第2章

Greatandsuccessfulinwarandpolicy，intouchwiththenoblestinfluencesinthelifeofthetime，Llywelynappliedhimselftoonelasttask。Hiscompanionsandallieshadnearlyalldiedbeforehim；

buthewishedthatthepeaceandunity，whichtheyhadestablished，shouldliveafterthem。Hehadtwosons——Griffith，whowasthechampionofindependence；andDavid，whowishedforpeacewithEngland。LlywelynlaidmorestressonstronggovernmentathomethanontherepudiationoffeudalallegiancetotheKingofEngland。SohepersuadedthecouncilofprincesatStrataFloridatoacceptDavidashissuccessor。

CHAPTERXI——THELASTLLYWELYN

DavidII。，amildandwell—meaningprince，wastooweaktocarryhisfather’spolicyout。Hetriedtomaintainpeace，anddidhomagetohisuncle，theKingofEngland。But，astheheadofthepatrioticparty，hismoreenergeticbrother，Griffith，opposedhim。ByguilehecaughtGriffith，andshuthiminacastleontherockofCriccieth。TheotherprincesshookofftheyokeofGwynedd，andHenryIII。triedtoplaythebrothersagainsteachother。DavidsentGriffithtoHenry，whoputhimintheTowerofLondon。Intryingtoescape，hisropebroke，andhefelltothegrounddead。Soonafterwards，in1246，inthemiddleofawarwithHenry，Daviddiedofabrokenheart。

ThesonsofGriffith——Owen，Llywelyn，andDavid——atoncetooktheiruncle’splace；andby1255LlywelynapGriffithwassoleruler。BythatyearHenryIII。hadgivenhisyoungsonEdwardtheearldomofChester，whichhadfallentothecrown，andthelandsbetweentheDeeandtheConway，whichheclaimedbyatreatywiththedeadGriffith。

ThusEdwardandLlywelynbegantheirlongstruggle。

Between1255and1267Llywelyntriestorecoverhisgrandfather’spositioninWales。In1255hispowerextendedoverGwyneddonly。HefounditeasytoextenditovermostofWales，becausetheruleoftheEnglishofficialsmadetheWelshchiefslongfortheprotectionofGwynedd。TheBarons’WarparalysedthepoweroftheKing，andLlywelynmadeanalliancewithSimondeMontfortandthebarons。

EvenafterMontfort’sfallin1265thebaronsweresopowerfulthattheKingwasstillattheirmercy。In1267Llywelyn’spositionasPrinceofWaleswasrecognisedintheTreatyofMontgomery。HisswayextendedfromSnowdontotheDeeontheeast，andtotheTeivyandtheBeaconsonthesouth——practicallythewholeofmodernWales，exceptthesouthernseaboard。WithinthesewideboundsalltheWelshbaronsweretoswearfealtytoLlywelyn，theonlyexceptionbeingMeredithapReesofDeheubarth。

ThesecondstruggleofLlywelyn’sreigntookplacebetween1267and1277。Hetriedtoweldhislandintoacloserunion，andmanyofthechiefsofthesouthandeastbecamewillingtocallintheEnglishKing。Twoofthem，hisownbrotherDavidandGriffithofPowys，fledtoEngland，andwerereceivedbyEdward，whohadbeenkingsince1272。LlywelynandEdwarddistrustedeachother。EdwardwishedtouniteBritaininafeudalunity，andtocrushallopponents。

Llywelynthoughtofhelpingthebarons；hemightbecometheirleader。

Eleanor，thedaughterofSimondeMontfort，theoldleaderofthebarons，wasbetrothedtohim。Warbrokeout。Thebarons——ClaresandMortimers，andall——joinedtheKing。Llywelyn’sdominionswereinvadedatallpoints，hisbaronshadtoyield，oneaftertheother；

andfinally，in1277，LlywelynhadtoaccepttheTreatyofRhuddlan。

HisdominionsshrunktotheoldlimitsofSnowdon，hisswayovertherestofWaleswastakenfromhim，andthetitleofPrinceofWaleswastoceasewithhislife。

Thethirdstrugglewasbetween1277and1282。TheruleofthenewofficialsdrovetheWelshtorevolt；andthechiefswhohadopposedLlywelyn，especiallyhisbrotherDavid，beggedforLlywelyn’sprotection。Eleanor，Llywelyn’swifeandEdward’scousin，triedtokeepthepeace，butshediedwhiletheywerearmingforthelastbitterwarof1282。

ItwascomparativelyeasyforEdwardtooverrunPowysorDeheubarth，ifhehadanarmystrongenough。ButatthattimeGwyneddwasalmostimpregnable。FromConwaytoHarlechliesthevastmassofSnowdon，agreatnaturalrampartrunningfromseatosea。Itssteepsideistowardstheeast，andtheinvaderfoundbeforehimheightswhichhecouldnotclimb，androundwhichhecouldnotpass。IfyoustandintheValeofConway，lookatthehillsontheArvonside——thegreatnaturalwallofinmostGwynedd，withitslasttower，thePenmaenMawr，risingrightfromthesea。Thegentleslopesaretothewest，andtherethecornandflocksweresafe。

Edwardhadtoputalargearmyintothefield，anditcosthimmuch。

InthewarwithLlywelynhehadtochangetheEnglisharmyentirely；

and，inordertogetmoney，hehadtoallowtheParliamenttogetlifeandpower。Tocarrysupplies，andtolandmeninAngleseytoturntheflankoftheWelsh，hewantedafleet。Buttherewasnoroyalnavythen，andthefishermenoftheeastcoastandthesouthcoast——whohadnoquarrelwiththeWelsh，butwereveryanxioustofighteachother——werenotwillingtolosetheirfishharvestinordertofightsofaraway。

In1282，Edward’sgreatarmyclosedroundSnowdon。ThechiefsstillfaithfultoLlywelynhadtoyieldorflee。Butwinterwascomingon，andcouldEdwardkeephisarmyinthefield？AnattempthadbeenmadetoenterSnowdonfromAnglesey，buttheEnglishforcewasdestroyedatMoelyDon。ItlookedasifEdwardwouldhavetoretire。LlywelynleftSnowdon，andwenttoCeredigionandtheValeofTowytoputnewheartinhisallies，andfromtherehepassedontothevalleyoftheWye。Hemeant，withoutadoubt，togetthebaronsoftheborder，WelshandEnglish，touniteagainstEdward。

Butinsomechanceskirmishasoldierslewhim，notknowingwhohewas。WhentheyheardthattheirPrincewasfallen，hismeninSnowdonentirelylostheart。TheyhadnofaithinDavid，andinafewmonthsthewholeofWaleswasatEdward’sfeet。

CHAPTERXII——CONQUEREDWALES

ThewarbetweenEdwardandLlywelynwasnotawarbetweenEnglandandWales，aswethinkofthesecountriesnow。SomeofthebestsoldiersunderEdwardwereWelsh，especiallythebowmenwhofollowedtheEarlofGloucesterandRogerMortimerfromtheWyeandSevernvalleys。

ItisnotrightthatweWelshmenshouldfeelbitteragainstEngland，because，inthislastwar，EdwardwonandLlywelynfell。ItiseasytosaythatEdwardwascruelandfaithless，anditiseasytosaythatLlywelynwasshiftyandobstinate；butitisquiteclearthateachofthemthoughtthathewasright。EdwardthoughtthatBritainoughttobeunited：LlywelynthoughtWalesoughttobefree。Now，happily，wehavetheunionandthefreedom。

Ontheotherhand，IshouldnotlikeyoutothinkthatWaleswasmorebarbarousthanEngland，orLlywelynlesscivilisedthanEdwardI。

GiraldusCambrensissawaprincegoingbarefoot，andthefussylittleArchbishopPeckhamsawthatWelshmarriagecustomswerenotwhatheliked；andmanyhistorians，whohaveneverreadalineofWelshpoetry，takeforgrantedthattheconquestofWaleswasanewvictoryforcivilisation。

InmanywaysWaleswasmorecivilisedthanEnglandatthattime。Itslawwasmoresimpleandlessdeveloped，itistrue；butitwasmorejustinmanycases，andcertainlymorehumane。Wasitnotbetterthatthelandshouldbelongtothepeople，andthattheyoungestsonshouldhavethesamechanceastheeldest？And，incrime，wasitnotbetterthatifnoopportunityforatonementwasgiven，thedeathofthecriminalwastobeamercifulone？InthereignofJohn，aWelshhostage，alittleboyofseven，washangedatShrewsbury，becausehisfather，aSouthWaleschief，hadrebelled。InthereignofEdwardI。，themiserableDavidwasdraggedatthetailsofhorsesthroughthestreetsofthesametown，andthetorturesinflictedonthedyingmanweretoohorribletodescribetomodernears。AndwhattheNormanbarondid，hisWelshtenantlearnttodo。InWalesyougetfiercefraysandfrequentsheddingofblood；onthebordersyougetcallouscrueltytoaprisoner，orthedisfiguringofdeadbodies——

eventhatofSimondeMontfort，thegreateststatesmanoftheMiddleAgesinEngland——onthebattlefieldwhenallpassionwasspent。

