INTRODUCTION
ThislittlebookismeantforthosewhohaveneverreadanyWelshhistorybefore。ItisnottakenforgrantedthatthereaderknowseitherLatinorWelsh。
AfulleroutlinemaybereadinTheStoryofWales,inthe\"StoryoftheNations\"series;andastillfulleroneinTheWelshPeopleofRhysandBrynmorJones。OffairlysmallandcheapbooksinvariousperiodsImaymentionRhys’CelticBritain,OwenRhoscomyl’sFlameBearersofWelshHistory,HenryOwen’sGeraldtheWelshman,Bradley’sOwenGlendower,Newell’sWelshChurch,andReesProtestantNon—
conformityinWales。MoreelaborateandexpensivebooksareSeebohm’sVillageCommunityandTribalSysteminWales,Clark’sMedievalMilitaryArchitecture,Morris’WelshWarsofEdwardI。,Southall’sWalesandHerLanguage。Inwritinglocalhistory,A。N。
Palmer’sHistoryofWrexhamandcompanionvolumesaremodels。
Ifyouturntoalibrary,youwillfindmuchinformationaboutWalesinSocialEngland,theDictionaryofNationalBiography,thepublicationsoftheCymmrodorionandothersocieties。YouwillfindarticlesofgreatvalueandinterestoverthenamesofF。H。
Haverfield,J。W。Willis—Bund,EgertonPhillimore,theHonourableMrsBulkeleyOwen(GwenrhianGwynedd),HenryOwen,thelateDavidLewis,T。F。Tout,J。E。Lloyd,D。LleuferThomas,W。LlywelynWilliams,J。
ArthurPrice,J。H。Davies,J。Ballinger,EdwardOwen,HubertHall,HughWilliams,R。A。Roberts,A。W。Wade—Evans,E。A。Lewis。TheseareonlyafewoutofthemanywhoarenowworkingintherichandunexploredfieldofWelshhistory。IputdownthenamesonlyofthoseIhadtoconsultinwritingasmallbooklikethis。
ThesourcesaremostlyinLatinorWelsh。Manyvolumesofchronicles,charters,andhistoricalpoemshavebeenpublishedbytheGovernment,bytheCorporationofCardiff,byJ。GwenogvrynEvans,byH。deGreyBirch,andothers。But,sofar,wehavenothadtheinterestingchroniclesandpoemstranslatedintoEnglishastheyoughttobe,andpublishedinwelledited,nottooexpensivevolumes。
OWENEDWARDS
LINCOLNCOLLEGE,OXFORD。
CHAPTERI——WALES
Walesisarowofhills,risingbetweentheIrishSeaonthewestandtheEnglishplainsontheeast。Ifyoucomefromthewestalongthesea,orifyoucrosstheSevernortheDeefromtheeast,youwillseethatWalesisacountryallbyitself。Itrisesgrandlyandproudly。Ifyouareastranger,youwillthinkofitas\"Wales\"——astrangecountry;ifyouareWelsh,youwillthinkofitas\"Cymru\"——alandofbrothers。
ThegeologistwilltellyouhowWaleswasmade;thegeographerwilltellyouwhatitislikenow;thehistorianwilltellyouwhatitspeoplehavedoneandwhattheyare。Allthreewilltellyouthatitisaveryinterestingcountry。
TherocksofWalesareolderandharderthantherocksoftheplains;
andasyoutravelfromthesouthtothenorth,theolderandhardertheybecome。ThehighestmountainsofWales,andsomeofitshills,havecrestsoftheveryoldestandhardestrock——granite,porphyry,andbasalt;andtheserocksaregiventheirformbyfire。Butthegreaterpartofthecountryismadeofrocksformedbywater——stilltheoldestoftheirkind。Inthenorth—west,centre,andwest——abouttwo—thirdsofthewholecountry,——therocksarechieflyslateandshale;inthesouth—easttheyarechieflyoldredsandstone;inthenorth—east,butchieflyinthesouth,theyarelimestoneandcoal。
ItsrocksgiveWalesitsfamousscenery——itsruggedpeaks,itsromanticglens,itsrushingrivers。Theyarealsoitschiefwealth——
granite,slate,limestone,coal;andlodesofstillmorepreciousmetals——iron,lead,silver,andgold——runthroughthem。
ThehighestmountaininWalesisSnowdon,whichis3,570feetabovethelevelofthesea。Forevery300feetwegoup,thetemperaturebecomesonedegreecooler。Atabout1,000feetitbecomestoocoldforwheat;atabout1,500itbecomestoocoldforcorn;atabout2,000itistoocoldforcattle;mountainponiesgrazestillhigher;
thebleakupperslopesarelefttothesmallandvaluableWelshsheep。
Therearethreebeltsofsoilaroundthehills——arable,pasture,andsheep—run——oneabovetheother。Thearablelandformsaboutathirdofthecountry;itliesalongtheseaborder,ontheslopesabovetheDeeandtheSevern,andinthedeepvalleysoftheriverswhichpiercefarinland,——theSevern,Wye,Usk,Towy,Teivy,Dovey,Conway,andClwyd。Thepastureland,thelandofsmallmountainfarms,formsthemiddlethird;itisalandoftinyvalleysandsmallplains,everfosteredbythewarm,moistwestwind。Aboveit,theremainingthirdisstormysheep—run,widegreenslopesandwildmoors,steepglensandrockyheights。
Fromnorth—westtosouth—eastthelineofhighhillsruns。Inthenorth—westcorner,Snowdontowersamonganumberofheightsover3,000feet。Atitsfeet,tothenorth—west,theisleofAngleseylies。ThepeninsulaofLleyn,withacentralridgeofrock,andslopesofpasturelands,runstothesouth—west。Totheeast,beyondtheConway,lietheHiraethogmountains,withlowerheightsandwiderreaches;furthereastagain,overtheClwyd,arethestilllowerhillsofFlint。
Tothesouth,30milesasthecrowflies,overtheslatecountry,theBerwynsareseenclearly。Fromapeakamongthese——CaderVronwen(2,573feet),ortheAran(2,970feet),orCaderIdris(2,929feet)——
welookeastandsouth,overthehillyslopesoftheupperSeverncountry。
Another30milestothesouthrisesgreenPlinlimmon(2,469feet);
fromitweseethehighmoorlandsofcentralWales,slopingtoCardiganBayonthewestandtothevalleyoftheSevern,nowalordlyEnglishriver,ontheeast。
FortymilessouththeBlackMountain(2,630feet)risesbeyondtheWye,andtheBreconBeacons(2,910feet)beyondtheUsk。WestofthesethehillsfadeawayintothebroadpeninsulaofDyved。
Southwardswelookoverhillsofcoalandirontothepleasantsea—
fringedplainofGwent。
Onthenorthandthewesttheseaisshallow;insomeplacesitisunder10fathomsfor10milesfromtheshore,andunder20fathomsfor20miles。Talesofdrownedlandsaretold——ofthesandsofLavan,ofthefeastofdrunkenSeithenyn,andofthebellsofAberdovey。Buttheseaisakindneighbour。Itssoft,warmwindsbathethehillswithlife;andthegreatsweepofthebigAtlanticwavesintotherivermouthshelpourcommerce。Holyhead,MilfordHaven,Swansea,Newport,Barry,andCardiff——nowoneofthechiefportsoftheworld——canwelcomethelargestvesselsafloat。Theherringisplentifulonthewestcoast,andtroutandsalmonintherivers。
CHAPTERII——THEWANDERINGNATIONS
