，however，ChangYugivestheexactfiguresof100and5
respectively.]
2.Hencetofightandconquerinallyourbattlesisnotsupremeexcellence;supremeexcellenceconsistsinbreakingtheenemy’sresistancewithoutfighting.
[Hereagain，nomodernstrategistbutwillapprovethewordsoftheoldChinesegeneral.Moltke’sgreatesttriumph，thecapitulationofthehugeFrencharmyatSedan，waswonpracticallywithoutbloodshed.]
3.Thusthehighestformofgeneralshipistobalktheenemy’splans;
[Perhapstheword\"balk\"fallsshortofexpressingthefullforceoftheChineseword，whichimpliesnotanattitudeofdefense，wherebyonemightbecontenttofoiltheenemy’sstratagemsoneafteranother，butanactivepolicyofcounter—
attack.HoShihputsthisveryclearlyinhisnote：\"Whentheenemyhasmadeaplanofattackagainstus，wemustanticipatehimbydeliveringourownattackfirst.\"]
thenextbestistopreventthejunctionoftheenemy’sforces;
[Isolatinghimfromhisallies.WemustnotforgetthatSunTzu，inspeakingofhostilities，alwayshasinmindthenumerousstatesorprincipalitiesintowhichtheChinaofhisdaywassplitup.]
thenextinorderistoattacktheenemy’sarmyinthefield;
[Whenheisalreadyatfullstrength.]
andtheworstpolicyofallistobesiegewalledcities.
4.Theruleis，nottobesiegewalledcitiesifitcanpossiblybeavoided.
[Anothersoundpieceofmilitarytheory.HadtheBoersacteduponitin1899，andrefrainedfromdissipatingtheirstrengthbeforeKimberley，Mafeking，orevenLadysmith，itismorethanprobablethattheywouldhavebeenmastersofthesituationbeforetheBritishwerereadyseriouslytoopposethem.]
Thepreparationofmantlets，movableshelters，andvariousimplementsofwar，willtakeupthreewholemonths;
[ItisnotquiteclearwhattheChineseword，heretranslatedas\"mantlets\"，described.Ts`aoKungsimplydefinesthemas\"largeshields，\"butwegetabetterideaofthemfromLiCh`uan，whosaystheyweretoprotecttheheadsofthosewhowereassaultingthecitywallsatclosequarters.ThisseemstosuggestasortofRomanTESTUDO，readymade.TuMusaystheywerewheeledvehiclesusedinrepellingattacks，butthisisdeniedbyCh`enHao.SeesupraII.14.Thenameisalsoappliedtoturretsoncitywalls.Ofthe\"movableshelters\"wegetafairlycleardescriptionfromseveralcommentators.Theywerewoodenmissile—proofstructuresonfourwheels，propelledfromwithin，coveredoverwithrawhides，andusedinsiegestoconveypartiesofmentoandfromthewalls，forthepurposeoffillinguptheencirclingmoatwithearth.TuMuaddsthattheyarenowcalled\"woodendonkeys.\"]
andthepilingupofmoundsoveragainstthewallswilltakethreemonthsmore.
[Theseweregreatmoundsorrampartsofearthheapeduptotheleveloftheenemy’swallsinordertodiscovertheweakpointsinthedefense，andalsotodestroythefortifiedturretsmentionedintheprecedingnote.]
5.Thegeneral，unabletocontrolhisirritation，willlaunchhismentotheassaultlikeswarmingants，[ThisvividsimileofTs`aoKungistakenfromthespectacleofanarmyofantsclimbingawall.Themeaningisthatthegeneral，losingpatienceatthelongdelay，maymakeaprematureattempttostormtheplacebeforehisenginesofwarareready.]
withtheresultthatone—thirdofhismenareslain，whilethetownstillremainsuntaken.Sucharethedisastrouseffectsofasiege.
[WeareremindedoftheterriblelossesoftheJapanesebeforePortArthur，inthemostrecentsiegewhichhistoryhastorecord.]
6.Thereforetheskillfulleadersubduestheenemy’stroopswithoutanyfighting;hecapturestheircitieswithoutlayingsiegetothem;heoverthrowstheirkingdomwithoutlengthyoperationsinthefield.
[ChiaLinnotesthatheonlyoverthrowstheGovernment，butdoesnoharmtoindividuals.TheclassicalinstanceisWuWang，whoafterhavingputanendtotheYindynastywasacclaimed\"Fatherandmotherofthepeople.\"]
7.WithhisforcesintacthewilldisputethemasteryoftheEmpire，andthus，withoutlosingaman，histriumphwillbecomplete.
[OwingtothedoublemeaningsintheChinesetext，thelatterpartofthesentenceissusceptibleofquiteadifferentmeaning：\"Andthus，theweaponnotbeingbluntedbyuse，itskeennessremainsperfect.\"]
Thisisthemethodofattackingbystratagem.
8.Itistheruleinwar，ifourforcesaretentotheenemy’sone，tosurroundhim;iffivetoone，toattackhim;
[Straightway，withoutwaitingforanyfurtheradvantage.]
iftwiceasnumerous，todivideourarmyintotwo.
[TuMutakesexceptiontothesaying;andatfirstsight，indeed，itappearstoviolateafundamentalprincipleofwar.
Ts’aoKung，however，givesacluetoSunTzu’smeaning：\"Beingtwototheenemy’sone，wemayuseonepartofourarmyintheregularway，andtheotherforsomespecialdiversion.\"ChangYuthusfurtherelucidatesthepoint：\"Ifourforceistwiceasnumerousasthatoftheenemy，itshouldbesplitupintotwodivisions，onetomeettheenemyinfront，andonetofalluponhisrear;ifherepliestothefrontalattack，hemaybecrushedfrombehind;iftotherearwardattack，hemaybecrushedinfront.\"Thisiswhatismeantbysayingthat’onepartmaybeusedintheregularway，andtheotherforsomespecialdiversion.’TuMudoesnotunderstandthatdividingone’sarmyissimplyanirregular，justasconcentratingitistheregular，strategicalmethod，andheistoohastyincallingthisamistake.\"]
9.Ifequallymatched，wecanofferbattle;
[LiCh`uan，followedbyHoShih，givesthefollowingparaphrase：\"Ifattackersandattackedareequallymatchedinstrength，onlytheablegeneralwillfight.\"]
ifslightlyinferiorinnumbers，wecanavoidtheenemy;
[Themeaning，\"wecanWATCHtheenemy，\"iscertainlyagreatimprovementontheabove;butunfortunatelythereappearstobenoverygoodauthorityforthevariant.ChangYuremindsusthatthesayingonlyappliesiftheotherfactorsareequal;asmalldifferenceinnumbersisoftenmorethancounterbalancedbysuperiorenergyanddiscipline.]
ifquiteunequalineveryway，wecanfleefromhim.
10.Hence，thoughanobstinatefightmaybemadebyasmallforce，intheenditmustbecapturedbythelargerforce.
11.NowthegeneralisthebulwarkoftheState;ifthebulwarkiscompleteatallpoints;theStatewillbestrong;ifthebulwarkisdefective，theStatewillbeweak.
[AsLiCh`uanterselyputsit：\"Gapindicatesdeficiency;
ifthegeneral’sabilityisnotperfect（i.e.ifheisnotthoroughlyversedinhisprofession），hisarmywilllackstrength.\"]
12.Therearethreewaysinwhicharulercanbringmisfortuneuponhisarmy：——
13.（1）Bycommandingthearmytoadvanceortoretreat，beingignorantofthefactthatitcannotobey.Thisiscalledhobblingthearmy.