TaketherulersofWalesagain。GriffithapConanandLlywelyntheGreathadtheenergyandtheforesight，thoughtheirspherewassomuchsmaller，ofHenryII。AndwhatEnglishking，exceptAlfred，attractsoneonaccountoflovablenessofcharacterasOwenGwyneddandOwenCyveiliogandtheLordReesdo？

WhenEdwardenteredintoSnowdon，WelshwasspokentotheDeeandtheSevern，andfarbeyond。Thereweremanydialects，astherearestill，thoughanytwoWelshmencouldunderstandeachotherwherevertheycamefrom，withalittlepatience，astheycanstill。Buttherewasalsoaliterarylanguage，andthiswasunderstood，ifnotspoken，bythechiefsallthroughthecountry。ItwasmoreliketheWelshspokeninmid—Wales——especiallyinthevalleyoftheDovey——thananyother。Therearemanysignsofcivilisation；oneofthemisthepossessionofaliterarylanguage——forromanceandpoem，forcourtandEisteddvod。

ConqueredWalesmaybedividedintotwoparts——theWalesconqueredbytheNormanbaronsandtheWalesconqueredbytheEnglishking。

TheWalesconqueredbytheEnglishkingwasthecountryruledbyLlywelynandhisallies。In1284，bythestatuteofRhuddlan，itwasformedintosixshires。TheSnowdondistrict——whichheldoutlast——

wasmadeintothethreeshiresofAnglesey，Carnarvon，andMerioneth。

ThepartofthelandbetweenConwayandDeethatbelongedtotheking，nottobarons，wasmadeintotheshireofFlint。ThelandsofLlywelyn’salliesbeyondtheDoveyweremadeintotheshiresofCardiganandCarmarthen。InsteadofthechiefsoftheWelshprince，theking’ssheriffsandjusticesruledthecountry。Butmuchoftheoldlawremained。

TheWalesconqueredbytheNormanbaronslaytotheeastandsouthoftheWalesturnedintoshiresin1284。ItincludedthegreaterpartofthevalleysoftheClwyd，Dee，Severn，andWye；andtheSouthWalescoastfromGloucestertoPembroke。ItremainedinthepossessionoflordswhoweresubjecttotheKingofEngland，butwhoruledalmostlikekingsintheirownlordships。Thelawsandcustomsofthevariouslordshipsdifferedgreatly；sometimesthelordusedEnglishlaw，andsometimesWelshlaw。Thegreatrulingfamilieschangedmuchinwealthandpower，fromcenturytocentury。InLlywelyn’stimethemostimportantweretheClares（GloucesterandGlamorgan），theMortimers（WigmoreandChirk），Lacy（Denbigh），Warenne（BromfieldandYale），Fitzalan（Oswestry），Bohun（Brecon），Braose（Gower），andValence（Pembroke）。

LlywelynwasthelastprinceofindependentWales。Fromthattimeon，thetitleisconferredbytheKingofEnglandonhiseldestson，whoisthencrowned。ThepresentPrinceofWalesalsocomes，throughadaughterofLlywelyntheGreat，fromtheHouseofCunedda，theprincesofwhichruledWalesfromRomantimesto1284。Ofallthehousesthathavegonetomaketheroyalhouse，thisisthemostancient。

CHAPTERXIII——CASTLEANDLONG—BOW

SofarIhavetoldyouverylittleaboutwar，exceptthatabattlewasfoughtandlost，oracastlebuiltortaken。

Warhastwosides——attackanddefence。Newwaysofattackinganddefendingarecontinuallydevised。Whentheartofdefenceismoreperfectthantheartofattack，theworldchangesverylittle，forthestrongcankeepwhathehasgained。Whentheartofattackisthemoreperfect，newmenhaveabetterchance，andmanychangesaremade。Thechiefsourceofdefencewasthecastle，thechiefweaponofattackwasthelong—bow。Walescontainsthemostperfectcastlesinthiscountry；itisalsothehomeofthelong—bow。From1066to1284EnglandandWaleswereconquered，andtheconquestwaspermanentbecausecastleswerebuilt。From1284to1461，EnglandandWalesattackedothercountries，andtheweaponwhichgavethemsomanyvictorieswasthelong—bow。

Iwilltellyouaboutthecastlesfirst，abouttheNormancastlesandabouttheEdwardiancastles。

TheNormancastlewasasquarekeep，withwallsofimmensethickness，sometimesof20feet。ButiftheNormanhadtobuildonthetopofahillorontheruinsofanoldcastle，hedidnottrytomakethenewcastlesquare，butalloweditswallstotaketheformofthehilloroftheoldcastle；andthiskindofcastlewascalledashellkeep。

Theouterandinnercasingofthewallwouldbeofdressedstone，themiddlepartwaschieflyrubble。Atfirst，iftheyhadplentyofsupplies，averyfewmencouldholdacastleagainstanarmyaslongastheyliked。ThesewerethecastlesbuiltbytheNormaninvaderstoretaintheirholdovertheWelshdistrictstheyconquered。

Butmanywaysofstormingacastlewerediscovered。Theycouldbescaledbymeansoftallladders，especiallyinastealthynightattack。Stonescouldbethrownoverthewallsbymangonelstoannoythegarrison。Sometimesawallcouldbebroughtdownbyabattering—

ram。Butthequickestandsurestwaywasbymining。Theminersworkedtheirwaytothewall，andthenbegantotakesomeofthestonesoftheoutercasingout，proppingthewallupwithbeamsofwood。Whentheholewasbigenough，theyfilleditwithfirewood；

theygreasedthebeamswell，theysetfiretothemandthenretiredtoasafedistancetoseewhathappened。Whenthegreatwallcrasheddown，thesoldiersswarmedoverittobeatdowntheresistanceofthegarrison。IfeveryougotoAbergavennyCastle，intheValeofUsk，lookatthecleftintherockalongwhichthedaringbesiegersonceclimbed。AndifyougototheValeofTowy，andseeDryslwynCastle，rememberthatthewalloncecamedownbeforetheminersexpected，andthatmanymenwerecrushed。

Inordertopreventmining，manychangesweremade。Moatsweredugroundthecastle，andfilledwithwater。Bratticesweremadealongthetopofthetowers，galleriesthroughthefloorofwhichthedefenderscouldpourboilingpitchonthebesiegers。Thewallswerebuiltatsuchanglesthatawindow，witharcherspostedbehindit，couldcommandeachwall。Strongertowerswerebuilt——roundtowerswithacopingateachstorey，solidasarock，whichwouldcrackandleanwithoutfalling；thereisaleaningtoweratCaerphillyCastle。

OneotherwayImustmention——thechildorthewifeofthecastellanwouldbebroughtbeforethewalls，andhangedbeforehiseyesunlessheopenedthegates。

ThenewerorEdwardiancastles，thoseofthereignsofHenryIII。andEdwardI。，areconcentric——thatis，thereareseveralcastlesinone；

sothatthebesiegers，whentheyhadtakenonecastle，foundthemselvesfacetofacewithanother，stillstronger，perhaps，insideit。Ofthesecastles，themostelaborateisthecastleofCaerphilly，builtbyGilbertdeClare，theRedEarlofGloucesterwhohelpedEdwardintheWelshwars。Anditwasbymeansofthesemagnificentconcentriccastles——Conway，Beaumaris，Carnarvon，andHarlech——thatEdwardhopedtokeepWales。

Therearemanykindsofbows。Inwartwowereused——thecross—bowandthelong—bow。Thecross—bowwasmeantatfirstforthedefenceoftowns，likeGenoaorthetownsofCastile。Sostrengthwasmoreimportantthanlightness，andthearcherhadtimetotakeaim。Itwasabowonacrosspieceofwood，alongwhichthestringwasdrawnbackpegafterpegbymechanism。Thebowwasthenheldtothebreast，andthearrowletoff。Itwasclumsy，heavy，andexpensive。

Thelong—bowwasonlyonepieceofsinewyyew，andastring。Itwasusedatfirstforthechase，andthearcherhadtotakeinstantaim。

Itwasdrawntotheear，anditwasamostdeadlyweaponwhenastrongarmhadbeentrainedtodrawit。Itsarrowcouldpickoffasoldieratthetopofthehighestcastle；itcouldpiercethroughanoakdoorthreefingersthick；itcouldpinamail—cladknighttohishorse。Itwasthispeasantweaponthatbroughtthemailedknightdowninbattle。

Thehomeofthelong—bowisthecountrybetweentheSevernandtheWye。Itwasfamousbefore，butitwasfirstusedwitheffectinthelastWelshwars。ItwasusedtobreakthelinesoftheSnowdonlancesandpikes，sothatthemail—cladcavalrymightdashin。Butlateron，thesamebowswereusedtobringthenoblesofFrancedown。