Bylandandbysea,raceafterracehascometomakethehillsofWalesitshome。Oneracewouldbeshort,withdarkeyesandblackhair;anotherwouldbetall,withblueeyesandfairhair。Theycamefromdifferentcountriesandalongdifferentpaths,buteachracebroughtsomegoodwithit。Onebroughtskillintaminganimals,untilithadatlasttamedeventhepigandthebee;anotherbroughtirontoolstotaketheplaceofstoneones。Anotherbroughttheenergyofthechaseandwar,andanotheradelightinsailingashiporinbuildingafortress。
Onethingtheyhadincommon——theywandered,andtheywanderedtothewest。Fromthecoldwastesandthedarkforestsofthenorthandeast,theywereeverpushingwesttomoresunnylands。Asfarbackaswecansee,thegreatmigrationofnationstothewestwasgoingon。TheislandsofBritainwerethefurthestpointtheycouldreach;
forbeyondit,atthattime,nomanhaddaredtosailintotheunknownexpanseoftheoceanofthewest。IntheislandsofBritain,themountainsofWaleswereamongthemostdifficulttowin,anditwasonlythebravestandthehardiestthatcouldmaketheirhomeamongthem。
Thefirstracesthatcamewereshortanddark。Theycameintribes。
Theyhadtribalmarks,thepictureofananimalasarule;andtheyhadastrangefancythatthisanimalwastheirancestor。Itmaybethatthelocalnicknameswhicharestillremembered——suchas\"thepigsofAnglesey,\"\"thedogsofDenbigh,\"\"thecatsofRuthin,\"\"thecrowsofHarlech,\"\"thegadfliesofMawddwy\"——weretheproudtribetitlesoftheseearlypeople。Theirweaponsandtoolswerepolishedstone;theirhammersandhatchetsandadzes,theirlanceheadsandtheirarrowtips,wereofthehardestigneousrock——chippedandgroundwithpatientlabour。
Thepeoplewhocomefirsthavethebestchanceofstaying,ifonlytheyarewillingtolearn;hardyplantswillsoontaketheplaceoftenderplantsifleftalone。Theshortdarkpeoplearestillthemainpart,notonlyoftheWelsh,butoftheBritishpeople。Itistruethattheirlanguagehasdisappeared,exceptafewplace—names。
Butlanguagesarefarmorefleetingthanraces。Thelossofitslanguagedoesnotshowthataraceisdead;itonlyshowsthatitisveryanxioustochangeandlearn。Somelanguageseasilygiveplacetoothers,andwesaythatthepeoplewhospeaktheselanguagesaregoodlinguists,likeDanesandSlavs。Otherlanguagespersist,thosewhospeakthemareunwillingtospeakanynewlanguage,andthisisthereasonwhySpanishandEnglisharesowidespread。
Aftertheshortdarkracecameatallfair—hairedpeople。Theycameinfamiliesaswellasintribes。Theyhadironweaponsandtools,andtheshortdarkpeoplecouldnotkeepthematbaywiththeirbone—
tippedspearsandflint—headedarrows。Weknownothingaboutthestrugglebetweenthem。Butitmaybethatthefairystoriesweweretoldwhenchildrencomefromthosefar—offtimes。Ifafairymaidencamefromlakeormoundtoliveamongmen,shevanishedatonceiftouchedwithiron。Isthis,learnedmenhaveasked,adimmemoryofthevictoryofironoverstone?
ThenamegiventotheshortdarkmanisusuallyIberian;thenamegiventothetallfairmanwhofollowedhimisCelt。Thetwolearnttolivetogetherinthesamecountry。Theconquerorprobablylookeduponhimselfatfirstasthemasteroftheconquered,thenassimplybelongingtoasuperiorrace,butgraduallythedistinctionvanished。
ThelanguageremainedthelanguageoftheCelt;itiscalledanAryanlanguage,alanguageasnobleamonglanguagesastheAranisamongitshills。ItisstillspokeninWales,inBrittany,inIreland,intheHighlandsofScotland,andintheIsleofMan。ItwasalsospokeninCornwalltilltheeighteenthcentury;andYorkshiredalesmenstillcounttheirsheepinWelsh。EnglishisanotherAryantongue。
Themoremixedanationis,themorerichitslifeandthegreateritsfuture。Purityofbloodisnotathingtoboastof,andnogreatandprogressivenationcomesfromonebreedofmen。Someraceshavemoreimaginationthanothers,orafinerfeelingforbeauty;othershavemoreenergyandpracticalwisdom。Thebestnationshaveboth;
andtheyhaveboth,probably,becausemanyraceshavebeenblendedintheirmaking。ThereishardlyaparishinWalesinwhichtherearenotdifferenttypesoffacesanddifferentkindsofcharacter。
Thewanderingofnationshasneverreallystopped。TheCeltwasfollowedbyhiscousins——theAngleandtheSaxon。These,again,werefollowedbyracesstillmorecloselyrelatedtothem——theNormansandtheDanesandtheFlemings。TheyhavealllefttheirmarkonWalesandontheWelshcharacter。
Themigrationisstillgoingon。TracethehistoryofanuplandWelshparish,andyouwillfindthat,inasurprisinglyshorttime,theoldfamilies,highandlow,havegivenplacetonewcomers。LookintothetrainswhichcarryemigrantsfromHullorLondontoLiverpoolontheirwaywest——theyhavetheblueeyesandyellowhairofthosewhocametwothousandyearsago。Butthiscountryisnolongertheirgoal,thegreatcontinentofAmericahasbeendiscoveredbeyond。FitsoflongingforwanderingcomeovertheWelshperiodically,astheycameovertheDanes——causedbyscarcityoffoodanddensityofpopulation,orbyasenseofoppressionandayearningforfreedom。Anemptystomachsometimes,andsometimesafieryimagination,sentacrowdofadventurerstonewlands。Anditisthusthateverylivingnationiseverrenewingitsyouth。
CHAPTERIII——ROME
Itisnotaspiritofadventureanddaringalonethatmakesanation。
Romerosetosaythatitmusthavethespiritoforderandlawtoo。
Itroseinthepathofthenations;itbuiltthewallsofitsempire,guardedbythecampsofitslegions,rightacrossit。Forfourhundredyearsthewanderingofnationsceased;thenationsstopped——
andtheybegantotilltheground,toliveincities,toformstates。
Thehushofthispeacedidnotlast,butthememoryofitremainedinthelifeofeverynationthatfeltit。Unityandlawtemperedfreedomandchange。
ThenameofRomewasmadeknown,andmadeterrible,throughWalesbyagreatbattlefoughtontheeasternslopesoftheBerwyn。TheRomanshadconqueredthelandsbeyondtheSevern,andhadplacedthemselvesfirmlynearthebanksofthatriveratGlevumandUriconium。GlevumisourGloucester,anditsstreetsarestillastheRomanarchitectplannedthem。UriconiumistheburntandburiedcitybeyondShrewsbury;theskullsfoundinit,anditsimplementsofindustry,andthetoysofitschildren,youcanseeintheShrewsburyMuseum。
