第1章

DavidHume1742

OFESSAYWRITING

Theelegantpartofmankind，whoarenotimmersedintheanimallife，butemploythemselvesintheoperationsofthemind，maybedividedintotheand。Thelearnedaresuchashavechosenfortheirportionthehigherandmoredifficultoperationsofthemind，whichrequireleisureandsolitude，andcannotbebroughttoperfection，withoutlongpreparationandseverelabour。Theconversibleworldjointoasociabledisposition，andatasteofpleasure，aninclinationtotheeasierandmoregentleexercisesoftheunderstanding，toobviousreflectionsonhumanaffairs，andthedutiesofcommonlife，andtotheobservationoftheblemishesorperfectionsoftheparticularobjects，thatsurroundthem。Suchsubjectsofthoughtfurnishnotsufficientemploymentinsolitude，butrequirethecompanyandconversationofourfellow—creatures，torenderthemaproperexerciseforthemind：andthisbringsmankindtogetherinsociety，whereeveryonedisplayshisthoughtsandobservationsinthebestmannerheisable，andmutuallygivesandreceivesinformation，aswellaspleasure。

Theseparationofthelearnedfromtheconversibleworldseemstohavebeenthegreatdefectofthelastage，andmusthavehadaverybadinfluencebothonbooksandcompany：forwhatpossibilityisthereoffindingtopicsofconversationfitfortheentertainmentofrationalcreatures，withouthavingrecoursesometimestohistory，poetry，politics，andthemoreobviousprinciples，atleast，ofphilosophy？Mustourwholediscoursebeacontinuedseriesofgossippingstoriesandidleremarks？Mustthemindneverrisehigher，butbeperpetuallyStun’dandwornoutwithendlesschatOfWilldidthis，andNansaidthat？[2]

Thiswouldbetorenderthetimespentincompanythemostunentertaining，aswellasthemostunprofitablepartofourlives。

Ontheotherhand，learninghasbeenasgreataloserbybeingshutupincollegesandcells，andsecludedfromtheworldandgoodcompany。Bythatmeans，everythingofwhatwecallbecametotallybarbarous，beingcultivatedbymenwithoutanytasteoflifeormanners，andwithoutthatlibertyandfacilityofthoughtandexpression，whichcanonlybeacquiredbyconversation。Evenphilosophywenttowrackbythismoapingreclusemethodofstudy，andbecameaschimericalinherconclusionsasshewasunintelligibleinherstileandmannerofdelivery。Andindeed，whatcouldbeexpectedfrommenwhoneverconsultedexperienceinanyoftheirreasonings，orwhoneversearchedforthatexperience，wherealoneitistobefound，incommonlifeandconversation？

’TiswithgreatpleasureIobserve，thatmenofletters，inthisage，havelost，inagreatmeasure，thatshynessandbashfulnessoftemper，whichkeptthematadistancefrommankind；and，atthesametime，thatmenoftheworldareproudofborrowingfrombookstheirmostagreeabletopicsofconversation。’Tistobehoped，thatthisleaguebetwixtthelearnedandconversibleworlds，whichissohappilybegun，willbestillfartherimproved，totheirmutualadvantage；andtothatend，IknownothingmoreadvantageousthansuchasthesewithwhichIendeavourtoentertainthepublic。Inthisview，I

cannotbutconsidermyselfasakindofresidentorambassadorfromthedominionsoflearningtothoseofconversation；andshallthinkitmyconstantdutytopromoteagoodcorrespondencebetwixtthesetwostates，whichhavesogreatadependenceoneachother。Ishallgiveintelligencetothelearnedofwhateverpassesincompany，andshallendeavourtoimportintocompanywhatevercommoditiesIfindinmynativecountryproperfortheiruseandentertainment。Thebalanceoftradeweneednotbejealousof，norwilltherebeanydifficultytopreserveitonbothsides。Thematerialsofthiscommercemustchieflybefurnishedbyconversationandcommonlife：themanufacturingofthemalonebelongstolearning。

As’twouldbeanunpardonablenegligenceinanambassadornottopayhisrespectstothesovereignofthestatewhereheiscommissionedtoreside；soitwouldbealtogetherinexcusableinmenottoaddressmyself，withaparticularrespect，tothefairsex，whoarethesovereignsoftheempireofconversation。I

approachthemwithreverence；andwerenotmycountrymen，thelearned，astubbornindependentraceofmortals，extremelyjealousoftheirliberty，andunaccustomedtosubjection，I

shouldresignintotheirfairhandsthesovereignauthorityovertherepublicofletters。Asthecasestands，mycommissionextendsnofarther，thantodesirealeague，offensiveanddefensive，againstourcommonenemies，againsttheenemiesofreasonandbeauty，peopleofdullheadsandcoldhearts。Fromthismomentletuspursuethemwiththeseverestvengeance：letnoquarterbegiven，buttothoseofsoundunderstandingsanddelicateaffections；andthesecharacters，’tistobepresumed，weshallalwaysfindinseparable。