FromtheWelshwaron，archersandinfantrybecameimportant；battlesceasedtobewhattheyhadbeensolong——theshockofmail—cladknightsmeetingeachotheratfullcharge。

Thelong—bowmadenobleandpeasantequalonthefieldofbattle。

Therevolutionwasmadecompletelateronbygunpowder。

CHAPTERXIV——THERISEOFTHEPEASANT

Ihavetoldyoumuchaboutprincesandsoldiers，butverylittleaboutthelowlylifeofpeasants，andthetradeoftowns。

TheconquestofWales，byNormanbaronandEnglishking，tendedtoraisetheserftothelevelofthefreeman。Thechiefcausesoftheriseoftheserfwerethefollowing：

1TheignoranceoftheEnglishofficials。TheNormanbaronveryoftenpaidcloseattentiontotheprivilegesoftheclassesheruled，andtheWelshfreemanretainedhissuperiority。ButtheEnglishofficials——andEdwardII。foundthattheywerefartoonumerousinWales——oftenrefusedtodistinguishbetweenaWelshmanwhowasaninnatefreemanandaWelshmanwholivedonaserfmaenol。Theiraimwastomakethemallpaythesametax。

2。Thefallinthevalueofmoney。AtthetimeoftheNormanConquest，silvercoinswererare，andtheirvaluehigh。But，inexchangeforclothandwool，ofarrowsandspears，ofmountainponiesandcattle，coinscameingreatnumbers，anditwaseasierfortheserftoearnthem。Thatisthevalueofcoinsbecameless。

Thiswasagreatboontoallwhowereboundtopayfixedsums——thefreemanwhopaidtothekingtheduesheusedtopaytohisprince，theserfwhopaidtohislordasumofmoneyinsteadofservice。Allancientservitude，politicalandeconomic，wascommutedformoney；asthemoneybecameeasiertoget，theserfbecamethemorefree。

3。Theriseoftownsandthegrowthofcommerce。Wemustnot，however，thinkofcommerceasifithadbeenfirstbroughtbytheNormans。TherehadbeenroadsandcoinsinRomantimes。TheDaneshadbeentraders，probably，beforetheybecamepiratesandinvaders。

Timber，millstones，cattle，coarsecloth，andarrow—headscrossedtheSeverneastwardsbeforetheNormanssawit；andcornwascarriedwestward。Therewerecloserelations，politicalandcommercial，betweenWalesandIrelandfromveryearlytimes。

ButtheNormanandEnglishConquestsrevivedandquickenedtrade。

Townsrose，regularmarketswereestablished，andthebaronswhotooktollsprotectedthemerchantswhopaidthem。Everybaronhadacastle，everycastleneededawalledtown，andatowncannotliveexceptbytrade。InthetownthebarondidnotaskaWelshmanwhetherhehadbeenfreeorserf；thetownsmenwerestrangers，andtheywelcomedtheserfwhocametowork。

4。Themonkandthefriar。Thebardwasafreemanborn，askilledweaverofcourteousphrases，notachurlishtaeog。Themonkorfriarmightbeaserf。Theyworkedlikeserfs，andennobledlabour。TheChurchcondemnedserfdom，andwefindchaptersgivingtheirserfsfreedom。

5。TheScotchandFrenchwarsoftheEnglishkingsgaveemploymenttohostsofbowmenandofmen—at—arms，andtothenumerousattendantsrequiredtolookafterthehorsesbymeansofwhichthearmymoved。

ThegreateruseofinfantryafterthereignofEdwardI。causedagreaterdemandforthepeasant；andtheuseofthecheaplong—bowgavehimavalueinwar。TherewerefivethousandWelsharchersandspearmenonthefieldofCressy。Intheseandotherwaystheserfwasbecomingfree。

Youwouldexpectagradual，almostunconsciousstruggle，betweentheserfandhislordforpoliticalpower。Thestrugglecame，butitwasconsciousandveryfierce。Itwasbroughtaboutbyaterriblepestilence，knownastheBlackDeath。ThisplaguecameslowlyandsteadilyfromtheEast；in1348itreachedBristol，anditprobablysweptawayonehalfofthepeopleofthetownsofWales。Itwasnotthetownsalonethatitvisited；itcametothemountainglensaswell。Itwasamostdeadlydisease。Itkilled，foronething，becausepeoplebelievedthattheywoulddie。Theysawthedarkspotsontheskinbeforetheybecamefeverish；theyrecognisedtheblackmarkoftheDeathandtheygavethemselvesupforlost。

Labourersbecameveryscarce。Theyclaimedhigherwages。Thelordstriedtodragthembackintoserfdom；theytriedtoforcethembylawtotaketheoldwage。OnbothsidesoftheSevernthelabourerstookarms，andwagedwaragainsttheirlords。ThepeasantwarinEnglandiscalledthePeasantRevolt；thepeasantwarinWalesissometimescalledtherevoltofOwenGlendower。

AchangecameovertherebellionsinWales。Atfirst，therebellionswerethoseofLlywelyn’scountry；theallieswhohaddesertedhim，andthenturnedagainstEdward，likeReesapMeredith；orhisownfollowers，likeMadoc，whosaidhewashisson；ormenhehadprotected，likeMaelgwnVychaninPembroke。Lateron，underEdwardII。andEdwardIII。，therebellionswereagainstthemarchlords，andthekingwaslookeduponasaprotector——suchastherebellionofLlywelynBrenagainsttheClaresandMortimersinGlamorganin1316。

ButthewilderspiritswenttotheFrenchwars，andfoughtforbothsides。WiththeassassinationofOwenofWalesin1378，thelastofLlywelyn’snearrelativestodreamofrestoringtheindependenceofWales，therebellionsagainsttheKingofEnglandcametoanend。

Whentheybrokeoutagain，itwasnotinSnowdonorCeredigion；theolddominionsofLlywelynwerealmostunwillingtorise。Thenewrevoltswereinthemarchlands，andespeciallyinthetowns。

CHAPTERXV——OWENGLENDOWER

TheEnglishbaroninWalestriedtoaddtohispossessionsbyencroachingonthelandsoftheWelshfreemen。Hisestatealwaysremainedthesame，becauseitallwenttotheeldestson，accordingtowhatiscalledprimogeniture；theirlands，ontheotherhand，weredividedbetweenthesonsaccordingtowhatiscalledgavelkind。Healso，bylawstheydidnotunderstand，tookthewasteland——forestandmountain。Asonemancanmoreeasilywatchhisinterestthanmany，thebaronsucceeded；butthefreemenfeltthattheywerebeingrobbed。

Thetenantsofthebaronswererestlessandrebellious；theysaidtheywerefree，thattheywouldnotworkasserfs，thattheywouldnotbringfoodrents，butthattheywouldpayafixedrentforeveryacretheyheld。

AtRuthin，intheValeofClwyd，therewasabaroncalledLordGrey；

andinthevalleyoftheDeetherewasaWelshsquirecalledOwenGlendower。Theirlandsmet，andGreytookpartofOwen’ssheepwalk。

OwenhadbeenalawstudentatWestminster，andhehadservedHenryofLancaster。In1399RichardII。hadbeendethroned，andthebaronshadmadeHenryofLancasterkingasHenryIV。Owensaw，however，thatthekingwastooweaktocurbhislawlessbarons，andin1400heattackedLordGrey，andburntRuthin。

Therebellionthathadlongbeensmoulderingburstintoaflamealloverthecountry。Owenwasatoncewelcomedbythebard，thefriar，andthepeasant。Thebardhailedhisstarasthatoftheheiroftheprinces，whohadcometodeliverhiscountry。Thefriarwelcomedhimasthefriendofthepoorandoflearning；andunrulystudentsfromOxford，thenthecentreofagreatintellectualawakening，flockedhometomarchunderhisbanner。Thepeasantwelcomedhimashisprotectoragainstthestewardofhislord。Themainstrengthofthemovementwasthepeasantrevolt；andWelshpoets，liketheEnglishones，sangthepraisesoftheploughmanandoftheplough。

Owen’ssuccesswasmostrapid，sorapidthatitwasputdowntomagic。InfouryearsthewholeofWalesrecognisedhimasitsprince。HenryIV。andPrinceHenrycametoWales，maderapidmarchesandretookcastles，punishedthefriarsofLlanVaesandthemonksofStrataFlorida。Buttheirvictoriesledtonothing，andthestormsfoughtagainstthem。Owen’svictorieswereusedtothefull——thatoftheVyrnwywasfollowedbyanagreementwithGreyofRuthin，thatofBrynGlasbyanalliancewiththeMortimers。Hismarcheswerenearlyalltriumphant；hewaswelcomedalongthewholelineofthemarchesbythepeasantstothefurthestcornersofGwent。