TheBritishleaderinthegreatbattlewasCaratacus,thegeneralwhohadfoughttheRomansstepbystepuntilhehadcometothebordersofWales,tosummonthewarlikeSilurestosavetheircountry。Wedonotknowthesiteofthegreatbattle,thoughtheRomanhistorianTacitusgivesagraphicdescriptionofit。TheBritonswereonahillsideslopingdowntoariver,andtheRomanscouldonlyattacktheminfront。Theenemywadedtheriver,however,andscaledthewallonitsfurtherbank;andinthefiercelanceandswordfightthehostofCaratacuslosttheday。Hefled,butwasafterwardshandedovertotheRomans,andtakentoRome,togracethetriumphalprocessionofthevictors。
ThebattleonlyrousedtheSilurestoamorefierceresistance,anditcosttheRomansmanylives,andittookthemmanyyears,tobreaktheirpower。ThestrangestsightthatmettheinvaderswasinAnglesey,aftertheyhadcrossedtheMenaionhorsesoronrafts。
Thedruidstriedtoterrifythembytheritesoftheirreligion。Thedarkgroves,thewomendressedinblackandcarryingflamingtorches,theagedpriests——thesightparalysedtheRomansoldiers,butonlyforamoment。
Vespasian——itwashewhosenthissonTitustobesiegeJerusalem——
becameemperorin69。Thewarwascarriedonwithgreatenergy,andby78Waleswasentirelyconquered。
ThenAgricola,awiseruler,came。ThepeaceofRomewasleftintheland;andtheWelshmantooktheRoman,notwillinglyatfirst,ashisteacherandrulerinsteadofashisenemy。Townswerebuilt;thetwoChestersorCaerlleons(CastraLegionum),ontheDeeandtheUsk,beingthemostimportantfromamilitarypointofview。Roadsweremade;twoalongthenorthandsouthcoasts,toCarmarthenandCarnarvon;twoothersranparallelalongthelengthofWales,toconnecttheirends。Ontheseroadstownsrose;andsome,likeCaerwent,wereself—governingcommunitiesofprosperouspeople。
Agricultureflourished;theWelshwordsfor\"plough\"and\"cheese\"are\"aradr\"and\"caws\"——theLatinaratrumandcaseus。Themineralwealthofthecountrywasdiscovered;andcopperminesandleadmines,silverminesandgoldmines,wereworked。The\"aur\"(gold)and\"arian\"(silver)and\"plwm\"(lead)oftheWelshmanaretheLatinaurum,argentum,andplumbum。
TheRomansallowedtheWelshfamiliesandtribestoremainasbefore,andtoberuledbytheirownkingsandchiefs。Buttheykeptthedefenceofthecountry——themanningofthegreatwallinthenorthofRomanBritain,thegarrisoningofthelegiontowns,andtheholdingofthewesternsea——intheirownhand。
GraduallythepowerofRomebegantowane,anditsholdondistantcountrieslikeBritainbegantorelax。Thewanderingnationsweregatheringonitseasternandnorthernborders,anditswallsandlegionsatlastgaveway。Ithadnotbeenakindmothertothenationsithadconquered——inwarithadbeencruel,andinpeaceithadbeenselfishandstern。Thelustofrulebecamestrongerasitsarmbecameweaker。Thedegradationofslaveryandtheheavyhandofthetax—gathererwereextendingeventoWales。Thebarbarianinvaderfoundtheeffeminate,luxuriousempireaneasyprey。In410AlaricandhishostofGothsappearedbeforethecityofRomeitself;andahordeofbarbarians,thirstingforbloodandspoil,surgedintoit。
Thefallofthegreatcitywasashocktothewholeworld;theendoftheworldmustbenear,forhowcoulditstandwithoutRome?Jeromecouldhardlysobthestrangenews:\"Rome,whichenslavedthewholeworld,hasitselfbeentaken。\"
RomehadtakentheyokeofChrist;andmanysaidthatitfellbecauseithadspurnedthegodsthathadgivenitvictory。ThreeyearsafterAlarichadsackedit,AugustinewroteabooktoprovethatitwasnotthecityofGodthathadfallen;andthattheheathengodscouldneitherhavebuiltRomeintheirlovenordestroyeditintheiranger。Hethendescribestheriseofthereal\"CityofGod,\"inthemidstofwhichistheGodofjusticeandmercy,and\"sheshallnotbemoved。\"
CHAPTERIV——THENAMEOFCHRIST
ThenameofChristhadbeenheardinBritainduringtheperiodofRomanrule,butwedonotknowwhofirstsoundedit。Therearemanybeautifullegends——thatthegreatapostleoftheGentileshimselfcametoBritain;thatJosephofArimathea,havingbeenplacedbytheJewsinanopenboat,atthemercyofwindandwave,landedinBritain;thatsomeofthecaptivestakentoRomewithCaratacusbroughtbackthetidingsofgreatjoy。
WeknowthatthenameofChrist,between200and300yearsafterHisdeath,waswellknowninBritain,andthatchurcheshadbeenbuiltforHisworship。Between300and400wehaveanorganisedchurchandasettledcreed。Between400and500therewassearchingofheartandcreed,andheresies——asuresignthatthepeoplewerealivetoreligion。Between500and600therewasatranslationoftheBiblefromHebrewandGreekintothebetter—knownLatin。ThewholeofWalesbecomesChristian;andprobablyStDavidconvertedthelastpagans,andbuilthischurchamongthem。
Between450and500astreamofpaganTeutonsflowedovertheeastofBritain,andtheBritishChurchwasseparatedfromtheRomanChurch。
By664BritishandRomanmissionarieshadconvertedtheEnglish;andthetwoChurchesofRomeandBritain,onceunited,werefacetofaceagain。Buttheyhadgrownindifferentways,andrefusedtoknoweachother。TheirEastercameondifferentdays;theydidnotbaptizeinthesameway;thetonsurewasdifferent——acrescentontheforeheadoftheBritishmonk,andacrownonthepateoftheRomanmonk。IntheRomanChurchtherewasrigidunityandsystem;intheBritishChurchtherewasmuchroomforself—government。ThenewlyconvertedEnglishchosetheRomanway,becausetheyweretoldthatStPeter,whoseseeRomewas,heldthekeysofheaven。Between700and800theWelshgraduallygaveuptheirreligiousindependence,andjoinedtheRomanChurch。
Buttherewasanotherdispute。WerethefouroldWelshbishoprics——
Bangor,StAsaph,StDavid’s,Llandaff——tobesubjecttotheEnglisharchbishopofCanterbury,ortohaveanarchbishopricoftheirownatStDavid’s?By1200theWelshbishopricsweresubjecttotheEnglisharchbishop,andGiraldusCambrensiscametoolatetosavethem。
ButthroughallthesedisputestheChurchwasgainingstrength。
Churcheswerebeingbuilteverywhere。Upto700theywerecalledafterthenameoftheirfounder;between700and1000theyweregenerallydedicatedtothearchangelMichael——thereareseveralLlanvihangels{1}inWales;after1000newchurcheswerededicatedtoMary,theMotherofChrist——wehavemanyLlanvairs。{2}
