第2章

Herethenaretheadvantagesoffreestates。Thougharepublicshouldbebarbarous，itnecessarily，byaninfallibleoperation，givesrisetoLaw，evenbeforemankindhavemadeanyconsiderableadvancesintheothersciences。Fromlawarisessecurity：Fromsecuritycuriosity：Andfromcuriosityknowledge。

Thelatterstepsofthisprogressmaybemoreaccidental；buttheformerarealtogethernecessary。Arepublicwithoutlawscanneverhaveanyduration。Onthecontrary，inamonarchicalgovernment，lawarisesnotnecessarilyfromtheformsofgovernment。Monarchy，whenabsolute，containsevensomethingrepugnanttolaw。Greatwisdomandreflectioncanalonereconcilethem。Butsuchadegreeofwisdomcanneverbeexpected，beforethegreaterrefinementsandimprovementsofhumanreason。Theserefinementsrequirecuriosity，security，andlaw。The

growth，therefore，oftheartsandsciencescanneverbeexpectedindespoticgovernments。

Thereareothercauses，whichdiscouragetheriseoftherefinedartsindespoticgovernments；thoughItakethewantoflaws，andthedelegationoffullpowerstoeverypettymagistrate，tobetheprincipal。Eloquencecertainlyspringsupmorenaturallyinpopulargovernments：Emulationtooineveryaccomplishmentmusttherebemoreanimatedandenlivened：Andgeniusandcapacityhaveafullerscopeandcareer。Allthesecausesrenderfreegovernmentstheonlyproperfortheartsandsciences。

Thenextobservation，whichIshallmakeonthishead，is，。Theemulation，whichnaturallyarisesamongthoseneighbouringstates，isanobvioussourceofimprovement：ButwhatIwouldchieflyinsistonisthestop，whichsuchlimitedterritoriesgivebothtoandto。

Extendedgovernments，whereasinglepersonhasgreatinfluence，soonbecomeabsolute；butsmalloneschangenaturallyintocommonwealths。Alargegovernmentisaccustomedbydegreestotyranny；becauseeachactofviolenceisatfirstperformeduponapart，which，beingdistantfromthemajority，isnottakennoticeof，norexcitesanyviolentferment。Besides，alargegovernment，thoughthewholebediscontented，may，byalittleart，bekeptinobedience；whileeachpart，ignorantoftheresolutionsoftherest，isafraidtobeginanycommotionorinsurrection。Nottomention，thatthereisasuperstitiousreverenceforprinces，whichmankindnaturallycontractwhentheydonotoftenseethesovereign，andwhenmanyofthembecomenotacquaintedwithhimsoastoperceivehisweaknesses。Andaslargestatescanaffordagreatexpence，inordertosupportthepompofmajesty；thisisakindoffascinationonmen，andnaturallycontributestotheenslavingofthem。

Inasmallgovernment，anyactofoppressionisimmediatelyknownthroughoutthewhole：Themurmursanddiscontents，proceedingfromit，areeasilycommunicated：Andtheindignationarisesthehigher，becausethesubjectsarenotapttoapprehendinsuchstates，thatthedistanceisverywidebetweenthemselvesandtheirsovereign。’Noman，’saidtheprinceofCond？’isaherotohis。’Itiscertainthatadmirationandacquaintancearealtogetherincompatibletowardsanymortalcreature。SleepandloveconvincedevenAlexanderhimselfthathewasnotaGod：ButIsupposethatsuchasdailyattendedhimcouldeasily，fromthenumberlessweaknessestowhichhewassubject，havegivenhimmanystillmoreconvincingproofsofhishumanity。

Butthedivisionsintosmallstatesarefavourabletolearning，bystoppingtheprogressofaswellasthatof。Reputationisoftenasgreatafascinationuponmenassovereignty，andisequallydestructivetothefreedomofthoughtandexamination。Butwhereanumberofneighbouringstateshaveagreatintercourseofartsandcommerce，theirmutualjealousykeepsthemfromreceivingtoolightlythelawfromeachother，inmattersoftasteandofreasoning，andmakesthemexamineeveryworkofartwiththegreatestcareandaccuracy。Thecontagionofpopularopinionspreadsnotsoeasilyfromoneplacetoanother。Itreadilyreceivesacheckinsomestateorother，whereitconcursnotwiththeprevailingprejudices。Andnothingbutnatureandreason，or，atleast，whatbearsthemastrongresemblance，canforceitswaythroughallobstacles，andunitethemostrivalnationsintoanesteemandadmirationofit。