Owenwaswiseenoughtoseethatnoabidingpowercanbebasedonapopularrising。HetriedtoestablishagovernmentthattheKingofEnglandcouldnotoverthrow。Hehadthreeinstitutionsinmind——anindependentWales，governedbyhimasPrinceinaParliamentofrepresentativesofthecommotes；anindependentWelshChurch，withanArchbishopofStDavid’satitshead；andanindependentsystemoflearningandcivilisation，guidedbytwoUniversities，oneinNorthWalesandoneinSouthWales。

ThenewWaleswastohesafeguardedbyfouralliances——withtheEnglishbarons，withthePope，withScotland，andwithFrance。HefailedtosavethePerciesfromtheirdefeatatShrewsburyin1403；

buthebasedallhisplansonanalliancewiththeMortimers，theenemiesofLancasterandthePercies。TheheadoftheMortimerfamilyhaddiedinIrelandin1398，andhadleftfouryoungchildren。

Theyweretherealheirstothecrown，andOwenmeanttowintheirthroneforthem。Theiruncle，EdmundMortimer，marriedGlendower’sdaughter。ButtheyoungEarlofMarch，theelderoftheMortimerboys，hadnoambition，andaplottobringhimandhisbrothertoOwenfailed。

ThePapacyhadalwaysprovedtobeabrokenreedforWelshprinces；

butOwen’salliancewithPeterdeLuna，theanti—PopeBenedictXIII。，gaveacertainamountofprestigetohistitle。ThealliancewithScotland，basedoncommonkinship，couldbringhimnohelpatthattime：becauseitwastornbetweentwofactionsduringthereignoftheweakRobertIII。；andthenextking，thepoetJamesI。，wascapturedatseaandputintoanEnglishprison。

TheFrenchalliancewasmuchmorepromising；itwouldgivewhatOwenwantedmost——siegeengines，afleet，andanarmyoftrainedsoldiers。

CharlesVI。ofFrance，thefather—in—lawofthedeposedRichard，refusedtomakepeacewiththeusurperHenry；hisfleetprotectedtheWelshcoast，andin1405aFrencharmyof2，800menlandedatMilford。

Owenstruggledon，withwaningpower，untilhisdeathin1415。Hecametoosoonforsuccess，whilethepoweroftheHouseofLancasterwasincreasing。

OfallfiguresinthehistoryofWales，thatofOwenGlendoweristhemoststrikingandthemostpopular。Theplaceofhisgraveisunknown，hislineageandthedateofhisdeathamatterofconjecture；thereismuchmysteryaboutevenhismostbrilliantyears。Buthismajesticfigure，hiswisdom，andhisidealsremainedinthememoryofhiscountry。Hisghostwandered，itwassaid，aroundValleCrucis。Hisspirit，morethanthatofanyheroofthepast，seemstofollowhispeopleontheironwardmarch。Thisisnotonaccountofhispoliticalideals，butbecausehewasthechampionofthepeasantandofeducation。

CHAPTERXVI——THEWARSOFTHEROSES

ThereignofHenryV。wasareignofbrilliantvictoriesinFrance，andthereignofHenryVI。oneofdisastrousdefeats。DuringbothreignsthelordswerebecomingmorepowerfulinWalesaswellasinEngland。Theholdofthekingoverthembecameweakereveryyear；

theypackedtheParliament，theyappointedtheCouncil，theyoverawedthelawcourts。Ifamanwantedsecurity，hemustwearthebadgeofsomelord，andfightforhimwhencalledupontodoso。InthemarchesofWalesthereweremorethanahundredlordsholdingcastleandcourt；anditwaseasyforarobberoramurderertoescapefromonelordshiptotheother，oreventofindawelcomeandprotection。

InWalesandinthemarchesthelordspreyedupontheirweakerneighbours，andthecountrybecamefullofprivatewar。

Theselfishfamilies，allfightingformorelandandmorepower，graduallyformedthemselvesintotwoparties——thepartiesoftheRedRoseandoftheWhiteRose。TheleadingfamilyintheRedRosepartywasthatofLancaster，representedbythesaintlyKingHenryVI。；theleadingfamilyintheWhiteRosepartywasthatofYork。IntheWarsoftheRoses，YorkandLancasterfoughtoverthecrown，andthosewhosupportedthemoveracastleoranestate。

Waleswasdivided。ThewestwasforLancaster，fromPembroketoHarlech，andfromHarlechtoAnglesey。TheeastwasforYork，fromCardiffandRaglantoWigmore，andfromWigmoretoChirk。LancasterheldestatesinWalesandontheborder——thecastlesofHereford，Skenfrith，Ogmore，andKidwellybeingcentresofstrengthandwealth。

York’schiefcountrywasthemarchofWales，withLudlowasitscentre。TheWelshbaronstooksidesaccordingtotheirinterests。

JasperTudor，EarlofPembroke，heldthewestforhishalf—brother，theking。SirWilliamHerbert，whowasverypowerfulinthecountrysouthoftheMortimers，tookthesideofhispowerfulneighbour。

Otherswavered，especiallyGreyofRuthinandtheStanleysinNorthWales。

OnebattlewasfoughtbetweentheWelshYorkistsandtheWelshLancastrians。ThiswasthebattleofMortimer’sCross，nearWigmore，inFebruary1461。ThevictorwastheyoungDukeofYork，whowascrownedkingasEdwardIV。laterintheyear。Anoldman，OwenTudor，thefatherofJasperTudor，andthegrandfatheroftheboywhowas\"toruleafterthemall\"asHenryVII。，wastakenprisoner。TheytookhimtoHereford，andtheretheycuthisheadoffandsetitonthemarketcross。ThebattlesoftheWarsoftheRoseswereverycruelones；thenobleprisonersthathadbeentaken，evenchildrenoftenderage，weremurderedincoldbloodontheeveningofthebattle。

\"ByGod’sblood，\"saidone，ashekilledachild，\"thyfatherslewmine，andsowillIdothee。\"

TheWelshbaronsledtheirmentonearlyalltheimportantbattles。

NorthWalesarchers，wearingthethreefeathersofthePrinceofWales，foughtforLancasterinthesnowatthegreatdefeatofTowtononthePalmSundayof1461；thearchersofGwent，ledbyHerbert，foughtvainlyforYorkatthebattleofEdgecote，inthesummerof1469。AndtheWelshwavererandtraitorwasseeninbattlealso——

GreyofRuthinledthevanforLancasteratthebattleofNorthamptonin1460，andcausedthebattletobelostbydesertingtoYorkatthebeginningofthefighting。InWalesitself，also，thewarwasfoughtbitterly；andthestubborndefenceofHarlechfortheLancastriansbecamefamousthroughthewholecountry。ThelastbattlefoughtbetweenLancasterandYorkwasthebattleofTewkesbury，inMay1471，andLancasterlostit；thePrinceofWales，theking’sonlyson，waskilled；andhisheroicmother，MargaretofAnjou，gavethestruggleup。AyoungWelshnoble——HenryTudor，EarlofRichmond——becametheLancastrianheir。Thefortunesofhishousewerehopeless，however；andhisuncle，Jasper，senthiminsafetytoBrittany。

TheYorkistkings，EdwardIV。andRichardIII。，inspiteofcrueltyandmurder，ruledwell。Theybrokethepowerofthebarons，andtheymadethepeoplerich——bymaintainingpeace，byrepressingpiracy，byprotectingthewoollenindustryofthetowns。

InWalestheirrulewasforpeaceandorder。TheymadeaCourtforWalesatLudlow，thehomeoftheirrace。FromLudlowtheybegantoforcethebaronstodojusticeandtoobeytheking。ItseemedasiftheruleoftheYorkistswastobealongone，fortheywereverypopularinLondonandthetowns。

Butthenobleswerenotwillingtoseetheirpowertakenfromthemdaybyday。JasperTudorappealedtotheloyaltyoftheWelsh，andthemenofWestWaleswantedakingoftheirownblood；forthelawshadbeenmadeunjusttothemeversincethetimeofOwenGlendower。

Manyattemptsweremade，andtheyfailed。Butatlast，onAugust7，1485，thefugitiveEarlofRichmondcametoMilfordHaven。HemarchedontothevalleyoftheTeivy，andhewasjoinedbySirReesapThomas，andanarmyofSouthWalesmen；hejourneyedonthroughthevalleyoftheSevern，andtheNorthWalesmenjoinedhim；EnglishnoblesjoinedhimashemarchedbyShrewsbury，Stafford，Lichfield，andTamworth。Richard’sarmywasalsoonthemarch。AtBosworth，August22，1485，thetwoarmiesmetinthelastbattleoftheWarsoftheRoses。Richardfoughtfiercely，wearinghiscrown；andwhenhewasdefeatedandkilled，thecrownwasplacedonHenry’shead。

ThepeopleofEnglanddidnotcarewhoruled，RichardorHenry，aslongashekeptorder，fortheywereverytiredofcivilwar。