Timesofcivilstrife,orofpopularindifference,cameoverandoveragain;andtheoldpaganismtriedtoreassertitself。AndtimeaftertimethenameofChristwassoundedagainbymenwhothoughttheyhadseenHim。InthetwelfthcenturytheCistercianmonkcametosaythattheworldwasbad,thatprayersavedthesoul,andthatlabourwasnoble。{3}HewasfollowedbytheFranciscanfriar,whosaidthatdeedsofmercyandloveshouldbeaddedtoprayer,thatChristhadbeenapoorman,andthatmenshouldhelpeachother,notonlyinsavingsouls,butinhealingsicknessandrelievingpain。InthefifteenthcenturytheLollardcametosaythattheChurchwastoorich,andthatithadbecomeblindtothetruth,andWalterBrutesaidthatmenweretobejustifiedbyfaithinChrist,notbytheworshipofimagesorbythemeritofsaints。InthesixteenthcenturycametheProtestant,andtheswayofRomeoverWalescametoanend;BishopMorgantranslatedtheBibleintoWelsh,andJohnPenryyearnedforthepreachingoftheGospelinWales。TheJesuitfollowed,callinghimselfbythenameofJesus,totrytowinthecountrybackagaintoRome。RobertJonestoiledandschemed,andsomelaiddowntheirlives。ThePuritancameintheseventeenthcenturytodemandsimpleworship,andMorganLloydthoughtthatthesecondadventofChristwasathand。TheRevivalistcameintheeighteenthcentury,and,inthenameofChrist,arousedthepeopleofWalestoanewlifeofthought。
Afterallthis,youwillbesurprisedtolearnthatmanyoftheoldgodsstillremaininWales,andmuchoftheoldpaganworship。Whodropsapinintoasacredwell,orleavesatinyragonabushcloseby,andthenwishesforsomething?Ayoungmaideninthetwentiethcentury,whosacrificestoawellheathengod。UntilquiterecentlymenthoughtthatFfynnonGybi,andFfynnonElian,andFfynnonDdwynwen,hadinthemapowerwhichcouldcurseandbless,ruinandsave。
LudoftheSilverHandwasthegodofflocksandships。HiscavesareinDyvedstill,andhiswasthetempleonLudgateHillinLondon。
Merlinwasagodofknowledge;hecouldforetellevents。Ceridwenwasthegoddessofwisdom;shedistilledwisdom—givingdropsinacauldron。Gwydioncreatedabeautifulgirlfromflowers,\"fromredrose,andyellowbroom,andwhiteanemony。\"IamnotquitesurewhatCoildid,butIhaveheardchildrensingingthehistoryof\"oldKingCole。\"OlwenalsowalkedthroughWalesinheathentimes,anditissaidthatthreewhiteflowersrosebehindherwherevershehadputherfoot。
CHAPTERV——THEWELSHKINGS
ThespiritofRomeremained,thoughRomeitselfhadfallen。AndWelshkingsrosetotaketheplaceoftheRomanruler,tryingtoforcethetribesofWales——ofdifferentracesandtongues——tobecomeonepeople。
ThechiefRomanruler,atanyrateduringthelaterwarsagainsttheinvaders,wascalledDuxBritanniae,\"therulerofBritain。\"Itbecametheaimoftheablestkingstorestorethepowerofthisofficer,andtocarryonhiswork,toruleanddefendaunitedcountry。AndIwilltellyoubrieflyhowthekingsruledanddefendedWalesformorethanfivehundredyears——howMaelgwntriedtouniteit,howRhodritriedtopreventtheattacksofSaxonandDane,howHowelgaveitlaws,andhowGriffithtriedtodefenditagainstEngland。
Between400and450RomeleftWalestolookafteritself。Anablefamily,calledtheHouseofCunedda,tookthepoweroftheDuxBritanniae,andtheytranslatedthetitleintoGwledig——\"therulerofagwlad(country)。\"OfthisfamilyMaelgwnGwyneddisthemostfamous。ItwashisworktotrytouniteallthesmallerkingsorchiefsofWalesunderhisownpoweras\"theislanddragon。\"Itwasadifficultthingtopersuadethem;theyallwantedtobeindependent。
AlegendshowsthatMaelgwntriedguileaswellasforce。ThekingsmethimatAberdovey,andtheyallsatintheirroyalchairsonthesands。AndMaelgwnsaid:\"Lethimbekingoverallwhocansitlongestonhischairasthetidecomesin。\"Buthehadmadehisownchairofbirds’wings,anditfloatederectwhenalltheotherchairshadbeenthrowndown。BeforeMaelgwndiedoftheyellowplaguein547,hisstrongarmhadmadeWalesoneunitedcountry,andhadmadeeverycornerofitChristian。
Thenewwaveofnations,comingonassurelyasthetide,begantobeatagainstWales。ThePictscamefromthenorthernpartsofBritain,andTeutonictribesswarmedacrosstheeasternsea。TheAnglescametotheHumber,andspreadovertheplainsofthenorthandthemidlandsofRomanBritain;theSaxonscametotheThames,andwontheplainsandthedownsofthesouth—east。In577theSaxons,afterthebattleofDeorham,piercedtothewesternseaatthemouthoftheSevern;theycreptupalongthevalleyoftheSevern,burningthegreatRomantowns。BeforetheyreachedChesterandtheDee,however,theyweredefeatedatthebattleofFethanleain584。ButtheAnglessoonappeared,fromthenorth;andaftertheirvictoryatChesterin613,theywontheplainsrighttotheIrishSea。
Waleswasnowsurroundedonthelandsidebyapeoplewhospokestrangelanguages,andwhoworshippeddifferentgods,fortheAnglesandtheSaxonswereheathens。Fromtheseaalsoitwasopentoattack。SometimestheIrishcame。ButthemostfearedofallweretheDanes,whosesuddenappearanceandquickmovementsanddesperateonslaughtsweretheterroroftheage。The\"blackDanes\"camefromthefordsofNorway,the\"whiteDanes\"fromtheplainsofSwedenandDenmark。TheDanessettledonthesouthcoast:TenbyisaDanishname。Offa,thekingoftheMercianAngles,tooktherichlandsbetweentheSevernandtheWye;butOffa’sDyke(ClawddOffa)isprobablytheworkofsomeearlierpeoplewhosehistoryhasbeenlost。
Itwasonlybyincessantfightingthattheenemycouldbekeptatbay。
Ofallthekingswhotriedtodefendhiscountryagainsttheenemieswhichnowstoodroundit,thegreatestisRhodri,calledRhodriMawr—
—\"theGreat。\"From844to877,bybattlesonseaandland,hebrokethespellofDanishandSaxonvictories;andhismightandwisdomenabledhimtoleadhiscountryinthosedarkdays。LikeAlfredofWessex,wholivedatthesametimeandfacedthesametask,hestemmedthetorrentofDanishinvasionandbeatthesea—roversontheirownelement。LikeAlfred,heleftwarlikechildrenandgrandchildren。OneofthegrandsonswasHoweltheGood,whoputthelawsofWalesdowninabook。
WalesandEnglandwerenow,bothofthemintheirownway,tryingtobecomeonecountry。Itwasseenbymanythatstrengthandpeacewerebetterthandivisionandwar。InEngland,theEarlsofMerciaandWessextriedtoriseintosupremepower。InWalesLlywelynabSeisyll,victoriousinmanybattlesandwishingforpeace,madethecountryrichandhappy。Still,whenhediedin1022,theprincessaidtheywouldnotobeyanotherover—king。
ButthelongshipsfullofDanescameagain;theAnglescrossedtheSevern:warandmiserytooktheplaceofpeaceandplenty。
Griffith,thesonofLlywelyn,cametorenewhisfather’swork。InthebattleofRhydyGroesontheSevern,in1039,hedrovetheMerciansback;inthebattleofPencader,in1041,hecrushedtheopponentsofWelshunity;in1044hedefeatedthesea—roversatAberTowy。AtthesametimeHarold,EarlofWessex,wasmakinghimselfkingofEngland。AwarbrokeoutbetweenGriffithandHarold;and,duringit,in1063,thegreatWelshking——\"theheadandtheshieldoftheBritons\"——wasslainbytraitors。