Greecewasaclusteroflittleprincipalities，whichsoonbecamerepublics；andbeingunitedbothbytheirnearneighbourhood，andbythetiesofthesamelanguageandinterest，theyenteredintotheclosestintercourseofcommerceandlearning。Thereconcurredahappyclimate，asoilnotunfertile，andamostharmoniousandcomprehensivelanguage；sothateverycircumstanceamongthatpeopleseemedtofavourtheriseoftheartsandsciences。Eachcityproduceditsseveralartistsandphilosophers，whorefusedtoyieldthepreferencetothoseoftheneighbouringrepublics：Theircontentionanddebatessharpenedthewitsofmen：Avarietyofobjectswaspresentedtothejudgment，whileeachchallengedthepreferencetotherest：andthesciences，notbeingdwarfedbytherestraintofauthority，wereenabledtomakesuchconsiderableshoots，asare，evenatthistime，theobjectsofouradmiration。AftertheRoman，orchurchhadspreaditselfoverthecivilizedworld，andhadengrossedallthelearningofthetimes；

beingreallyonelargestatewithinitself，andunitedunderonehead；thisvarietyofsectsimmediatelydisappeared，andthePeripateticphilosophywasaloneadmittedintoalltheschools，totheutterdepravationofeverykindoflearning。Butmankind，havingatlengththrownoffthisyoke，affairsarenowreturnednearlytothesamesituationasbefore，andEuropeisatpresentacopyatlarge，ofwhatGreecewasformerlyapatterninminiature。Wehaveseentheadvantageofthissituationinseveralinstances。WhatcheckedtheprogressoftheCartesianphilosophy，towhichtheFrenchnationshewedsuchastrongpropensitytowardstheendofthelastcentury，buttheoppositionmadetoitbytheothernationsofEurope，whosoondiscoveredtheweaksidesofthatphilosophy？Theseverestscrutiny，whichNewton’stheoryhasundergone，proceedednotfromhisowncountrymen，butfromforeigners；andifitcanovercometheobstacles，whichitmeetswithatpresentinallpartsofEurope，itwillprobablygodowntriumphanttothelatestposterity。TheEnglisharebecomesensibleofthescandalouslicentiousnessoftheirstage，fromtheexampleoftheFrenchdecencyandmorals。TheFrenchareconvinced，thattheirtheatrehasbecomesomewhateffeminate，bytoomuchloveandgallantry；

andbegintoapproveofthemoremasculinetasteofsomeneighbouringnations。

InChina，thereseemstobeaprettyconsiderablestockofpolitenessandscience，which，inthecourseofsomanycenturies，mightnaturallybeexpectedtoripenintosomethingmoreperfectandfinished，thanwhathasyetarisenfromthem。

ButChinaisonevastempire，speakingonelanguage，governedbyonelaw，andsympathizinginthesamemanners。Theauthorityofanyteacher，suchasConfucius，waspropagatedeasilyfromonecorneroftheempiretotheother。Nonehadcouragetoresistthetorrentofpopularopinion。Andposteritywasnotboldenoughtodisputewhathadbeenuniversallyreceivedbytheirancestors。

Thisseemstobeonenaturalreason，whythescienceshavemadesoslowaprogressinthatmightyempire。[4]

Ifweconsiderthefaceoftheglobe，Europe，ofallthefourpartsoftheworld，isthemostbrokenbyseas，rivers，andmountains；andGreeceofallcountriesofEurope。Hencetheseregionswerenaturallydividedintoseveraldistinctgovernments。

AndhencethesciencesaroseinGreece；andEuropehasbeenhithertothemostconstanthabitationofthem。