ButthepeopleofWaleswelcomedHenryasaWelshmanwhowouldrulethemkindlyandjustly。

CHAPTERXVII——TUDORORDER

TheTudors——HenryVII。，hisson，HenryVIII。，andhisthreegrandchildren，EdwardVI。andMaryandElizabeth——ruledEnglandandWalesfrom1485to1603。Underthemthepeoplebecameunited，law—

abiding，patriotic，andprosperous。TheTudorperiodisjustlyregardedasthemostgloriousinBritishhistory，withitsgreatstatesmen，itsgreatadventurers，anditsgreatpoets。

TheTudorswereloyallysupportedbyWales，bythemilitarystrengthofmenlikeSirReesapThomasortheEarlofPembroke，andbythediplomaticskilloftheCecils。Undertheirrule——hardandunmerciful，butjustandefficient——thelawbecamestrongenoughtocrushthemightiestandtoshieldtheweakest。Welshmenfoundthat，evenundertheirownsovereigns，theirancientlanguagewasregardedasahindranceandtheirpatriotismasapossiblesourceoftrouble；

buttheyobtainedtheprivilegesofanequalrace，andtheywerepleasedtoregardthemselvesasadominantone。

Theyobtainedequalpoliticalprivileges。ThelawswhichdeniedthemresidenceinthegarrisontownsinWales，ortheholdingoflandinEngland，cametoanend。Thewholeofthecountry，shiregroundandmarchground，wasdividedintoonesystemofshiresandgivenrepresentationinParliament，bytheActofUnionof1535。ItiscalledanActofUnionbecause，byit，WalesandEnglandwereunitedonequalterms。

Anglesey，Carnarvon，Merioneth，Flint，Cardigan，andCarmarthenhadbeenshiressinceI284；andsmallportionsofGlamorganandPembrokehadbeengovernedlikeshires，sothatsomeTudorwriterscallthemcounties。Thechiefdifferencebetweenashireandalordshipisthattheking’swritrunstotheshire，butnottothelordship。Thekingadministersthelawintheshire，throughthesheriff；thelordadministersthelawinthelordshipthroughhisownofficials。

In1535themarchesofWaleswereturnedintoshireground。Thebulkofthemwenttomakesevennewshires——Pembroke，Glamorgan，Monmouth，Brecon，Radnor，Montgomery，andDenbigh。TheotherswereaddedtotheolderEnglishandWelshcounties。Ofthese，thoseaddedtoShropshireandHerefordshireandGloucestershirebecamepartofEngland。MonmouthalsowasdeclaredtobeanEnglishshire，forjudicialpurposes；butithasremainedsturdilyWelsh，andnowitispracticallyregardedbyParliamentaspartofWales。Thewholecountrywasnowgovernedinthesameway，andWaleswasrepresented，likeEngland，inParliament。Noattempthadbeenmadetodothisbefore，exceptbythefirstEnglishPrinceofWales，theweakandunfortunateEdwardII。

Ofevengreatervaluethanpoliticalequalitywasthenewreignoflaw。TheTudorsusedtheStarChamber，theCourtofWales，andtheGreatSessionsofWales，tomakeallequalbeforethelaw。TotheStarChambertheysummonedanoblewhowasstilltoopowerfulforthecourtoflaw。

ButitwastheCourtofWalesthatdidmostwork。ItwasheldatLudlow。Ithadveryablepresidents，menlikeBishopLee，theEarlofPembroke，andSirHenrySidney。BishopLeestruckterrorintothewholeWelshmarch，between1534and1543。Beforehistimealordwouldkeepmurderersandrobbersathiscastle，protectthem，andperhapssharetheirspoil。ButnomancouldkeepafelonoutofthereachofBishopRowlandLee。Ifhecouldnotgetthemalivehegottheirdeadbodies；andyoumighthaveseenprocessionsofmencarryingsacksonponies——theyweredeadmenwhoweretoswingonLudlowgibbets。But，severeasLeewas，thepeasantwasgladthathecouldgototheCourtatLudlowinsteadofgoingtothecourtofamarchlord，ashehadtodobefore1535。Theshirehadbeenmuchbettergovernedthanthelordship。WhenthelordshipofMawddwywasaddedtotheshireofMerionethin1535，theofficersoftheshirefoundthatitwasanestofbrigandsandoutlaws。

InthemorepeacefulandhumanedaysofQueenElizabeth，SirHenrySidneybecamePresidentoftheCourtofWales。Hewasoneofthebestmenoftheday；andhewasproudofrulingWalesandthebordercounties，\"athirdpartofthisrealm，\"becausehishighofficemadehimable\"todogoodeveryday。\"

BesidestheCourtofWalesforthewholecountry，acourtofjusticewasheldineachoffourgroupsofshires；andthesecourtswerecalledtheGreatSessionsofWales。So，thoughthelawwasthesameforeverybody，Waleshadaseparatesystemtoitself，partlybecausetherewassomuchtodo，andpartlybecausethecentralcourtsinLondonweresofaraway。Muchwasalsodonetogetwiseandlearnedjusticesofthepeace，andfairjuries。

BytheendofthereignofElizabeth，thelastoftheTudors，onemaysaythatWalesrejoicedinthefollowing：

1。TherewasnohatredbetweenEnglandandWales；theWelshgentryservedtheQueenonlandandsea，andthepeopleweremorehappyandcontentedthantheyhadbeensincethetimeofLlywelyn。

2。Therewasnodangerofprivatewarbetweenlords，towhichthepeasantmightbesummoned。Thebrigandswhichinfestedpartsofthecountryhadbeenclearedaway。

3。Thelawoflandhadbeenfixed。Itwasdeterminedthatlandwastogototheeldestson，accordingtotheEnglishfashion。Allthelandbecamethepropertyofsomelandlord，anditwasdecidedwhowasalandowner，andwhowasnot。TheWelshfreemenwereheldtoowntheirland；theWelshserfs，thedescendantsofanoldconqueredrace，sometimesbecameownersandsometimestenants。TheyallthoughtthatHenryVII。，theWelshvictorofBosworth，hadsetthemfree。

4。TheTudorstrustedtheirpeople，andcalleduponthemtogovernandtoadministerjusticethemselves。Thesquiresweretobejustices，thefreemenweretobejurors；theshirewastolookafterthemilitia，andtheparishafterthepoor。

CHAPTERXVIII——THEREFORMATION

TheReformationinEnglandwas，tobeginwith，apurelypoliticalmovement。HenryVIII。wishedtorulehispeopleinhisownway，inreligionaswellasinpolitics；and，eventually，hebecameSupremeHeadoftheChurchaswellasthekingofthecountry。Hisnewpowerbroughtchanges。ItwasnecessarytoreformtheChurch，andthewealthofthemonasteriestemptedhimtodoit。Therewasanewspiritofenquiry，andtheKingwasledonbythatspirit，withdilatoryandhesitatingsteps，toexamineoldcreeds。ThereligiousfervouroftheReformationhadcaughtthepeople；andtheKingstoodstill，ifhedidnotturnback。

Buthisministershadnomisgivings。ThomasCromwelltriedtohurrytheReformationon——themonasteriesweredissolved，theBiblewastranslated，andtheswayofRomewasdisowned。Thekingappointedthebishops，decidedchurchcases，andevendeterminedwhatthecreedofhiscountrywastobe。Somerset，inthereignofEdwardVI。，madethemovementadoctrinalone，andforceditonwithequalvigour。

Waleslookedon，withindifferenceandapathyatfirst，andthenwithmurmurs。Themovementhadnoattraction：ithadmanycausesofoffence。InEnglandthepoliticalmovementbecameapatriotic，anintellectual，andareligiousmovement；anditsucceeded。InIreland，also，itwaspolitical，butitcouldnotappealtopatriotism，becauseitwasanEnglishmovement；anditfailed。InWales，itwasneitherwelcomednoropposed；itwassimplytolerated，andwithabadgrace。

Foronething，itbroughtEnglishinsteadofLatinintopublicworship。Latin，theoldlanguageofprayerandevenofsermon，wasvenerated，thoughnotunderstood。ButEnglishwasnotonlynotunderstood，itwasalsoregardedasinferiortoWelsh。TheTudors’

dislikeofvarioustongueswasasstrongastheirdislikeofvariousjurisdictions。HenryVIII。，ingivingWelshmentheActof1535，saysthatthetongueofOwenTudoris\"nothinglikeneconsonanttothenaturalmother—tongueusedwithinthisrealm，\"andenactsthatallofficialsinWalesshallspeakEnglish。And，inthesamespirit，theWelshmanwastoldthattheKingdomofHeavenwasnowopentohim，butthathemustseekitinEnglish，ornotatall。