Tobeserious，andtoquittheallusionbeforeitbewornthread—bare，Iamofopinion，thatwomen，thatis，womenofsenseandeducation（fortosuchaloneIaddressmyself）aremuchbetterjudgesofallpolitewritingthanmenofthesamedegreeofunderstanding；andthat’tisavainpannic，iftheybesofarterrifiedwiththecommonridiculethatislevelledagainstlearnedladies，asutterlytoabandoneverykindofbooksandstudytooursex。Letthedreadofthatridiculehavenoothereffect，thantomakethemconcealtheirknowledgebeforefools，whoarenotworthyofit，norofthem。Suchwillstillpresumeuponthevaintitleofthemalesextoaffectasuperiorityabovethem：butmyfairreadersmaybeassured，thatallmenofsense，whoknowtheworld，haveagreatdeferencefortheirjudgmentofsuchbooksaslywithinthecompassoftheirknowledge，andreposemoreconfidenceinthedelicacyoftheirtaste，thoughunguidedbyrules，thaninallthedulllaboursofpedantsandcommentators。Inaneighbouringnation，equallyfamousforgoodtaste，andforgallantry，theladiesare，inamanner，thesovereignsoftheworld，aswellasofthe；andnopolitewriterpretendstoventureuponthepublic，withouttheapprobationofsomecelebratedjudgesofthatsex。Theirverdictis，indeed，sometimescomplainedof；and，inparticular，Ifind，thattheadmirersofCorneille，tosavethatgreatpoet’shonourupontheascendantthatRacinebegantotakeoverhim，alwayssaid，thatitwasnottobeexpected，thatsooldamancoulddisputetheprize，beforesuchjudges，withsoyoungamanashisrival。Butthisobservationhasbeenfoundunjust，sinceposterityseemstohaveratifiedtheverdictofthattribunal：andRacine，thoughdead，isstillthefavouriteofthefairsex，aswellasofthebestjudgesamongthemen。

Thereisonlyonesubject，onwhichIamapttodistrustthejudgmentoffemales，andthatis，concerningbooksofgallantryanddevotion，whichtheycommonlyaffectashighflownaspossible；andmostofthemseemmoredelightedwiththewarmth，thanwiththejustnessofthepassion。Imentiongallantryanddevotionasthesamesubject，because，inreality，theybecomethesamewhentreatedinthismanner；andwemayobserve，thattheybothdependupontheverysamecomplexion。Asthefairsexhaveagreatshareofthetenderandamorousdisposition，itpervertstheirjudgmentonthisoccasion，andmakesthembeeasilyaffected，evenbywhathasnoproprietyintheexpressionnornatureinthesentiment。Mr。Addison’selegantdiscoursesofreligionhavenorelishwiththem，incomparisonofbooksofmysticdevotion：andOtway’stragediesarerejectedfortherantsofMr。Dryden。

Wouldtheladiescorrecttheirfalsetasteinthisparticular；letthemaccustomthemselvesalittlemoretobooksofallkinds：letthemgiveencouragementtomenofsenseandknowledgetofrequenttheircompany：andfinally，letthemconcurheartilyinthatunionIhaveprojectedbetwixtthelearnedandconversiblewor1ds。Theymay，perhaps，meetwithmorecomplaisancefromtheirusualfollowersthanfrommenoflearning；buttheycannotreasonablyexpectsosincereanaffection：and，Ihope，theywillneverbeguiltyofsowrongachoice，astosacrificethesubstancetotheshadow。

OFSUPERSTITIONANDENTHUSIASM

DavidHume1741

，isgrownintoamaxim，andiscommonlyproved，amongotherinstances，bytheperniciouseffectsofand，thecorruptionsoftruereligion。

Thesetwospeciesoffalsereligion，thoughbothpernicious，areyetofaverydifferent，andevenofacontrarynature。Themindofmanissubjecttocertainunaccountableterrorsandapprehensions，proceedingeitherfromtheunhappysituationofprivateorpublicaffairs，fromillhealth，fromagloomyandmelancholydisposition，orfromtheconcurrenceofallthesecircumstances。Insuchastateofmind，infiniteunknownevilsaredreadedfromunknownagents；andwhererealobjectsofterrorarewanting，thesoul，activetoitsownprejudice，andfosteringitspredominantinclination，findsimaginaryones，towhosepowerandmalevolenceitsetsnolimits。Astheseenemiesareentirelyinvisibleandunknown，themethodstakentoappeasethemareequallyunaccountable，andconsistinceremonies，observances，mortifications，sacrifices，presents，orinanypractice，howeverabsurdorfrivolous，whicheitherfollyorknaveryrecommendstoablindandterrifiedcredulity。Weakness，fear，melancholy，togetherwithignorance，are，therefore，thetruesourcesofSuperstition。

Butthemindofmanisalsosubjecttoanunaccountableelevationandpresumption，arisingfromprosperoussuccess，fromluxurianthealth，fromstrongspirits，orfromaboldandconfidentdisposition。Insuchastateofmind，theimaginationswellswithgreat，butconfusedconceptions，towhichnosublunarybeautiesorenjoymentscancorrespond。Everythingmortalandperishablevanishesasunworthyofattention。Andafullrangeisgiventothefancyintheinvisibleregionsorworldofspirits，wherethesoulisatlibertytoindulgeitselfineveryimagination，whichmaybestsuititspresenttasteanddisposition。Henceariseraptures，transports，andsurprisingflightsoffancy；andconfidenceandpresumptionstillencreasing，theseraptures，beingaltogetherunaccountable，andseemingquitebeyondthereachofourordinaryfaculties，areattributedtotheimmediateinspirationofthatDivineBeing，whoistheobjectofdevotion。Inalittletime，theinspiredpersoncomestoregardhimselfasadistinguishedfavouriteoftheDivinity；andwhenthisfrenzyoncetakesplace，whichisthesummitofenthusiasm，everywhimsyisconsecrated：Humanreason，andevenmoralityarerejectedasfallaciousguides：Andthefanaticmadmandelivershimselfover，blindly，andwithoutreserve，tothesupposedillapsesofthespirit，andtoinspirationfromabove。Hope，pride，presumption，awarmimagination，togetherwithignorance，are，therefore，thetruesourcesofEnthusiasm。