SofarIhavetoldyouaboutafew,onlythegreatest,kingsoftheHouseofCunedda。IknowthatyouarewonderingwhereArthurcomesin。IamnotquitesurethatArthureverreallylived,exceptinthemindofmanyages。HeisthespiritofRomanrule,thetrueDuxBritanniae,andhehasallthegreatnessandabilityofalltheraceofCunedda。Ihavebeenshownmountainsunderwhichhesleeps,withhisknightsaroundhim,waitingforthetimewhenhiscountryistobedelivered。LetushopethatwhatArthurrepresents——courageandwisdom,loveofcountryandloveofright——livesintheheartsofhispeople。
CHAPTERVI——THELAWSOFHOWEL
ThetwoideaswhichruledWaleswere——theloveoforderandtheloveofindependence。Thedangerofthefirstisoppression;thedangersoftheotherareanarchyandweakness。Waleswassometimesunited,underaMaelgwnoraRhodri,andtheprincesobeyedthem;oftener,perhaps,theprincesofthevariouspartsruledintheirownway。
TheinternallifeofWalesisbestseeninthelawsofHoweltheGood。HowelwasthegrandsonofRhodri;and,about950,hecalledfourmenfromeachdistricttoHendyGwyn(Whitland)tostatethelawsofthecountry。Twelveofthewisestputthelawtogether;andthemostlearnedscribeinWaleswroteit。
Itwasthoughtthatthereshouldbeonekingoverthewholepeople,butitwasveryrarelythateverypartofWalesobeyedoneking。Thecountrywasdividedintosmallerkingdoms。InmanywaysGwyneddwasthemostpowerful。Itwasveryeasytodefend;foritwasmadeupoftheislandofMon(Anglesey),thepromontoryofLleyn,andthemountainmassofSnowdon。ItssteepsidewasthustowardsEngland,anditscornlandsandpasturesonthefurtherside。ItwasalsothehomeofthefamilyofCunedda,fromMaelgwntothelastLlywelyn。
PowyswastheBerwyncountry。CeredigionwasthewesternslopeofthePlinlimmonrange;theeasternslopeshadmanysmaller,butverywarlike,districts。DeheubarthcontainedthepleasantgladesandgreatforestsoftheTowycountry。Dyvedwasthepeninsulatothewest;thesouthernslopesoftheBeaconswereMorgannwgandGwent。
HoweltheGoodfoundthatthelawsofthevariouspartsdifferedindetails,andhegavedifferentversionstothenorth,thesouth—west,andthesouth—east。Butthelawandlifeofthewholepeople,ifweonlylookatimportantfeatures,areone。Severalcommotesmadeacantrev,manycantrevsmadeakingdom,manykingdomsmadeWales。
Ineachcommotethereweretwokindsofpeople——thefreeorhigh—
born,andthelow—bornorserfs。ThesemayhavebeentheconqueringCeltandtheconqueredIberian。Itwasverydifficultforthoseinthelowerclasstorisetothehigher;but,afterpassingthroughthestormsofathousandyears,theolddarklineofseparationwasquitelostsightof。
Thefreefamilylivedinagreathouse——inthehendre(\"oldhomestead\")inwinter,andinthemountainhavoty(\"summerhouse\")insummer。Thesidesofthehouseweremadeofgiantforesttrees,theirboughsmeetingatthetopandsupportingtherooftree。Thefireburntinthemiddleofthehall。Roundthewallsthefamilybedswerearranged。Thefamilywasgovernedbytheheadofthehousehold(penteulu),whosewordwaslaw。
Thehighestfamilyinthelandwasthatoftheking。Inhishallalltooktheirownplaces,hischiefofthehousehold,hispriest,hissteward,hisfalconer,hisjudge,hisbard,hischiefhuntsman,hismediciner,andothers。ThechiefroyalresidenceswereAberffrawinMon,MathravalinPowys,andDynevorinDeheubarth。
OldWelshlawwasveryunlikethelawweobeynow。Icannottellyoumuchaboutitinashortbooklikethis,butitisworthnoticingthatitwasveryhumane。Wedonotgetinitthesavageandvindictivepunishmentswegetinsomelaws。IgiveyousomeextractsfromtheoldlawsoftheWelsh。
Thekingwastobehonoured。AccordingtothelawsofGwynedd,ifanyonedidviolenceinhispresencehehadtopayagreatfine——ahundredcows,andawhitebullwithredears,foreverycantrevthekingruled;arodofgoldaslongasthekinghimself,andasthickashislittlefinger;andaplateofgold,asbroadastheking’sface,andasthickasaploughman’snail。
Thejudge,whetheroftheking’scourtorofthecourtsofhissubjects,wastobelearned,just,andwise。Thus,accordingtothelawsofDyved,wasaninexperiencedjudgetobepreparedforhisgreatoffice;hewastoremaininthecourtintheking’scompany,tolistentothepleasofjudgeswhocamefromthecountry,tolearnthelawsandcustomsthatwereinforce,especiallythethreemaindivisionsoflaw,andthevalueofalltameanimals,andofallwildbeastsandbirdsthatwereofusetomen。Hewastolistenespeciallytothedifficultcasesthatwerebroughttothecourt,tobesolvedbythewisdomoftheking。Whenhehadlivedthusforayear,hewastobebroughttothechurchbythechaplain;andthere,overtherelicsandbeforethealtar,heswore,inthepresenceofthegreatofficersoftheking’scourt,thathewouldneverknowinglydoinjustice,formoneyorloveorhate。Heisthenbroughttotheking,andtheofficerstellthekingthathehastakenthesolemnoath。Thenthekingacceptshimasajudge,andgiveshimhisplace。
Whenheleaves,thekinggiveshimagoldenchessboard,andthequeengoldrings,andtheseheisnevertopartwith。
Iwilltellyouaboutoneotherofficer——thefalconer。Falconrywasthefavouritepastimeofthekingsandnoblesofthetime;indeed,everybodyfounditveryexcitingtowatchthelongstruggleintheairbetweenthetrainedfalconanditsprey,aseachbirdtriedeveryskillofwingandtalonthatitknew。Thefalconerwastodrinkverysparinglyintheking’shall,forfearthefalconsmightsuffer;andhislodgingwastobeintheking’sbarn,notintheking’shall,lestthesmokefromthegreatfire—placeshoulddimthefalcon’ssight。
CHAPTERVII——THENORMANS
OnthedeathofGriffithapLlywelyn,manyprincestriedtobecomesupreme。BleddynofPowys,agoodandmercifulprince,becamethemostimportant。
InJanuary1070,whenthesnowlaythickonthemountains,William,theNormanConqueror,appearedatChesterwithanarmy。HehaddefeatedandkilledHarold,theconquerorofGriffithapLlywelyn,in1066;hehadcrushedthepoweroftheMercianalliesofBleddyn;hehadstruckterrorintothewildnorth,andEnglandlayathisfeet。
HeturnedbackfromChester,butheplacedonthebordersanumberofbaronswhoweretoconquerWales,ashehadconqueredEngland。Theyhadameasureofhisability,ofhisenergy,andofhisambition。