Again，thereformers——menofthetypeofBishopBarlow——despisedandshockedapeopletheyneverunderstood。ThesanctityofStDavid’s，thethemeofthebestpoetsoftheMiddleAgesandthegoalofgenerationsofpilgrims，wasdescribedbyitsProtestantbishop——whounroofedthepalaceinordertogetthelead——asadesolateanglefrequentedonlybyvagabondpilgrims。AWelshmanisnotappealedtobywhatisaninsulttohiscountryandashocktohisreligionatthesametime。Therelicswereruthlesslysweptaway；theyweretakenpossessionofbytheagentsofCromwellanddestroyed，orsenttoLondon。Theimagescarriedinthevillageprocessionswerelost——

theimagesthatcouldkeepthesuperstitiousWelshmanfromhell，orevenbringhimbackfromit，orhealhisdiseases，orkeephiscattlefromthemurrain，andhiscropsfromblight。Ionlyknowofoneofthoserelicsthatcanstillbeseen。ItisthehealingcupofNantEos，amerefragmentofwood。Thepeople’sfaithintherelicscanbeestimatedfromthefactthatthecuphasbeenusedwithinthelastcentury。

Again，themonasteriesweredissolved。Thewealthofthemonasteries，theirmeadowsandbarnsandsheep—runsandfishponds，werecovetedbytherich；thepoorthoughtofthemassourcesofalms。Themonksweregoodlandlords；andtheygavefreely，notonlythecomfortsofreligion，butoftheirmedicinalherbsandstoresoffood。TheWelshmonasterieswerenotsorichasthoseofEngland，andtheywerealldissolvedamongthelessermonasteries——thosewithanincomeunder200poundsayear。Butthoughnoneofthemwereveryrich，theynearlyallhadalmost200poundsayear。Theirlossaffectedthewholecountry，aseachpartofWaleshadoneortwoofthem——Tintern，Margam，Neath，andWhitlandinthesouth；StrataFlorida，CwmHir，YstradMarchell，andtheVannerincentralWales；

andBasingwerkandMaenaninthenorth。

TheReformationbroughtthepoorerclassesinWales，notonlyinsultstotheirnationalandreligiousfeelings，butmaterialloss。ItappealedonlytotheEnglishbishopswhohadadoptedthenewProtestanttenets，andtotheWelshandEnglishlandownerswhohadlosttheirreverenceforrelics，andhadlearnttohungerforland。

ThemovementwasaseverestrainontheloyaltyoftheWelshmantotheTudors，buthehadlearnttolooktothekingforguidancesandhesufferedinsilence。Marywaswelcomed，andnoWelshbloodwasshedfortheProtestantfaith。ThepassiveresistancetotheReformationmighthavebrokenoutintoarebellionifaleaderhadcome。

InElizabeth’sreigntwoattemptsweremadetodisturbthereligioussettlement。OnewasmadebytheJesuits——thewonderfulsocietyestablishedtochecktheReformationmovementandtoleadareactionagainstit。In1583JohnBennettcametoNorthWales；in1595RobertJonescametoRaglan；andseveralWelshJesuitssufferedmartyrdom。

TheotherattemptwasthatofJohnPenry，whowishedtoappealtotheintellectofthepeoplebymeansofthepulpitandtheprintingpress。Theapostleofthenewcreedwascrushed，likethosewhowishedtorevivetheold；hewasputtodeathasatraitorin1593，afterashortlifeofimportunatepleadingthathemightpreachtheGospelinWales。

BeforetheendofthereignofElizabeth，however，theWelshlanguagewasrecognised。Thelastschoolfounded，thatofRuthinin1595，wastohaveamasterwhocouldteachandpreachinWelsh。Andin1588

therehadappeared，bythehelpofArchbishopWhitgift，theWelshBibleofWilliamMorgan。ItwastheappearanceofthisBiblethatarousedthefirstrealwelcometotheReformation。ButtheReformationthatgaveEnglandaSpenserandaShakespearearousednonewlifeinWales，notasinglehymnorasingleprayer。

CHAPTERXIX——THECIVILWAR

AftertheTudorscametheStuarts。TheTudorsdidwhattheirpeoplewanted；thekingandthepeople，betweenthem，crushedthenobles。

TheStuartsdidwhattheythoughtright，andtheydidnottrytopleasethepeople。UndertheTudors，therewasharmonybetweenCrownandParliament；andElizabethleftaprosperouspeoplewithstrongviewsabouttheirrightsandtheirreligion。ButJamesI。，andespeciallyhissonCharlesI。，triedtochangelawandreligion。

FromtheTudorperiodofunity，then，wecometotheStuartperiodofstrife。

From1603to1642thestrugglewentoninParliament。TheWelshMembersnearlyallsupportedtheking，andtheWelshpeoplefollowedtheWelshgentryinstrongloyalty。ThemostfamousWelshmanoftheperiodwasJohnWilliams，whobecameArchbishopofYorkandLordKeeper。Hewasawiseman；hesawthatbothsideswerealittleinthewrong；andifanyonecouldhavekeptthepeacebetweenthem，hecouldhavedoneit。Butthekingdidnotquitetrusthim，andtheParliamentalmostdespisedhim；andthishappensoftentowisemenwhogetbetweentwoangryparties。

From1642to1646，theFirstCivilWarwaswaged。ThiswasawarbetweenthekingandtheParliamentovertaxation，militia，andreligion。Thesouth—east，andLondonespecially，wereforParliament；thewilderparts，especiallyWales，werefortheking。

TheonlyimportantpartofWalesthatdeclaredforParliamentwasthesouthernpartofPembrokeshire，whichhadbeenEnglisheversincethereignofHenryII。

Waleswasimportanttothekingfortworeasons。Foronething，itcouldgivehimanarmy，andhecame，timeaftertime，togetanewone。WhenheunfurledhisflagandbeganthewaratNottinghamin1642，hecametoShrewsbury，andtherefivethousandWelshmenjoinedhim。WiththeseandothershemarchedagainstLondon，fightingthebattleofEdgehillontheway。WhilethekingmademanyattemptstogetLondonuntil1644，andwhiletheNewModelarmyattackedhimbetween1645and1647，theWelshfoughtinnearlyallhisbattles，theirinfantrysufferingheavilyinthetwogreatestbattles，MarstonMoorandNaseby。ThewarwentoninWalesitselfalso——RupertandGerardbeingthechiefRoyalistleaders，andMiddletonandMichaelJonesbeingthechiefParliamentaryones。Nogreatbattleswerefought，buttherewereseveralskirmishes，andmuchtakingandretakingofcastlesandtowns。

Waleswasimportanttotheking，also，becauseitcommandedthetwowaystoIreland。TheKingthought，almosttothelast，thatanIrisharmywouldsavehim。WelshgarrisonsheldthetwoportsforIreland，ChesterandBristol。Bristolwasstormedbyagreatmidnightassault，andChesterwasforcedtoyield。InMarch1647Harlechyielded，andthewarcametoanend。Bythattimethekingwasaprisonerinthehandsofthearmy。

TheSecondCivilWar，in1648and1649，wasastrugglebetweenthetwosectionsofthevictoriousarmy。TheParliamentwishedtoestablishonereligion，thearmysaidthateverymanmustbeallowedtoworshipGodasheliked。OnewascalledthePresbyterianideal，theothertheIndependent。ThearmywasledbyCromwell，andParliamentwasoverawed。ThenthePresbyterianpartsroseinrevolt—

—Kent，Pembrokeshire，andthelowlandsofScotland。TheNewModelarmymarchedagainsttheWelsh，inordertobreaktheconnectionbetweenthenorthernandsouthernPresbyterians。TheWelshgeneralswereLaugharne，Poyer，andPowell，whohadallfoughtforParliamentinthefirstwar。TheyweredefeatedatStFagans，nearCardiff，andthendrivenintoPembroke。Theydeterminedtoholdouttothelastwithinitswalls。Cromwellbesiegedthem，andthegreatfeatureofthewarwasthesiegeofPembroke。WallsandcastleslikethoseofPembrokehadbecomeuselessbecauseofgunpowder。ButCromwellcouldnotatoncebringhisgunssofar。Hisdifficultieswereincreasingdaily：theParliamentwastryingtocometotermswiththeking，allWalesaroundhimwasdisaffected，theScotchhadcrossedtheborderandweremarchingonLondon。Aftermanyweeksofassaultsanddesperatedefence，thegunscameandtheoldwallswerebattereddown。PembrokeCastle，whosegreatroundtowerstillstands，hadprotectedWilliamMarshallagainstLlywelynandhadenabledanimportantdistricttoremaina\"littleEnglandbeyondWales，\"wasthelastmediaevalcastletotakeanimportantpartinwar。TheScotchweresoondefeatedatthebattleofPreston，andthekingwasbroughttotrialandputtodeath，thedeath—warrantbeingsignedbytwoWelshmen——JohnJonesofMerionethandThomasWoganofCardigan。ThedateofCharles’executionisJanuary20，1649。

TheCommonwealthwasestablishedimmediately，andWaleswaslookeduponwithmuchdistrust——thePresbyterianpartsandtheRoyalistparts——bythenewGovernment。ItwasrepresentedintheEnglishParliaments，itistrue，butitsrepresentativeswereoftenEnglish，andpracticallyappointedbytheGovernment。Whenthecountrywasputunderthemilitarydictatorshipofthemajor—generals，HarrisonwassenttoruleWales。