Thesetwospeciesoffalsereligionmightaffordoccasiontomanyspeculations；butIshallconfinemyself，atpresent，toafewreflectionsconcerningtheirdifferentinfluenceongovernmentandsociety。

Myfirstreflectionis，。Assuperstitionisfoundedonfear，sorrow，andadepressionofspirits，itrepresentsthemantohimselfinsuchdespicablecolours，thatheappearsunworthy，inhisowneyes，ofapproachingthedivinepresence，andnaturallyhasrecoursetoanyotherperson，whosesanctityoflife，or，perhaps，impudenceandcunning，havemadehimbesupposedmorefavouredbytheDivinity。Tohimthesuperstitiousentrusttheirdevotions：Tohiscaretheyrecommendtheirprayers，petitions，andsacrifices：Andbyhismeans，theyhopetorendertheiraddressesacceptabletotheirincensedDeity。HencetheoriginofPriests，[2]whomayjustlyberegardedasaninventionofatimorousandabjectsuperstition，which，everdiffidentofitself，daresnotofferupitsowndevotions，butignorantlythinkstorecommenditselftotheDivinity，bythemediationofhissupposedfriendsandservants。Assuperstitionisaconsiderableingredientinalmostallreligions，eventhemostfanatical；therebeingnothingbutphilosophyableentirelytoconquertheseunaccountableterrors；henceitproceeds，thatinalmosteverysectofreligionthereareprieststobefound：

Butthestrongermixturethereisofsuperstition，thehigheristheauthorityofthepriesthood。[3]

Ontheotherhand，itmaybeobserved，thatallenthusiastshavebeenfreefromtheyokeofecclesiastics，andhaveexpressedgreatindependenceintheirdevotion；withacontemptofforms，ceremonies，andtraditions。Thequakersarethemostegregious，though，atthesametime，themostinnocententhusiaststhathaveyetbeenknown；andare，perhaps，theonlysect，thathaveneveradmittedpriestsamongstthem。Theindependents，ofalltheEnglishsectaries，approachnearesttothequakersinfanaticism，andintheirfreedomfrompriestlybondage。Thepresbyteriansfollowafter，atanequaldistanceinbothparticulars。Inshortthisobservationisfoundedinexperience；andwillalsoappeartobefoundedinreason，ifweconsider，that，asenthusiasmarisesfromapresumptuousprideandconfidence，itthinksitselfsufficientlyqualifiedtoapproachtheDivinity，withoutanyhumanmediator。Itsrapturousdevotionsaresofervent，thatitevenimaginesitselfactuallytoapproachhimbythewayofcontemplationandinwardconverse；whichmakesitneglectallthoseoutwardceremoniesandobservances，towhichtheassistanceofthepriestsappearssorequisiteintheeyesoftheirsuperstitiousvotaries。Thefanaticconsecrateshimself，andbestowsonhisownpersonasacredcharacter，muchsuperiortowhatformsandceremoniousinstitutionscanconferonanyother。

Myreflectionwithregardtothesespeciesoffalsereligionis，。Theviolenceofthisspeciesofreligion，whenexcitedbynovelty，andanimatedbyopposition，appearsfromnumberlessinstances；oftheinGermany，theinFrance，thelandotherfanaticsinEnglandandtheinScotland。Enthusiasmbeingfoundedonstrongspirits，andapresumptuousboldnessofcharacter，itnaturallybegetsthemostextremeresolutions；

especiallyafteritrisestothatheightastoinspirethedeludedfanaticwiththeopinionofdivineilluminations，andwithacontemptforthecommonrulesofreason，morality，andprudence。

Itisthusenthusiasmproducesthemostcrueldisordersinhumansociety；butitsfuryislikethatofthunderandtempest，whichexhaustthemselvesinalittletime，andleavetheairmorecalmandpurethanbefore。Whenthefirstfireofenthusiasmisspent，mennaturally，inallfanaticalsects，sinkintothegreatestremissnessandcoolnessinsacredmatters；therebeingnobodyofmenamongthem，endowedwithsufficientauthority，whoseinterestisconcernedtosupportthereligiousspirit：Norites，noceremonies，noholyobservances，whichmayenterintothecommontrainoflife，andpreservethesacredprinciplesfromoblivion。Superstition，onthecontrary，stealsingraduallyandinsensibly；rendersmentameandsubmissive；isacceptabletothemagistrate，andseemsinoffensivetothepeople：Tillatlastthepriest，havingfirmlyestablishedhisauthority，becomesthetyrantanddisturberofhumansociety，byhisendlesscontentions，persecutions，andreligiouswars。HowsmoothlydidtheRomishchurchadvanceinheracquisitionofpower？ButintowhatdismalconvulsionsdidshethrowallEurope，inordertomaintainit？Ontheotherhand，oursectaries，whowereformerlysuchdangerousbigots，arenowbecomeveryfreereasoners；andtheseemtoapproachnearlytheonlyregularbodyofintheuniverse，thel，orthedisciplesofConfuciusinChina。[4]