ThetwogreatNormantraitswerewisdomandcourage;buttheonewasoftenmerecunning,andtheotherbrutalferocity。ButnooneliketheNormanhadyetappearedinWales——noonewithavisionsoclear,orwithsohardagrip。Ahard,worldly,tenacious,calculatingracetheywere;andtheyturnedtheirfacesresolutelytowardsWales。
FromEngland,Walescanbeenteredandattackedalongthreevalleys——
alongtheDee,theSevern,andtheWye。AtChester,HughofAvranches,called\"TheWolf,\"placedhimself。FromitswallshecouldlookoverandcovettheWelshhills,ashecouldhavelookedovertheBretonhillsfromAvranches。Helovedwarandthechase:
hedespisedindustry,hecarednotforreligion;hewasamanofstrongpassions,buthewasgenerous,andherespectedworthofcharacter。Oneofhisfollowers,Robert,hadallhisvicesandfewofhisvirtues。ItwashewhoextendedthedominionsoftheEarlofChesteralongthenorthcoasttotheClwyd,wherehebuiltacastleatRhuddlan;andthenceontothevalleyoftheConway,wherehebuiltacastleatDeganwy。ThecrueltyofRobertshockedeventheNormansofhistime。HeevensetfootinAnglesey,whichlookedtemptinglynearfromDeganwy,andbuiltacastleatAberlleiniog。
AtShrewsbury,wheretheSevern,afterleavingthemountainsofWales,turnstothesouth,RogerofMontgomerywasplaced,withhiswifeMabel,anenergeticlittlewoman,hatedandfearedbyall。
Rogerhimself,whileeverreadytofight,preferredtogetwhathewantedbypersuasion;hewasnotlesscruelthanHughofChester,buthewaslessfondofwar。HeandhissonspushedtheirwayuptheSevern,andbuiltacastleatMontgomery。
ToHereford,ontheWye,WilliamFitz—Osberncame。Hewastheablest,perhaps,ofallthefollowersoftheConqueror。HeenteredWales;hesawitfromtheWyetothesea,andhethoughtitwasnotlargeenough,andthatitwastoofarfromthepoliticallifeofthetime。SohewentbacktoNormandy,buthelefthissonsWilliamandRogerbehindhim。Williamhadhisfather’swisdom。Rogerhadhisfather’srecklessnessinaction;herebelledagainsthisownking,andfoundhimselfinprison。Thekingsenthim,onthedayofChrist’sPassion,arobeofsilkandrarestermine。Thecagedbaronmadearoaringfire,andcasttherobeintoit。\"BythelightofGod,\"saidWilliamtheConqueror,forthatwashiswickedoath,\"heshallneverleavehisprison。\"
ButanotherNorman,BernardofNeufmarche,cametotakehisplace。
HebuilthiscastleatBrecon,anddefeatedandkilledRees,theKingofDeheubarth;and,withgreatenergy,hetookpossessionoftheuppervalleysoftheWyeandtheUsk。
FurthersouthWilliamtheConquerorhimselfcametoCardiff,andpossiblybuiltacastle。TheNormanconquestofthesouthcoastofWaleswasexceedinglyrapid,andcastleaftercastlerosetomarkthenewvictoriousadvances——Coety,Cenfig,Neath,Kidwelly,Pembroke,Newport,Cilgeran。
Sofar,theNormanadvancehasbeenamostquickone。Inlessthantwenty—fiveyearsfromtheappearanceoftheConqueroratChester,thewholecountryhadbeenoverrunexceptthemountainsofGwyneddandtheforestsoftheDeheubarth。Thissuccessiseasilyexplained。
Foronething,theNormanshadtrained,professionalsoldiers,whowerewellhorsedandwellarmed。InapitchedbattlethehastilycollectedWelshlevies,unusedtoregularbattleandverylightlyarmed,hadnochance。
Again,theNormanneverreceded。Hewaswillingtostopoccasionally,inordertobidehistime;butheclungtenaciouslytoeverymilehehadwon。Hisskillasacastlebuilderwasasstrikingashisprowessinbattleorhiscautiouswisdomincouncil。Hetookpossessionofanoldfortifiedpost,orhastilyconstructedoneofturfandtimber;buthesoonturneditintoacastleofstone。AtthattimetheWelshhadnoknowledgeofsieges;andtheirimpetuousvalourwasofnouseagainstthenewcastles。
Again,theWelshoppositionwasnotonlynotorganised,butweakenedbyinternalstrife。WhiletheNormanwaswinningvalleyaftervalley,theWelshprincesweretryingtodecidebytheissueofbattlewhowastobechief。Bleddynwasslainin1075;andhisnephewsandcousinstriedtorulethecountry。Amongthese,Trahaiarnwasasoldierofabilityandenergy,andarulerofrealgenius。ButhewastherivaloftheexiledprincesoftheHouseofCunedda,andhefounditdifficulttobendSnowdonandtheValeofTowytohiswill。Twooftheexilesmethim,probablynearsomeofthecairnsinthevalleyoftheTeivy;andthere,inthebattleofMynyddCarn,fiercelyfoughtthroughtheduskintoamoonlightnightin1079,Trahaiarnfell。ItlookedasifnoleadercouldriseinWalestofightaNormanarmyortotakeaNormancastle。
CHAPTERVIII——GRIFFITHAPCONANANDGRIFFITHAPREES
InthebattleofMynyddCarn,ayoungchiefledtheshiningshieldsofthemenofGwynedd。HewasGriffith,thesonofaprinceofthelineofCuneddaandofasea—rover’sdaughter。Hewasmightyoflimb,fairandstraighttosee,withtheblueeyesandflaxenhairoftherulingCelt。Inbattle,hewasfulloffuryandpassion;inpeace,hewasjustandwise。Hispeoplesawatfirstthathecouldfightabattle;thentheyfoundhecouldruleacountry。AnditwashethatwastosaytotheNorman:\"Thusfarshaltthoucome,andnofurther。\"
WhenBleddyndiedin1075,GriffithcametoGwynedd,andfoundthathisfather’slandswereundernewrulers。RobertofRhuddlanandTrahaiarnofArwystliweremightyfoes;butGriffithdrovebothofthemback;and,byhisprowessandsuccessinbattle,brokethespellofconquestwhichkeptGwyneddinbonds。Buthisenemiesattackedhimagainfromallsides;and,whileHughtheWolfandRobertofRhuddlanwerelayingGwyneddwaste,TrahaiarnandGriffithmetatthehard—foughtbattleofBronyrErw。Griffithlosttheday,andagainbecameasea—rover。HesailedtoDyved,andtherehemetRees,theKingofDeheubarth,whoalsowasofthelineofCunedda,andhadbeendrivenfromhislandbytheNormans。Thetwochiefsjoined,andtheycrushedTrahaiarnatMynyddCarn。ThentheyturnedagainsttheNormans。
Reessoonfellinbattle,andlefttwochildren,NestandGriffith。
ThebeautyofNestandthegeniusofReesapGriffithfillanimportantpageinthehistoryoftheircountry。NestbecamethemotheroftheconquerorsofIreland;ReesbecamethegreatestofallthekingsofSouthWales。
TheNormansfoundthattheWelshhadtakenheart。Oftheiropponents,theyfearedthree:GriffithapConan,OwenofPowys,andGriffithapRees。ThekingsofEngland,thetwosonsoftheConqueror——red,brutalWilliamandcool,treacherousHenry——hadtocometohelptheirbarons。