Honestattemptsweremadetogiveitanefficientclergy；butthezealofVavasourPowelarousedmuchopposition。Waleseitherclungtenaciouslytoitsoldreligion；or，ifitchangedit，thechangeswereextreme。ThoughthecountrygenerallyreturnedtoitsoldlifeandthoughtattheRestorationin1660，muchofthenewlifeoftheCommonwealthremained：congregationsofIndependentsstillmet；

Quakeridealssurvivedallpersecution；andeventhemysticismofMorganLloydpermeatedtheslowlyawakeningthoughtofthepeasantswhom，inhisdreams，hesawwelcomingthesecondadventofChrist。

CHAPTERXX——THEGREATREVOLUTION

Excepttothereaderwhoisofalegalorantiquarianturnofmind，thesixteenthandseventeenthcenturiesaretheleastinterestinginthehistoryofWales——theverycenturiesthatarethemostgloriousandthemoststirringinthehistoryofEngland。Theolderhistoriansstopwhentheycometotheyear1284，andsometimesgiveahastyoutlineofafewrebellionsupto1535。TheythengivetheWelshaglowingtestimonialasalaw—abidingandloyalpeople，andfindthemtoouninterestingtowriteanymoreaboutthem。

ThehistoryofWalesdoes，indeed，appeartobenothingmorethanthegradualdisappearanceofWelshinstitutions。TheCourtofWaleswasrestoredwiththekingin1660；butitsworkhadbeendone，anditcametoanendin1689。TheGreatSessionscametoanendin1830；

and，thoughwenowseethattheirdisappearancewasamistake，thebillabolishingthempassedthroughParliamentwithoutadivision。

ThelastdifferencebetweenEnglandandWaleswasdeleted；andifWaleshasnoseparateexistenceleft，whyshouldwewriteorreaditshistory？

Becausethetwocenturiesofapparentsettlementandsleepweretheperiodofasilentrevolution，moreimportant，ifouraimistoexplainthelivingpresentratherthanthedeadpast，thanalltheexcitingplotsandbattlesoftheHouseofCuneddafromtheriseofMaelgwntothefallofthelastLlywelyn。Duringthesecenturies，thehistoryofWalesceasestobethehistoryofprincesandnobles，itbecomesthehistoryofthepeople。OwenGlendower’sfewyearsofpowerwereakindofprophecy；butOwenonceappearedtotheabbotofValleCrucis，sotraditionsays，todeclarethathehadcomebeforehistime。Wepassthen，verygradually，fromthehistoryofaprivilegedclass，speakingliteraryWelsh，withaliteraturefamousforthewealthofitsimaginationandtheartisticbeautyofitsform——wepassontothehistoryofapeasantry，rudeandignorantatfirst，retainingtheserviletraitsofcenturiesofsubjection，butgraduallybecomingself—reliant，prosperous，andthoughtful。

Therealhistoryofanationisshownbyitsliterature。Itsrecordsanditschroniclesarebutthenotesandcommentsofvariousages。

Intheperiodoftheprincesandnobles，youcantracetheriseanddeclineofagreatliterature；watchhowitgathersstrengthandbeautyfromCynddelwtoDafyddapGwilym，andhowthestrengthbeginstofailandthebeautytowane，fromDafyddapGwilymtoTudurAled。

Intheperiodofthepeople，fromTudortimeson，thepeasantstriedatfirsttoimitatethepoetryofthepast；thentheybegantowriteandthinkintheirownway。ItisnotmyaimtoexplaintheperiodsofWelshliteraturenow；Iamgoingtodothatinanotherbook。But，asIhavementionedthreetypicalpoetsintheperiodoftheprinces，Iwillalsomentionthreepoetsintheperiodofthepeople。

In1579ReesPrichardwasborn；in1717，WilliamsPantyCelyn；in1832，Islwyn。Wehave，inthesethree，writerstypicaloftheseventeenth，eighteenth，andnineteenthcenturiesrespectively。ReesPrichard，stillaffectionatelyrememberedineveryWelshhomeasthe\"OldVicar，\"wrotestanzasinthedialectoftheValeofTowy——rough，fullofpeasantphrasesandmangledEnglishwords；andhewrotethem，notinbooks，butonthememoryofthepeople。Inthesamevalley，acenturylater，WilliamsPantyCelynwrotehymns，melodiousandinspiring，ofgreatpoeticbeauty，thoughwithatraceofdialect；

theywerewrittenandpublished，buttheyalsohauntedeveryearthatheardthem。BeyondtheBlackMountains，inthehillsofWestMonmouth，afteranothercentury，Islwynwroteodeswithoutatraceofdialect；theywerewrittenandremainedforsometimeinmanuscript；

whenpublished，theymetwithawelcomewhichshowsclearlythatIslwynisthetypicalpoetofmodernWelshthought。IfyouwishtoseeandrealisetheriseoftheWelshpeasant，passfromthehomelystanzasofthegoodOldVicar’sWelshmen’sCandletothepoetictheologyofPantyCelyn，andfromthattothepoeticphilosophyofIslwyn，whereconcentratedintensityofthoughtisexpressedinastylethatis，atanyrateatitsbest，superiortothebestworkofthepoetsoftheprinces。

IfIweretotellyouthereasonsforthischange，Iwouldbewriting，inaslightlydifferentform，whatIhavealreadywritteninthisbookaboutearlyWelshhistory。ThefallofLlywelyn，theBlackDeath，OwenGlendower’sidealsandtheTudorlegislation，allpreparedtheway。

Thelong—bowandgunpowder，wehaveseen，madethepeasantasimportantasthenobleinwar。Thelong—bowmadethecoatofmailuseless，gunpowdermadethecastleuseless——thedefenceoftheprivilegesoftheMiddleAgesdeparted。

Ideasofequalitywereadvanced。Theywerelookeduponatfirstastruthsapplicableonlytoaperfectandimpossiblecondition，andtheirdiscovererswereignored，ifnothangedorburnt。Buttheyalwaysbecameareality，andwerevictoriousintheend。TakethetruthsdiscoveredorchampionedbyWelshmen。WalterBruterediscoveredthetheoryofjustificationbyfaith——thatallmenareequalinthesightofGod，andthatnolordcouldberesponsibleforthem。BishopPecockadvocatedthedoctrineoftoleration——thatreason，notpersecution，shouldrule。JohnPenryclaimedthatthepeoplehadarighttodiscusspubliclythequestionsthatvitallyaffectedthem。Thehistoryofthepastshowsthattheapostleswerecondemned，thelifeofthepresentshowsthattheirideaslived。

Industryandcommercebecamemorefree。InTudortimespiracywasrepressed，themarchlordshipswereabolished，theprivilegesofthetownsceasedtofettermanufacture，tradewithEnglandbecamefree。

InStuarttimesroadsweremade，theindustriesdependingonwoolrevived，andtheindustriesofBritainbegantomovewestwardstowardstheironandthecoal。IntheHanoverianperiodwastelandswereenclosed，theslateminesofthenorthandthecoalpitsofthesouthwereopened。

TheTudorssucceededingettingtheupperclassestospeakEnglish，andtoturntheirbacksonWelshlife。Thepeasantwasleftsupreme：

heknewnotwhattodoatfirst，butlightsooncame。

PassthroughWales，andyouwillseethelifeofbothperiods——theruinedcastlesandtheruinedmonasteriesoftheold；thequarriesandpits，thetownsandports，thechurchesandchapels，theschoolsandcollegesofthepresent。

CHAPTERXXI——HOWELHARRIS

Itisdifficulttowriteaboutreligionwithoutgivingoffence。

Religionwillcomeintopolitics，andmustcomeintohistory。Ithasgivenmuch，perhapsmost，ofitsstrengthtomodernWales；ithasgivenitmany，ifnotmost，ofitspoliticaldifficulties。

Thereareperiodsofreligiouscalmandperiodsofreligiousfervourinthelifeofeverynation。Idonotknowwhetheritisnecessary，butitiscertainlythefact——thetwoperiodscondemneachotherwithgreatenergy。Withregardtocreed——thelifeofreligion——youwillfindthattheperiodsofenergytendtobeCalvinistic——anintensebeliefthatmanisamereinstrumentinthehandsofGod，workingoutplanshedoesnotunderstand；whileinperiodsofrestittendstobeArminian——acomfortablebeliefthatmanseeshisfutureclearly，andthathecanguideitashelikes。WithregardtotheChurch——thebodyofreligion——itisfortunate，intimesofcalm，ifitisestablished，tokeepthespiritofreligionalive；itisfortunate，intimesoffervour，ifitisfree，inorderthatthenewlifemaygiveitamoreperfectshape。

Nowwemustrememberthattherecanbenocalmwithoutalittleindifference，andthattherecanbenoenthusiasmwithoutalittleintolerance。Somencalleachotherfanaticsandbigotsandhypocrites，becausetheyhavenottakenthetroubletorealisethatthereismuchvarietyinhumancharacterandintheworkingsofthehumanmind。Perhapsitisalsoworthrememberingthataninstitutionisnotplacedatthemercyofareformer，butgraduallychanged。