Myobservationonthisheadis，。Assuperstitiongroansunderthedominionofpriests，andenthusiasmisdestructiveofallecclesiasticalpower，thissufficientlyaccountsforthepresentobservation。Nottomention，thatenthusiasm，beingtheinfirmityofboldandambitioustempers，isnaturallyaccompaniedwithaspiritofliberty；assuperstition，onthecontrary，rendersmentameandabject，andfitsthemforslavery。WelearnfromEnglishhistory，that，duringthecivilwars，theand，thoughthemostoppositeintheirreligiousprinciples；yetwereunitedintheirpoliticalones，andwerealikepassionateforacommonwealth。Andsincetheoriginofand，theleadersofthehaveeitherbeenorprofestintheirprinciples；thatis，friendstotoleration，andindifferenttoanyparticularsectof：Whilethesectaries，whohaveallastrongtinctureofenthusiasm，havealways，withoutexception，concurredwiththatparty，indefenceofcivilliberty。Theresemblanceintheirsuperstitionslongunitedthehighchurch，andthe，insupportofprerogativeandkinglypower；thoughexperienceofthetoleratingspiritoftheseemsoflatetohavereconciledthetothatparty。

TheandinFrancehaveathousandunintelligibledisputes，whicharenotworthythereflectionofamanofsense：Butwhatprincipallydistinguishesthesetwosects，andalonemeritsattention，isthedifferentspiritoftheirreligion。Theconductedbythe，aregreatfriendstosuperstition，rigidobserversofexternalformsandceremonies，anddevotedtotheauthorityofthepriests，andtotradition。Theareenthusiasts，andzealouspromotersofthepassionatedevotion，andoftheinwardlife；

littleinfluencedbyauthority；and，inaword，buthalfcatholics。Theconsequencesareexactlyconformabletotheforegoingreasoning。Thearethetyrantsofthepeople，andtheslavesofthecourt：Andthepreservealivethesmallsparksoftheloveofliberty，whicharetobefoundintheFrenchnation。

OFTHEDELICACYOFTASTEANDPASSION

DavidHume1741

/SOME\\Peoplearesubjecttoacertainof，whichmakesthemextremelysensibletoalltheaccidentsoflife，andgivesthemalivelyjoyuponeveryprosperousevent，aswellasapiercinggrief，whentheymeetwithmisfortunesandadversity。Favoursandgoodofficeseasilyengagetheirfriendship；whilethesmallestinjuryprovokestheirresentment。Anyhonourormarkofdistinctionelevatesthemabovemeasure；buttheyareassensiblytouchedwithcontempt。Peopleofthischaracterhave，nodoubt，morelivelyenjoyments，aswellasmorepungentsorrows，thanmenofcoolandsedatetempers：But，I

believe，wheneverythingisbalanced，thereisnoone，whowouldnotratherbeofthelattercharacter，wereheentirelymasterofhisowndisposition。Goodorillfortuneisverylittleatourdisposal：Andwhenaperson，thathasthissensibilityoftemper，meetswithanymisfortune，hissorroworresentmenttakesentirepossessionofhim，anddepriveshimofallrelishinthecommonoccurrencesoflife；therightenjoymentofwhichformsthechiefpartofourhappiness。Greatpleasuresaremuchlessfrequentthangreatpains；sothatasensibletempermustmeetwithfewertrialsintheformerwaythaninthelatter。Nottomention，thatmenofsuchlivelypassionsareapttobetransportedbeyondallboundsofprudenceanddiscretion，andtotakefalsestepsintheconductoflife，whichareoftenirretrievable。

Thereisaofobservableinsomemen，whichverymuchresemblesthisof，andproducesthesamesensibilitytobeautyanddeformityofeverykind，asthatdoestoprosperityandadversity，obligationsandinjuries。Whenyoupresentapoemorapicturetoamanpossessedofthistalent，thedelicacyofhisfeelingmakeshimbesensiblytouchedwitheverypartofit；norarethemasterlystrokesperceivedwithmoreexquisiterelishandsatisfaction，thanthenegligencesorabsurditieswithdisgustanduneasiness。Apoliteandjudiciousconversationaffordshimthehighestentertainment；rudenessorimpertinenceisasgreatapunishmenttohim。Inshort，delicacyoftastehasthesameeffectasdelicacyofpassion：Itenlargesthespherebothofourhappinessandmisery，andmakesussensibletopainsaswellaspleasures，whichescapetherestofmankind。

Ibelieve，however，everyonewillagreewithme，that，notwithstandingthisresemblance，delicacyoftasteisasmuchtobedesiredandcultivatedasdelicacyofpassionistobelamented，andtoberemedied，ifpossible。Thegoodorillaccidentsoflifeareverylittleatourdisposal；butweareprettymuchmasterswhatbooksweshallread，whatdiversionsweshallpartakeof，andwhatcompanyweshallkeep。Philosophershaveendeavouredtorenderhappinessentirelyindependentofeverythingexternal。Thatdegreeofperfectionisimpossibletobe：Buteverywisemanwillendeavourtoplacehishappinessonsuchobjectschieflyasdependuponhimself：andisnottobesomuchbyanyothermeansasbythisdelicacyofsentiment。Whenamanispossessedofthattalent，heismorehappybywhatpleaseshistaste，thanbywhatgratifieshisappetites，andreceivesmoreenjoymentfromapoemorapieceofreasoningthanthemostexpensiveluxurycanafford。

Whateverconnexiontheremaybeoriginallybetweenthesetwospeciesofdelicacy，Iampersuaded，thatnothingissopropertocureusofthisdelicacyofpassion，asthecultivatingofthathigherandmorerefinedtaste，whichenablesustojudgeofthecharactersofmen，ofcompositionsofgenius，andoftheproductionsofthenoblerarts。Agreaterorlessrelishforthoseobviousbeauties，whichstrikethesenses，dependsentirelyuponthegreaterorlesssensibilityofthetemper：Butwithregardtothesciencesandliberalarts，afinetasteis，insomemeasure，thesamewithstrongsense，oratleastdependssomuchuponit，thattheyareinseparable。Inordertojudgearightofacompositionofgenius，therearesomanyviewstobetakenin，somanycircumstancestobecompared，andsuchaknowledgeofhumannaturerequisite，thatnoman，whoisnotpossessedofthesoundestjudgment，willevermakeatolerablecriticinsuchperformances。Andthisisanewreasonforcultivatingarelishintheliberalarts。Ourjudgmentwillstrengthenbythisexercise：Weshallformjusternotionsoflife：Manythings，whichpleaseorafflictothers，willappeartoustoofrivoloustoengageourattention：Andweshalllosebydegreesthatsensibilityanddelicacyofpassion，whichissoincommodious。