Ihavesometimesbeeninclinedtothink，thatinterruptionsintheperiodsoflearning，weretheynotattendedwithsuchadestructionofancientbooks，andtherecordsofhistory，wouldberatherfavourabletotheartsandsciences，bybreakingtheprogressofauthority，anddethroningthetyrannicalusurpersoverhumanreason。Inthisparticular，theyhavethesameinfluence，asinterruptionsinpoliticalgovernmentsandsocieties。Considertheblindsubmissionoftheancientphilosopherstotheseveralmastersineachschool，andyouwillbeconvinced，thatlittlegoodcouldbeexpectedfromahundredcenturiesofsuchaservilephilosophy。EventheEclectics，whoaroseabouttheageofAugustus，notwithstandingtheirprofessingtochusefreelywhatpleasedthemfromeverydifferentsect，wereyet，inthemain，asslavishanddependentasanyoftheirbrethrensincetheysoughtfortruthnotinnature，butintheseveralschools；wheretheysupposedshemustnecessarilybefound，thoughnotunitedinabody，yetdispersedinparts。Upontherevivaloflearning，thosesectsofStoicsandEpicureans，PlatonistsandPythagoricians，couldneverregainanycreditorauthority；and，atthesametime，bytheexampleoftheirfall，keptmenfromsubmitting，withsuchblinddeference，tothosenewsects，whichhaveattemptedtogainanascendantoverthem。

Theobservation，whichIshallformonthishead，oftheriseandprogressoftheartsandsciences，is，
yetmaytheybetransplantedintoanygovernment；andthatarepublicismostfavourabletothegrowthofthesciences，acivilizedmonarchytothatofthepolitearts>。

Tobalancealargestateorsociety，whethermonarchicalorrepublican，ongenerallaws，isaworkofsogreatdifficulty，thatnohumangenius，howevercomprehensive，isable，bythemeredintofreasonandreflection，toeffectit。Thejudgmentsofmanymustuniteinthiswork：Experiencemustguidetheirlabour：

Timemustbringittoperfection：Andthefeelingofinconvenienciesmustcorrectthemistakes，whichtheyinevitablyfallinto，intheirfirsttrialsandexperiments。Henceappearstheimpossibility，thatthisundertakingshouldbebegunandcarriedoninanymonarchy；sincesuchaformofgovernment，erecivilized，knowsnoothersecretorpolicy，thanthatofentrustingunlimitedpowerstoeverygovernorormagistrate，andsubdividingthepeopleintosomanyclassesandordersofslavery。Fromsuchasituation，noimprovementcaneverbeexpectedinthesciences，intheliberalarts，inlaws，andscarcelyinthemanualartsandmanufactures。Thesamebarbarismandignorance，withwhichthegovernmentcommences，ispropagatedtoallposterity，andcannevercometoaperiodbytheeffortsoringenuityofsuchunhappyslaves。

Butthoughlaw，thesourceofallsecurityandhappiness，ariseslateinanygovernment，andistheslowproductoforderandofliberty，itisnotpreservedwiththesamedifficultywithwhichitisproduced；butwhenithasoncetakenroot，isahardyplant，whichwillscarcelyeverperishthroughtheillcultureofmen，ortherigouroftheseasons。Theartsofluxury，andmuchmoretheliberalarts，whichdependonarefinedtasteorsentiment，areeasilylost；becausetheyarealwaysrelishedbyafewonly，whoseleisure，fortune，andgeniusfitthemforsuchamusements。Butwhatisprofitabletoeverymortal，andincommonlife，whenoncediscovered，canscarcelyfallintooblivion，butbythetotalsubversionofsociety，andbysuchfuriousinundationsofbarbarousinvaders，asobliterateallmemoryofformerartsandcivility。Imitationalsoisapttotransportthesecoarserandmoreusefulartsfromoneclimatetoanother，andmakethemprecedetherefinedartsintheirprogress；thoughperhapstheysprangafterthemintheirfirstriseandpropagation。Fromthesecausesproceedcivilizedmonarchies；

wheretheartsofgovernment，firstinventedinfreestates，arepreservedtothemutualadvantageandsecurityofsovereignandsubject。

Howeverperfect，therefore，themonarchicalformmayappeartosomepoliticians，itowesallitsperfectiontotherepublican；norisitpossible，thatapuredespotism，establishedamongabarbarouspeople，canever，byitsnativeforceandenergy，refineandpolishitself。Itmustborrowitslaws，andmethods，andinstitutions，andconsequentlyitsstabilityandorder，fromfreegovernments。Theseadvantagesarethesolegrowthofrepublics。Theextensivedespotismofabarbarousmonarchy，byenteringintothedetailofthegovernment，aswellasintotheprincipalpointsofadministration，foreverpreventsallsuchimprovement。