TheeighteenthcenturywasacenturyofindifferenceinreligioninWales，thenineteenthcenturywasacenturyofenthusiasm。TheChurchatthebeginningoftheeighteenthcentury，atanyrateasfarasthehigherclergywereconcerned，wasapathetictoreligion，andaliveonlytoselfishinterests。TheWhigbishopswereappointedforpoliticalreasons；theyhatedtheToryprinciplesoftheWelshsquires，andtheyneglectedanddespisedtheWelshpeopletheyhadnevertriedtounderstand。InEngland，theDefoesandtheSwiftsofliteraturewereencouragedandutilisedbythepoliticalparties；inWales，whereclergymenweretheonlywriters，theWhigbishopsdistrustedthem，andsilencedthemwheretheycould，becausetheywroteWelsh。TheChurchdidnotshowmoremisapplicationofrevenuethantheState，perhaps；but，whilethepeoplecouldnotleavetheStateasaprotestagainstcorruption，theycouldleavetheChurch。

And，duringthemiddleoftheeighteenthcentury，agreatnationalawakeningbegan。

ThetrumpetblastoftheawakeningwasHowelHarris。HewasaBreconshirepeasant，ofstrongpassionwhichbecamesanctifiedbyalife—longstruggle，ofdevouringambitionwhichhenearlysucceededintamingtoalifeofintenseservicetoGod。Manybitterthingshavebeensaidabouthim，butnothingmorebitterthanhehassaidabouthimselfinthevolumesofprayersandrecriminationshewrotetotorturehisownsoul，andtogoadhimselfintoharderwork。Thefameofhiseloquencefilledtheland，anddistrictsexpectedhisappearanceanxiously，asinoldtimestheyexpectedOwenGlendower。

HowelHarriswas，however，nopoliticalagitator。Hehadanimperiouswill，andhewishedtorulehisbrethren；hewasaggressiveandmilitaryinspirit；GodtohimwastheLordofHosts；hepreachedthegospelofpeaceintheuniformofanofficerofthemilitia，andhesentmanyofhisconvertstofightabroadinthebattlesofthecentury。Hehadaloveoforganisation；heestablishedatTreveccawhatwaspartlyareligiouscommunity，andpartlyaco—operativemanufacturingcompany。But，whereverhestoodtoproclaimthewrathofGod，noshowerofstonesorcondemnationofministerorjusticecouldmakethosewhoheardhimforgethim，orbelievethatwhathesaidwaswrong。

IfIwerewritingforantiquarians，andnotforthosewhoreadhistoryinordertoseewhythingsarenowastheyare，Iwouldwritedetails——importantandinstructive——abouttheChurchoftheeighteenthcentury，andaboutthecongregationsofDissenterswhichtheseventeenthcenturyhandedovertotheeighteenthtopersecuteanddespise。TheIndependentsandBaptistssturdilymaintainedtheirprinciplesofreligiousliberty，buttheyfoundthecenturyastiff—

neckedone，andtheircongregationswerecontentwithmerelyexisting。TheQuakersmaintainedthatwarwaswrongwhileBritainpassedthroughwarfeverafterwarfever——theSevenYears’WarandthewarsagainstNapoleon。HowelHarris’voicemighthavebeenavoicecryinginthewilderness，ifithadnotbeenforthespirituallifeoftheexistingcongregations，conformistanddissenting。

ModernideasinWaleshavebeenprofoundlyaffectedbytheQuakers，andespeciallyindistrictsfromwhich，asasect，theyhavelongpassedaway。

ThevoiceofHowelHarriscalledallthesetoanewlife；anditisaboutthatnewlife，inthevarietygivenitbyallthedifferentactorsinit，thatIwantyoutothinknow。Itmadepreachingnecessary，foronething；anditwasfollowedbyacenturyofgreatpulpitoratory。Itprofoundlyaffectedliterature。ItgaveWales，tobeginwith，ahymnliteraturethatnocountryintheworldhassurpassed。ThecontrastbetweentheReformationandtheRevivalisverystriking——onegavethepeopleaChurchgovernmentestablishedbylawandaliteratureoftranslations，theothergaveitinstitutionsofitsownmakingandoriginallivingthought。TheRevivalgaveliteratureineverybranchanewstrengthandgreaterwealth。

Itcreatedademandforeducation。GriffithJonesofLlanddowrorestablishedasystemofcirculatingschools，theteachersmovingfromplacetoplaceasaroomwasofferedthem——sometimesachurchandsometimesabarn。CharlesofBalaestablishedasystemofSundaySchools，andthewholenationgraduallyjoinedit。ThePressbecameactive，newspapersappeared。Itbecamequiteclearthatanewlifethrobbedintheland。

CHAPTERXXII——THEREFORMACTS

Thenewlifebroughtaninevitabledemandforashareinthegovernmentofthecountry，andthisbroughttheoldorderandthenewfacetoface。Thepoliticalpowerwasentirelyinthehandsofthesquires，alienatedfromthepeasantsinmanycasesbyadifferenceoflanguage，andinmostcasesbyadifferenceofreligion。

TheActof1535had，aswehaveseen，givenWalesarepresentationinParliament。Eachshirehadonememberonly；exceptMonmouth，whichhadtwo。Eachshiretownhadonemember，exceptthatofMerioneth；

andHaverfordwestwasgivenamember。Thecountyfranchisewasthefortyshillingfreehold；itthereforeexcludednotonlythosewhohadnoconnectionwiththeland，butthecopyholder——whowasreallyalandowner，butwhosetenurewasregardedasbase，onaccountofhisvilleinorigin。ThiscopyholderwasundoubtedlythedescendantoftheWelshserfofmediaevaltimes。

ThefirstReformAct，thatof1832，waswonforthegreatmanufacturingtownsofEngland，butWalesbenefitedbyit。Itextendedthefranchisetothecopyholder，andtothefarmerpaying50

poundsrent，inthecounties；itgavethetownsauniform10poundshouseholdfranchise。Italsobroughtmanyofthetownsintothesystemofrepresentation。Itraisedthenumberofmembersfromtwenty—seventothirty—two；theagriculturaldistrictsgettingtwo，andtheminingdistrictstwo。

Theslightchangeinrepresentationisarecognitionofthegrowingindustriesofthecountry，especiallyinthecoalandirondistricts。

ThecoalofthegreatcoalfieldofSouthWaleshadbeenworkedasfarbackasNormantimes；butitwasinthenineteenthcenturythatthecoalandironindustriesofSouthWales，andthecoalandslateindustriesofNorthWalesbecameimportant。Cardiff，Swansea，andNewportbecameimportantports；andplacesthatfewhadeverheardofbefore——likeYstradyfodwgorBlaenauFfestiniog——becamethecentresofimportantindustries。But，in1832，Waleswasstillmainlypastoralandagricultural；andtheAct，thoughitdidmuchforthetowns，lefttherepresentationofthecountiesinthehandsofthesameclass。Still，itwasthetownsthatshoweddisappointment，aswasseenintheChartismofthewooldistrictofLlanidloesandofthecoaldistrictofNewport。

ThesecondReformAct，of1867，gaveMerthyrTydviltworepresentativesinsteadofone，otherwiseitleftthedistributionofseatsasithadbeenbefore。Butthenewextensionofthefranchise—

—totheboroughhouseholder，theborough10poundslodger，andespeciallythe12poundstenantfarmer——gavenewclassespoliticalpower。Itwasfollowedbyafiercestrugglebetweentheoldlandedgentryandtheirtenants，astrugglewhichwasmoderatedtoacertainextentbytheBallotActof1870，andbythegreatmigrationofthecountrypopulationtotheslateandcoaldistricts。

TherapidriseoftheimportanceoftheindustrialdistrictsisseeninthethirdReformActof1885。ThecountrydistrictsrepresentedbythesmallboroughsoftheagriculturalcountiesofBrecon，Cardigan，Pembroke，andAnglesey，werewhollyorpartlydisfranchised。ButtheslatecountyofCarnarvonshirehadanadditionalmember；andinthecoalandironcountry，SwanseaandCarmarthenshireandMonmouthshirehadoneadditionalmembereach，andGlamorganthree。

ThethirdReformActenfranchisedtheagriculturallabourerandthecountryartisan。InEnglandmanydoubtswereexpressedabouttheintelligenceorthecolourofthepoliticsofthenewvoter；but，inWales，mostwouldadmitthathewasasintelligentasanyvoterenfranchisedbeforehim；allknewtherecouldbenodoubtabouthispolitics。

ThecharacteroftherepresentationofWaleshasentirelychanged。

Thesquiregaveplacetothecapitalist，andthecapitalisttopopularleaders。Wales，whosepeopleblindlyfollowedthegentryintheGreatCivilWar，isnowthemostdemocraticpartofBritain。