ButperhapsIhavegonetoofarinsaying，thatacultivatedtasteforthepoliteartsextinguishesthepassions，andrendersusindifferenttothoseobjects，whicharesofondlypursuedbytherestofmankind。Onfartherreflection，Ifind，thatitratherimprovesoursensibilityforallthetenderandagreeablepassions；atthesametimethatitrendersthemindincapableoftherougherandmoreboisterousemotions。

。

Forthis，Ithinktheremaybeassignedtwoverynaturalreasons。Intheplace，nothingissoimprovingtothetemperasthestudyofthebeauties，eitherofpoetry，eloquence，music，orpainting。Theygiveacertaineleganceofsentimenttowhichtherestofmankindarestrangers。Theemotionswhichtheyexcitearesoftandtender。Theydrawoffthemindfromthehurryofbusinessandinterest；cherishreflection；disposetotranquillity；

andproduceanagreeablemelancholy，which，ofalldispositionsofthemind，isthebestsuitedtoloveandfriendship。

Intheplace，adelicacyoftasteisfavourabletoloveandfriendship，byconfiningourchoicetofewpeople，andmakingusindifferenttothecompanyandconversationofthegreaterpartofmen。Youwillseldomfind，thatmeremenoftheworld，whateverstrongsensetheymaybeendowedwith，areveryniceindistinguishingcharacters，orinmarkingthoseinsensibledifferencesandgradations，whichmakeonemanpreferabletoanother。Anyone，thathascompetentsense，issufficientfortheirentertainment：Theytalktohim，oftheirpleasureandaffairs，withthesamefranknessthattheywouldtoanother；

andfindingmany，whoarefittosupplyhisplace，theyneverfeelanyvacancyorwantinhisabsence。ButtomakeuseoftheallusionofacelebratedFrench[2]author，thejudgmentmaybecomparedtoaclockorwatch，wherethemostordinarymachineissufficienttotellthehours；butthemostelaboratealonecanpointouttheminutesandseconds，anddistinguishthesmallestdifferencesoftime。Onethathaswelldigestedhisknowledgebothofbooksandmen，haslittleenjoymentbutinthecompanyofafewselectcompanions。Hefeelstoosensibly，howmuchalltherestofmankindfallshortofthenotionswhichhehasentertained。

And，hisaffectionsbeingthusconfinedwithinanarrowcircle，nowonderhecarriesthemfurther，thaniftheyweremoregeneralandundistinguished。Thegaietyandfrolicofabottlecompanionimproveswithhimintoasolidfriendship：

Andtheardoursofayouthfulappetitebecomeanelegantpassion。

OFTHELIBERTYOFTHEPRESS

DavidHume1741

NOTHINGismoreapttosurprizeaforeigner，thantheextremeliberty，whichweenjoyinthiscountry，ofcommunicatingwhateverwepleasetothepublic，andofopenlycensuringeverymeasure，enteredintobythekingorhisministers。Iftheadministrationresolveuponwar，itisaffirmed，that，eitherwilfullyorignorantly，theymistaketheinterestsofthenation，andthatpeace，inthepresentsituationofaffairs，isinfinitelypreferable。Ifthepassionoftheministerslietowardspeace，ourpoliticalwritersbreathenothingbutwaranddevastation，andrepresenttopacificconductofthegovernmentasmeanandpusillanimous。Asthislibertyisnotindulgedinanyothergovernment，eitherrepublicanormonarchical；inH/OLLAND\\

andV/ENICE\\，morethaninF/RANCE\\orS/PAIN\\；itmayverynaturallygiveoccasiontoaquestion，

G/REAT\\B/RITAIN\\？

Thereason，whythelawsindulgeusinsuchalibertyseemstobederivedfromourmixedformofgovernment，whichisneitherwhollymonarchical，norwhollyrepublican。Itwillbefound，ifImistakenot，atrueobservationinpolitics，thatthetwoextremesingovernment，libertyandslavery，commonlyapproachnearesttoeachother；andthat，asyoudepartfromtheextremes，andmixalittleofmonarchywithliberty，thegovernmentbecomesalwaysthemorefree；andontheotherhand，whenyoumixalittleoflibertywithmonarchy，theyokebecomesalwaysthemoregrievousandintolerable。Inagovernment，suchasthatofF/RANCE\\，whichisabsolute，andwherelaw，custom，andreligionconcur，allofthem，tomakethepeoplefullysatisfiedwiththeircondition，themonarchcannotentertainanyagainsthissubjects，andthereforeisapttoindulgethemingreatbothofspeechandaction。

INagovernmentaltogetherrepublican，suchasthatofH/OLLAND\\，wherethereisnotmagistratesoeminentastogivetothestate，thereisnodangerinintrustingthemagistrateswithlargediscretionarypowers；

andthoughmanyadvantagesresultfromsuchpowers，inpreservingpeaceandorder，yettheylayaconsiderablerestraintonmen’sactions，andmakeeveryprivatecitizenpayagreatrespecttothegovernment。Thusitseemsevident，thatthetwoextremesofabsolutemonarchyandofarepublic，approachneartoeachotherinsomematerialcircumstances。Inthe，themagistratehasnojealousyofthepeople：inthe，thepeoplehavenoneofthemagistrate：Whichwantofjealousybegetsamutualconfidenceandtrustinbothcases，andproducesaspeciesoflibertyinmonarchies，andofarbitrarypowerinrepublics。