Inacivilizedmonarchy，theprincealoneisunrestrainedintheexerciseofhisauthority，andpossessesaloneapower，whichisnotboundedbyanythingbutcustom，example，andthesenseofhisowninterest。Everyministerormagistrate，howevereminent，mustsubmittothegenerallaws，whichgovernthewholesociety，andmustexerttheauthoritydelegatedtohimafterthemanner，whichisprescribed。Thepeopledependonnonebuttheirsovereign，forthesecurityoftheirproperty。Heissofarremovedfromthem，andissomuchexemptfromprivatejealousiesorinterests，thatthisdependenceisscarcelyfelt。Andthusaspeciesofgovernmentarises，towhich，inahighpoliticalrant，wemaygivethenameof，butwhich，byajustandprudentadministration，mayaffordtolerablesecuritytothepeople，andmayanswermostoftheendsofpoliticalsociety。

Butthoughinacivilizedmonarchy，aswellasinarepublic，thepeoplehavesecurityfortheenjoymentoftheirproperty；yetinboththeseformsofgovernment，thosewhopossessthesupremeauthorityhavethedisposalofmanyhonoursandadvantages，whichexcitetheambitionandavariceofmankind。

Theonlydifferenceis，that，inarepublic，thecandidatesforofficemustlookdownwards，togainthesuffragesofthepeople；

inamonarchy，theymustturntheirattentionupwards，tocourtthegoodgracesandfavourofthegreat。Tobesuccessfulintheformerway，itisnecessaryforamantomakehimself，byhisindustry，capacity，orknowledge：Tobeprosperousinthelatterway，itisrequisiteforhimtorenderhimself，byhiswit，complaisance，orcivility。Astronggeniussucceedsbestinrepublics：Arefinedtasteinmonarchies。

Andconsequentlythesciencesarethemorenaturalgrowthoftheone，andthepoliteartsoftheother。

Nottomention，thatmonarchies，receivingtheirchiefstabilityfromasuperstitiousreverencetopriestsandprinces，havecommonlyabridgedthelibertyofreasoning，withregardtoreligion，andpolitics，andconsequentlymetaphysicsandmorals。

Alltheseformthemostconsiderablebranchesofscience。

Mathematicsandnaturalphilosophy，whichonlyremain，arenothalfsovaluable。

Amongtheartsofconversation，noonepleasesmorethanmutualdeferenceorcivility，whichleadsustoresignourowninclinationstothoseofourcompanion，andtocurbandconcealthatpresumptionandarrogance，sonaturaltothehumanmind。A

good—naturedman，whoiswelleducated，practisesthiscivilitytoeverymortal，withoutpremeditationorinterest。Butinordertorenderthatvaluablequalitygeneralamonganypeople，itseemsnecessarytoassistthenaturaldispositionbysomegeneralmotive。Wherepowerrisesupwardsfromthepeopletothegreat，asinallrepublics，suchrefinementsofcivilityareapttobelittlepractised；sincethewholestateis，bythatmeans，broughtneartoalevel，andeverymemberofitisrendered，inagreatmeasure，independentofanother。Thepeoplehavetheadvantage，bytheauthorityoftheirsuffrages：Thegreat，bythesuperiorityoftheirstation。Butinacivilizedmonarchy，thereisalongtrainofdependencefromtheprincetothepeasant，whichisnotgreatenoughtorenderpropertyprecarious，ordepressthemindsofthepeople；butissufficienttobegetineveryoneaninclinationtopleasehissuperiors，andtoformhimselfuponthosemodels，whicharemostacceptabletopeopleofconditionandeducation。Politenessofmanners，therefore，arisesmostnaturallyinmonarchiesandcourts；andwherethatflourishes，noneoftheliberalartswillbealtogetherneglectedordespised。

TherepublicsinEuropeareatpresentnotedforwantofpoliteness。，[5]isanexpressionforrusticityamongtheFrench。TheEnglish，insomedegree，fallunderthesamecensure，notwithstandingtheirlearningandgenius。AndiftheVenetiansbeanexceptiontotherule，theyoweit，perhaps，totheircommunicationwiththeotherItalians，mostofwhosegovernmentsbegetadependencemorethansufficientforcivilizingtheirmanners。