GriffithapConanhadalonglifeofstrifeandsuccess。InhisstrugglewithHughtheWolf,hewasonceinTheWolf’sprison,andmorethanoncehehadtofleetothesea。But,backedupbytheliberty—lovingsonsofSnowdonandbyhissea—rovingkinsmen,hemadeGwyneddstrongandprosperous。HedrovetheNormansfromAnglesey;
heattackedandkilledRobertofRhuddlan;hesawtheredKingofEnglandhimselfforcedbystormandraintobeataretreatfromSnowdon。Hewaslovedbyhispeopleduringhisyouthofadventureandbattle,andduringhisoldageofsafecounselandloveofpeace。
HiswifeAngharadandhissonOwenlivewithhiminthememoryofhiscountry。Whenhedied,in1137,itwassaidthathehadsavedhispeople,hadruledthemjustly,andhadgiventhempeace。
IntheSeverncountrytheprincesofPowyswerefightingagainsttheNormansalso,especiallyagainstthefamilyofMontgomery。ThesonsofBleddyn——Cadogan,Iorwerth,andMeredith——weredrivingtheinvadersfromthevalleyoftheSevern,andfromDyved,defeatingtheirarmiesinbattle,andstormingtheircastles。Sometimestheywouldmakeallianceswiththem,anddefytheKingofEngland。Butitisdifficulttofolloweachofthem。Thehistoryofoneofthem,OwenapCadogan,islikearomance。Hewasbraveandhandsome,inlovewithNest,andaveryfirebrandinpolitics。ThearmyofHenryI。wastoostrongforhim,andhehadtosubmit。HethenbecamethefriendoftheKingofEngland。ItwastheaimoftheprincesofPowystobefree,notonlyfromtheNorman,butalsofromGriffithofGwyneddandGriffithofDeheubarth。Theywereanableandversatilefamily;nobleandbasedeeds,revoltingcrimesandsweetpoems,comeinthestirringstoryoftheirlives。
WhatGriffithdidinthenorth,andthesonsofBleddynintheeast,GriffithapReesdidinthesouth;heshowedthattheNormanarmycouldbebeateninbattle,andthataNormancastlecouldbetakenbyassault。Afterhisfather’sdeathhespentmuchofhisyouthinexileorinhiding:sometimeswefindhiminIreland,sometimesinthecourtofGriffithapConan,sometimeswithhissisterNest——nowthewifeofGerald,thecustodianofPembrokeCastle。Buthehadoneaimeverbeforehim——torecoverhisfather’skingdomandtomakehispeoplefree。Castleaftercastlerose——atSwansea,Carmarthen,Llandovery,Cenarth,Aberystwyth——towarnhimthattheholdoftheNormanonthelandwastightening。HecametotheforestsoftheTowy;hispeopleralliedroundhim,andhispowerextendedfromtheTowytotheTeivy,andfromtheTeivytotheDovey。Hiswife,theheroicGwenllian——whodiedleadingherhusband’sarmyagainsttheNormans——wasGriffithapConan’sdaughter。ThegreatfinalbattlebetweenGriffithandtheNormanswasfoughtatCardiganin1136,inwhichthegreatprincewonamemorablevictoryoverthestrongestarmytheNormanscouldputinthefield。In1137hedied,andtheysaidofhimthathehadshownhispeoplewhattheyoughttodo,andthathehadgiventhemstrengthtodoit。
TheworkofGriffithapConanandGriffithapReeswasthis:theysetboundstotheNormanConquest,andsavedDeheubarthandGwyneddfromthesternruleofthealien。But,thoughtheNormanwasnotallowedtobringhisstonecastleandcruellaw,whatgoodhebroughtwithhimwaswelcomed。ThepietyoftheNorman,hisintellectualcuriosity,andhisspiritofadventure,conqueredinWelshdistrictswherehiscoatofmailandhiscastlewerenotseen。
CHAPTERIX——OWENGWYNEDDANDTHELORDREES
ThemenwhoopposedtheNormansleftablesuccessors——OwenGwyneddfollowedhisfather,GriffithapConan;theLordReesfollowedhisfatherGriffithapRees;andinPowysthesonsofBleddynwerefollowedbythecastlebuilderHowel,andbythepoetOwenCyveiliog。
OwenGwyneddruledfrom1137to1169;theLordReesfrom1137to1197。Theagewas,inmanyrespects,agreatone。
Itwas,ofcourse,anageofwar。Upto1154,duringthereignofStephen,theEnglishbaronswerefightingagainsteachother,andthekinghadverylittlepoweroverthem。ThemostimportantNormanbaronsinWalesweretheEarlsofChesterinthevalleyoftheDee,theMortimersontheupperWye,theBraosesontheupperUsk,andtheClaresinthesouth。Theircastleswereacontinualmenacetothecountrytheyhadsofarfailedtoconquer,andtheLordReeswasgladtogetKidwelly,andOwenGwyneddtogetMoldandRhuddlan。
Itwas,onthewhole,anageofunity。ItwasthechiefaimofOwenGwyneddtobetheallyoftheLordRees;andinthishesucceeded,thoughhisbrotherCadwaladr,inhisdesireforCeredigion,hadkilledRees’brother,toOwen’sinfinitesorrow。TheprincesofPowys,MadocandOwenCyveiliog,wereinthesamealliancealso,andtheywerehelpedintheirstrugglewiththeNormans。Unitywasnevermorenecessary。HenryII。broughtgreatarmiesintoWales。OncehecamealongthenorthcoasttoRhuddlan。AtanothertimehetriedtocrosstheBerwyn,butwasbeatenbackbygreatstorms。HadhereachedtheupperDee,hewouldhavefoundtheunitedforcesoftheLordRees,OwenCyveiliog,andOwenGwyneddatCorwen。Therearemanystirringepisodesinthesewars:thefightatConsilt,whenHenryII。nearlylosthislife;thescatteringofhistentsontheBerwynbyastormthatseemedtobethefuryoffiends;therecklessexposureoflifeinstormingawallorintheshockofbattle。ButtheNormanbroughtnewcrueltyintowar:HenryII。tookouttheeyesofyoungchildrenbecausetheirfathershadrevoltedagainsthim;andWilliamdeBraoseinvitedagreatnumberofWelshchiefstoafeastinhiscastleatAbergavenny,andtheremurderedthemall。
Itisarelieftoturntoanotherfeatureoftheage:itwasanageofgreatmen。OwenGwyneddwasprobablythegreatest。Hedislikedwar,buthewasanablegeneral;hemadeHenryII。retirewithoutgreatlossoflifetohisownarmy。Hewasathoughtfulprince,ofalovingnatureandhighideals,andhiscourtwasthehomeofpietyandculture。HeismorelikeourownidealofaprincethananyoftheotherprincesoftheMiddleAges。TheLordReeswasnotlesswise,andhislifeislesssorrowfulandmorebrilliant。Healsowasasgreatasastatesmanashewasasageneral;andhemadehispeacewiththeEnglishkinginordertomakehiscountryquietandrich。
OwenCyveiliogwasplacedinamoredifficultpositionthaneitherofhisallies;hewasnearertoveryambitiousNormanbarons。Hewasgreatasawarrior;oftenhadhiswhitesteedbeenseenleadingtherushofbattle。Hewasgreaterasastatesman:friendandfoesaidthatOwenwaswise;andhewasgreaterstillasapoet。
Theagewasanageofpoetry。AgenerationofgreatWelshpoetsfoundanequalwelcomeinthecourtsofGwynedd,Powys,andDeheubarth;andeventheNormanbaronsofMorgannwgbegantofeelthecharmofWelshlegendandsong;RobertofGloucesterwasagreatpatronoflearning。OneofthechiefeventsoftheperiodwasLordRees’greatEisteddvodatCardiganin1176。