Tojustifytheotherpartoftheforegoingobservation，that，ineverygovernment，themeansaremostwideofeachother，andthatthemixturesofmonarchyandlibertyrendertheyokeeithermoreeasyormoregrievous；ImusttakenoticeofaremarkinT/ACITUS\\withregardtotheR/OMANS\\

undertheemperors，thattheyneithercouldbeartotalslaverynortotalliberty，。ThisremarkacelebratedpoethastranslatedandappliedtotheE/NGLISH\\，inhislivelydescriptionofqueenE/LIZABETH\\’spolicyandgovernment，。

Accordingtotheseremarks，wearetoconsidertheR/OMAN\\governmentundertheemperorsasamixtureofdespotismandliberty，wherethedespotismprevailed；andtheE/NGLISH\\governmentasamixtureofthesamekind，wherethelibertypredominates。Theconsequencesareconformabletotheforegoingobservation；andsuchasmaybeexpectedfromthosemixedformsofgovernment，whichbegetamutualwatchfulnessandjealousy。TheR/OMAN\\emperorswere，manyofthem，themostfrightfultyrantsthateverdisgracedhumannature；anditisevident，thattheircrueltywaschieflyexcitedbytheir，andbytheirobservingthatallthegreatmenofR/OME\\borewithimpatiencethedominionofafamily，which，butalittlebefore，wasnowisesuperiortotheirown。Ontheotherhand，astherepublicanpartofthegovernmentprevailsinE/NGLAND\\，thoughwithagreatmixtureofmonarchy，itisobliged，foritsownpreservation，tomaintainawatchfuloverthemagistrates，toremovealldiscretionarypowers，andtosecureeveryone’slifeandfortunebygeneralandinflexiblelaws。Noactionmustbedeemedacrimebutwhatthelawhasplainlydeterminedtobesuch：Nocrimemustbeimputedtoamanbutfromalegalproofbeforehisjudges；

andeventhesejudgesmustbehisfellow—subjects，whoareobliged，bytheirowninterest，tohaveawatchfuleyeovertheencroachmentsandviolenceoftheministers。Fromthesecauses，itproceeds，thatthereisasmuchliberty，andeven，perhaps，licentiousnessinG/REAT\\B/RITAIN\\，astherewereformerlyslaveryandtyrannyinR/OME\\。

Theseprinciplesaccountforthegreatlibertyofthepressinthesekingdoms，beyondwhatisindulgedinanyothergovernment。Itisapprehended，thatarbitrarypowerwouldstealinuponus，werewenotcarefultopreventitsprogress，andweretherenotaneasymethodofconveyingthealarmfromoneendofthekingdomtotheother。Thespiritofthepeoplemustfrequentlyberouzed，inordertocurbtheambitionofthecourt；andthedreadofrouzingthisspiritmustbeemployedtopreventthatambition。Nothingsoeffectualtothispurposeasthelibertyofthepress，bywhichallthelearning，wit，andgeniusofthenationmaybeemployedonthesideoffreedom，andeveryonebeanimatedtoitsdefence。Aslong，therefore，astherepublicanpartofourgovernmentcanmaintainitselfagainstthemonarchical，itwillnaturallybecarefultokeepthepressopen，asofimportancetoitsownpreservation。

Itmusthoweverbeallowed，thattheunboundedlibertyofthepress，thoughitbedifficult，perhapsimpossible，toproposeasuitableremedyforit，isoneoftheevils，attendingthosemixtformsofgovernment。

OFTHERISEANDPROGRESSOFTHEARTSANDSCIENCES

DavidHume1742

Nothingrequiresgreaternicety，inourenquiriesconcerninghumanaffairs，thantodistinguishexactlywhatisowingto，andwhatproceedsfrom；noristhereanysubject，inwhichanauthorismoreliabletodeceivehimselfbyfalsesubtiltiesandrefinements。Tosay，thatanyeventisderivedfromchance，cutsshortallfartherenquiryconcerningit，andleavesthewriterinthesamestateofignorancewiththerestofmankind。Butwhentheeventissupposedtoproceedfromcertainandstablecauses，hemaythendisplayhisingenuity，inassigningthesecauses；andasamanofanysubtiltycanneverbeatalossinthisparticular，hehastherebyanopportunityofswellinghisvolumes，anddiscoveringhisprofoundknowledge，inobservingwhatescapesthevulgarandignorant。

Thedistinguishingbetweenchanceandcausesmustdependuponeveryparticularman’ssagacity，inconsideringeveryparticularincident。But，ifIweretoassignanygeneralruletohelpusinapplyingthisdistinction，itwouldbethefollowing，。

Twonaturalreasonsmay。beassignedforthisrule。，Ifyousupposeadyetohaveanybiass，howeversmall，toaparticularside，thisbiass，though，perhaps，itmaynotappearinafewthrows，willcertainlyprevailinagreatnumber，andwillcastthebalanceentirelytothatside。Inlikemanner，whenanybegetaparticularinclinationorpassion，atacertaintime，andamongacertainpeople；thoughmanyindividualsmayescapethecontagion，andberuledbypassionspeculiartothemselves；yetthemultitudewillcertainlybeseizedbythecommonaffection，andbegovernedbyitinalltheiractions。

，Thoseprinciplesofcauses，whicharefittedtooperateonamultitude，arealwaysofagrosserandmorestubbornnature，lesssubjecttoaccidents，andlessinfluencedbywhimandprivatefancy，thanthosewhichoperateonafewonly。Thelatterarecommonlysodelicateandrefined，thatthesmallestincidentinthehealth，education，orfortuneofaparticularperson，issufficienttodiverttheircourse，andretardtheiroperation；norisitpossibletoreducethemtoanygeneralmaximsorobservations。Theirinfluenceatonetimewillneverassureusconcerningtheirinfluenceatanother；eventhoughallthegeneralcircumstancesshouldbethesameinbothcases。

Tojudgebythisrule，thedomesticandthegradualrevolutionsofastatemustbeamorepropersubjectofreasoningandobservation，thantheforeignandtheviolent，whicharecommonlyproducedbysinglepersons，andaremoreinfluencedbywhim，folly，orcaprice，thanbygeneralpassionsandinterests。

Thedepressionofthelords，andriseofthecommonsinEngland，afterthestatutesofalienationandtheencreaseoftradeandindustry，aremoreeasilyaccountedforbygeneralprinciples，thanthedepressionoftheSpanish，andriseoftheFrenchmonarchy，afterthedeathofCharlesV。HadHarryIV，CardinalRichlieuandLouisXIVbeenSpaniards；andPhilipII，III，andIV，andCharlesIIbeenFrenchmen，thehistoryofthesetwonationshadbeenentirelyreversed。

Forthesamereason，itismoreeasytoaccountfortheriseandprogressofcommerceinanykingdom，thanforthatoflearning；andastate，whichshouldapplyitselftotheencouragementoftheone，wouldbemoreassuredofsuccess，thanonewhichshouldcultivatetheother。Avarice，orthedesireofgain，isanuniversalpassion，whichoperatesatalltimes，inallplaces，anduponallpersons：Butcuriosity，ortheloveofknowledge，hasaverylimitedinfluence，andrequiresyouth，leisure，education，genius，andexample，tomakeitgovernanyperson。Youwillneverwantbooksellers，whiletherearebuyersofbooks：Buttheremayfrequentlybereaderswheretherearenoauthors。Multitudesofpeople，necessityandliberty，havebegottencommerceinHolland：Butstudyandapplicationhavescarcelyproducedanyeminentwriters。

Wemay，therefore，conclude，thatthereisnosubject，inwhichwemustproceedwithmorecaution，thanintracingthehistoryoftheartsandsciences；lestweassigncauseswhichneverexisted，andreducewhatismerelycontingenttostableanduniversalprinciples。Thosewhocultivatethesciencesinanystate，arealwaysfewinnumber：Thepassion，whichgovernsthem，limited：Theirtasteandjudgmentdelicateandeasilyperverted：

Andtheirapplicationdisturbedwiththesmallestaccident。

Chance，therefore，orsecretandunknowncauses，musthaveagreatinfluenceontheriseandprogressofalltherefinedarts。

Butthereisareason，whichinducesmenottoascribethematteraltogethertochance。Thoughthepersons，whocultivatethescienceswithsuchastonishingsuccess，astoattracttheadmirationofposterity，bealwaysfew，inallnationsandallages；itisimpossiblebutashareofthesamespiritandgeniusmustbeantecedentlydiffusedthroughoutthepeopleamongwhomtheyarise，inordertoproduce，form，andcultivate，fromtheirearliestinfancy，thetasteandjudgmentofthoseeminentwriters。Themasscannotbealtogetherinsipid，fromwhichsuchrefinedspiritsareextracted。’ThereisaGodwithinus，’saysOVID，’whobreathesthatdivinefire，bywhichweareanimated。’[2]Poets，inallages，haveadvancedthisclaimtoinspiration。Thereisnot，however，anythingsupernaturalinthecase。Theirfireisnotkindledfromheaven。Itonlyrunsalongtheearth；iscaughtfromonebreasttoanother；andburnsbrightest，wherethematerialsarebestprepared，andmosthappilydisposed。Thequestion，therefore，concerningtheriseandprogressoftheartsandsciences，isnotaltogetheraquestionconcerningthetaste，genius，andspiritofafew，butconcerningthoseofawholepeople；andmay，therefore，beaccountedfor，insomemeasure，bygeneralcausesandprinciples。

Igrant，thataman，whoshouldenquire，whysuchaparticularpoet，asHomerforinstance，existed，atsuchaplace，insuchatime，wouldthrowhimselfheadlongintochimaera，andcouldnevertreatofsuchasubject，withoutamultitudeoffalsesubtiltiesandrefinements。Hemightaswellpretendtogiveareason，whysuchparticulargenerals，asFabiusandScipio，livedinRomeatsuchatime，andwhyFabiuscameintotheworldbeforeScipio。

Forsuchincidentsasthese，nootherreasoncanbegiventhanthatofHorace：

。

ButIampersuaded，thatinmanycasesgoodreasonsmightbegiven，whysuchanationismorepoliteandlearnedataparticulartime，thananyofitsneighbours。Atleast，thisissocuriousasubject，thatitwereapitytoabandonitentirely，beforewehavefoundwhetheritbesusceptibleofreasoning，andcanbereducedtoanygeneralprinciples。