Itwasanageofnewideals。TheCrusadeswerepreachedinWales;
thegraveofChristwasheldbyacruelunbeliever,anditwasthedutyofasoldiertorescueit。Itappealedtoaninbornloveofwar,andmanyWelshmenwerewillingtogo。Itdidgoodbyteachingthemthat,infighting,theywerenottofightforthemselves。ItwasinPowysthatfeudsweremostbitter。Ayoungwarriortoldapreacher,whowastryingtopersuadehimtotakethecross:\"Iwillnotgountil,withthislance,Ishallhaveavengedmylord’sdeath。\"
Thelanceimmediatelybecameshiveredinhishand。Thelanceonceusedforblindfeudswasgraduallyconsecratedtotheserviceofideals——ofpatriotismorofreligion。
TheageofOwenGwyneddandtheLordReesandOwenCyveiliogbroughtahigheridealstill。IftheCrusadermadewarsacred,themonkmadelabournoble。Thechiefaimofthemonk,itistrue,wastosavehissoul。Hethoughttheworldwasverybad,asindeeditwas;andhethoughthecouldbestsavehisownsoulbyretiringtosomeremotespot,tolivealifeofprayer。Buthealsolivedalifeoflabour;
hebecamethebestgardener,thebestfarmer,andthebestshepherdoftheMiddleAges。Greatmonasterieswerebuiltforhim,andgreattractsoflandweregivenhim,bythosewhowereanxiousthatheshouldprayfortheirsouls。ThemonkwhocametoWaleswastheCistercian。ThemonasteriesofTintern,Margam,andNeathwerebuiltbyNormanbarons;andStrataFlorida,ValleCrucis,andBasingwerkshowedthattheWelshprincesalsowelcomedthemonks。
Better,then,thanthebrilliantwarswerethepoetsandthegreatEisteddvod。Betterstill,perhaps,weretheorchardsandtheflocksofthepeacefulmonks。
CHAPTERX——LLYWELYNTHEGREAT
OnthedeathoftheLordRees,oneofthegrandsonsofOwenGwyneddbecomesthecentralfigureinWelshhistory。LlywelyntheGreatroseintopowerin1194,andreigneduntil1240——alongreign,andinmanywaysthemostimportantofallthereignsoftheWelshprinces。
Llywelyn’sfirsttaskwastobecomesolerulerinGwynedd。ThesonsofOwenGwyneddhaddividedthestrongGwyneddleftthembytheirfather,andtheirnoblesandpriestscouldnotdecidewhichofthesonswastobesupreme。Iorwerth,thepoetHowel,David,Maelgwn,Rhodri,triedtogetGwynedd,orportionsofit。Eventually,DavidI。becameking;butsoonastrongoppositionplacedLlywelyn,theablesonofIorwerth,onthethrone。Unclesandcousinsshowedsomejealousy;butthegrowingpowerofLlywelynsoonmadethemobeyhimwithgraduallydiminishingenvy。
HisnexttaskwastoattachtheotherprincesofWalestohim,nowthattheLordReesandOwenCyveiliogweredead。Tobeginwith,hehadtodealwiththeastuteGwenwynwyn,thesonofOwenCyveiliog;
andhehadtobeforcedtosubmit。HethenturnedtothemanysonsandgrandsonsoftheLordRees——MaelgwnandReestheHoarseespecially。TheycalledJohn,KingofEngland,intoWales;buttheysoonfoundthatLlywelynwasabettermasterthanJohnandhisbarons。GraduallyLlywelynestablishedacouncilofchiefs——partlyaboardofconciliation,andpartlyanexecutivebody。Itwasnothingnew;butitwasastrikingpictureofthewayinwhichLlywelynmeanttojointheprincesintooneorganisedpoliticalbody。
HisthirdtaskwastobegintouniteNormanbaronsandWelshchiefsunderhisownrule。Hehadtobeginintheoldway,byusingforce;
andRanulphofChesterandtheClarestrembledforthesafetyoftheircastles。Hethenofferedpoliticalalliance;andsomeoftheNormanfamiliesofthegreatestimportanceinthereignofJohn——theEarlofChester,thefamilyofBraose,andtheMarshallsofPembroke—
—becamehisallies。HisotherstepwastouniteWelshandNormanfamiliesbymarriage。HehimselfmarriedadaughterofKingJohn,andhegavehisowndaughtersinmarriagetoaBraoseandaMortimer。
Itisthroughthedark—hairedGladys,whomarriedRalphMortimer,thatthekingsofEnglandcantracetheirdescentfromtheHouseofCunedda。
Llywelyn’slastgreattaskwastomakerelationsbetweenEnglandandWalesrelationsofpeaceandamity。Duringhislongreign,hesawthreekingsonthethroneofEngland——thecrusaderRichard,theableJohn,andtheworthlessandmeanHenryIII。ItwaswithJohnthathehadmosttodo,thekingwhoseoriginalityandviceshavepuzzledandshockedsomanyhistorians。JohnhelpedhimtocrushGwenwynwyn,thenhelpedthejealousWelshprincestocheckthegrowthofhispower。Llywelynsawthatitwashispolicy,aslongasJohnwasalive,tojointheEnglishbarons。TheywerethentryingtoforceMagnaCartaupontheKing,thatgreatdocumentwhichpreventedJohnfrominterferingwiththeprivilegesofhisbarons。InthatdocumentJohnpromises,inthreeclauses,thathewillobservetherightsofWelshmenandthelawofWales。
WhenJohndiedin1216,andhisyoungsonHenrysucceededhim,thepolicyofEnglandwasguidedbyWilliamMarshallEarlofPembroke。
WilliamMarshallwasoneoftheministersofHenryII。,andbyhismarriagewiththedaughterofStrongbow,theconquerorofIreland,hehadbecomeEarlofPembroke。ItwaswithhimthatLlywelynhadnowtodeal。HewastoostronginPembroketobeattacked,buthisverypresencemadeiteasierforLlywelyntoretaintheallegianceofthechiefswhowouldhavebeenindangerfromtheNormanbaronsifLlywelyn’sprotectionweretakenaway。In1219thegreatWilliamMarshalldied;andchangesinEnglishpoliticsforcedhissonsintoanalliancewithLlywelyn。
Llywelyn’stitleofGreatisgivenhimbyhisNormanandEnglishcontemporaries。Hewasgreatasageneral;hisdetectionoftroublebeforethestormbroke,hisinstantdeterminationandrapidityofmovements,hisever—readymunitionsforbattleandsiege,madehislatercampaignsalwayssuccessful。Hefeltthathewascarryingonwarinhisowncountry;sohiswarswerenotwarsofdevastation,butthecrushingofarmiesandtherazingofcastles。
Hetookaninterestinthethreegreatagentsinthecivilisationofthetime——thebard,themonk,andthefriar。Thebardwasaswelcomeaseverathiscourt;themonk,welcomedbyOwenGwyneddbefore,wasgivenanotherhomeatAberConway。Llywelynextendedhiswelcometothefriar,andhewasgivenahomeatLlanVaesinAnglesey,ontheshoresoftheMenai。Thefriarbroughtahigheridealthanthatofthemonk;hisaimwassalvation,notbyprayerinthesolitudeofamountainglen,butbyservicewheremenwerethickesttogether——eveninstreetsmadefoulbyvice,andhauntedbyleprosy。OftheMendicantOrders,theFranciscanswerethebestknowninWales;and,ofallOrdersofthatday,itwastheywhosympathisedmostdeeplywiththesorrowsofmen。Anditwasthiswhich,alittlelateron,broughtthemsomuchintopolitics。