Myfirstobservationonthisheadis，。

Inthefirstagesoftheworld，whenmenareasyetbarbarousandignorant，theyseeknofarthersecurityagainstmutualviolenceandinjustice，thanthechoiceofsomerulers，fewormany，inwhomtheyplaceanimplicitconfidence，withoutprovidinganysecurity，bylawsorpoliticalinstitutions，againsttheviolenceandinjusticeoftheserulers。Iftheauthoritybecenteredinasingleperson，andifthepeople，eitherbyconquest，orbytheordinarycourseofpropagation，encreasetoagreatmultitude，themonarch，findingitimpossible，inhisownperson，toexecuteeveryofficeofsovereignty，ineveryplace，mustdelegatehisauthoritytoinferiormagistrates，whopreservepeaceandorderintheirrespectivedistricts。Asexperienceandeducationhavenotyetrefinedthejudgmentsofmentoanyconsiderabledegree，theprince，whoishimselfunrestrained，neverdreamsofrestraininghisministers，butdelegateshisfullauthoritytoeveryone，whomhesetsoveranyportionofthepeople。Allgenerallawsareattendedwithinconveniencies，whenappliedtoparticularcases；

anditrequiresgreatpenetrationandexperience，bothtoperceivethattheseinconvenienciesarefewerthanwhatresultfromfulldiscretionarypowersineverymagistrate；andalsotodiscernwhatgenerallawsare，uponthewhole，attendedwithfewestinconveniencies。Thisisamatterofsogreatdifficulty，thatmenmayhavemadesomeadvances，eveninthesublimeartsofpoetryandeloquence，wherearapidityofgeniusandimaginationassisttheirprogress，beforetheyhavearrivedatanygreatrefinementintheirmunicipallaws，wherefrequenttrialsanddiligentobservationcanalonedirecttheirimprovements。Itisnot，therefore，tobesupposed，thatabarbarousmonarch，unrestrainedanduninstructed，willeverbecomealegislator，orthinkofrestraininghis，ineveryprovince，orevenhisineveryvillage。Wearetold，thatthelateCzar，thoughactuatedwithanoblegenius，andsmitwiththeloveandadmirationofEuropeanarts；yetprofessedanesteemfortheTurkishpolicyinthisparticular，andapprovedofsuchsummarydecisionsofcauses，asarepractisedinthatbarbarousmonarchy，wherethejudgesarenotrestrainedbyanymethods，forms，orlaws。Hedidnotperceive，howcontrarysuchapracticewouldhavebeentoallhisotherendeavoursforrefininghispeople。

Arbitrarypower，inallcases，issomewhatoppressiveanddebasing；butitisaltogetherruinousandintolerable，whencontractedintoasmallcompass；andbecomesstillworse，whentheperson，whopossessesit，knowsthatthetimeofhisauthorityislimitedanduncertain。’Habetsubjectostanquamsuos；viles，utalienos。’[3]Hegovernsthesubjectswithfullauthority，asiftheywerehisown；andwithnegligenceortyranny，asbelongingtoanother。Apeople，governedaftersuchamanner，areslavesinthefullandpropersenseoftheword；anditisimpossibletheycaneveraspiretoanyrefinementsortasteofreason。Theydarenotsomuchaspretendtoenjoythenecessariesoflifeinplentyorsecurity。

Toexpect，therefore，thattheartsandsciencesshouldtaketheirfirstriseinamonarchy，istoexpectacontradiction。

Beforetheserefinementshavetakenplace，themonarchisignorantanduninstructed；andnothavingknowledgesufficienttomakehimsensibleofthenecessityofbalancinghisgovernmentupongenerallaws，hedelegateshisfullpowertoallinferiormagistrates。Thisbarbarouspolicydebasesthepeople，andforeverpreventsallimprovements。Wereitpossible，that，beforesciencewereknownintheworld，amonarchcouldpossesssomuchwisdomastobecomealegislator，andgovernhispeoplebylaw，notbythearbitrarywilloftheirfellow—subjects，itmightbepossibleforthatspeciesofgovernmenttobethefirstnurseryofartsandsciences。Butthatsuppositionseemsscarcelytobeconsistentorrational。

Itmayhappen，thatarepublic，initsinfantstate，maybesupportedbyasfewlawsasabarbarousmonarchy，andmayentrustasunlimitedanauthoritytoitsmagistratesorjudges。But，besidesthatthefrequentelectionsbythepeople，areaconsiderablecheckuponauthority；itisimpossible，but，intime，thenecessityofrestrainingthemagistrates，inordertopreserveliberty，mustatlastappear，andgiverisetogenerallawsandstatutes。TheRomanConsuls，forsometime，decidedallcauses，withoutbeingconfinedbyanypositivestatutes，tillthepeople，bearingthisyokewithimpatience，createdthe，whopromulgatedthe；abodyoflaws，which，though，perhaps，theywerenotequalinbulktooneEnglishactofparliament，werealmosttheonlywrittenrules，whichregulatedpropertyandpunishment，forsomeages，inthatfamousrepublic。Theywere，however，sufficient，togetherwiththeformsofafreegovernment，tosecurethelivesandpropertiesofthecitizens，toexemptonemanfromthedominionofanother；andtoprotecteveryoneagainsttheviolenceortyrannyofhisfellow—citizens。Insuchasituationthesciencesmayraisetheirheadsandflourish：Butnevercanhavebeingamidstsuchasceneofoppressionandslavery，asalwaysresultsfrombarbarousmonarchies，wherethepeoplealonearerestrainedbytheauthorityofthemagistrates，andthemagistratesarenotrestrainedbyanylaworstatute。Anunlimiteddespotismofthisnature，whileitexists，effectuallyputsastoptoallimprovements，andkeepsmenfromattainingthatknowledge，whichisrequisitetoinstructthemintheadvantages，arisingfromabetterpolice，andmoremoderateauthority。