Itisdifficulttopronounceanyjudgmentconcerningtherefinementsoftheancientrepublicsinthisparticular：ButIamapttosuspect，thattheartsofconversationwerenotbroughtsoneartoperfectionamongthemastheartsofwritingandcomposition。Thescurrilityoftheancientorators，inmanyinstances，isquiteshocking，andexceedsallbelief。Vanitytooisoftennotalittleoffensiveinauthorsofthoseages；[6]aswellasthecommonlicentiousnessandimmodestyoftheirstile，，pene，，saysSallustinoneofthegravestandmostmoralpassagesofhishistory。，isanexpressionofHorace，intracingtheoriginofmoralgoodandevil。OvidandLucretius[7]arealmostaslicentiousintheirstileasLordRochester；thoughtheformerwerefinegentlemenanddelicatewriters，andthelatter，fromthecorruptionsofthatcourt，inwhichhelived，seemstohavethrownoffallregardtoshameanddecency。Juvenalinculcatesmodestywithgreatzeal；butsetsaverybadexampleofitifweconsidertheimpudenceofhisexpressions。

Ishallalsobeboldtoaffirm，thatamongtheancients，therewasnotmuchdelicacyofbreeding，orthatpolitedeferenceandrespect，whichcivilityobligesuseithertoexpressorcounterfeittowardsthepersonswithwhomweconverse。Cicerowascertainlyoneofthefinestgentlemenofhisage；yetImustconfessIhavefrequentlybeenshockedwiththepoorfigureunderwhichherepresentshisfriendAtticus，inthosedialogues，wherehehimselfisintroducedasaspeaker。ThatlearnedandvirtuousRoman，whosedignity，thoughhewasonlyaprivategentleman，wasinferiortothatofnooneinRome，isthereshewninratheramorepitifullightthanPhilalethe’sfriendinourmoderndialogues。Heisahumbleadmireroftheorator，payshimfrequentcompliments，andreceiveshisinstructions，withallthedeferencewhichascholarowestohismaster。[8]EvenCatoistreatedinsomewhatofacavaliermannerinthedialogues。

Oneofthemostparticulardetailsofarealdialogue，whichwemeetwithinantiquity，isrelatedbyPolybius；[9]whenPhilip，kingofMacedon，aprinceofwitandparts，metwithTitusFlaminius，oneofthepolitestoftheRomans，aswelearnfromPlutarch，[10]accompaniedwithambassadorsfromalmostalltheGreekcities。TheAetolianambassadorveryabruptlytellstheking，thathetalkedlikeafooloramadman（lhrein）。’That’sevident，’sayshismajesty，’eventoablindman’；whichwasarailleryontheblindnessofhisexcellency。Yetallthisdidnotpasstheusualbounds：Fortheconferencewasnotdisturbed；andFlaminiuswasverywelldivertedwiththesestrokesofhumour。Attheend，whenPhilipcravedalittletimetoconsultwithhisfriends，ofwhomhehadnonepresent，theRomangeneral，beingdesirousalsotoshewhiswit，asthehistoriansays，tellshim，’thatperhapsthereason，whyhehadnoneofhisfriendswithhim，wasbecausehehadmurderedthemall’；whichwasactuallythecase。Thisunprovokedpieceofrusticityisnotcondemnedbythehistorian；causednofartherresentmentinPhilip，thantoexciteaSardoniansmile，orwhatwecallagrin；andhinderedhimnotfromrenewingtheconferencenextday。Plutarch[11]toomentionsthisrailleryamongstthewittyandagreeablesayingsofFlaminius。

CardinalWolseyapologizedforhisfamouspieceofinsolence，insaying，’EgoetRexmeus’，，byobserving，thatthisexpressionwasconformabletotheLatinidiom，andthataRomanalwaysnamedhimselfbeforethepersontowhom，orofwhomhespake。Yetthisseemstohavebeenaninstanceofwantofcivilityamongthatpeople。Theancientsmadeitarule，thatthepersonofthegreatestdignityshouldbementionedfirstinthediscourse；insomuch，thatwefindthespringofaquarrelandjealousybetweentheRomansandAetolians，tohavebeenapoet’snamingtheAetoliansbeforetheRomans，incelebratingavictorygainedbytheirunitedarmsovertheMacedonians。[12]ThusLiviadisgustedTiberiusbyplacingherownnamebeforehisinaninscription。[13]

Noadvantagesinthisworldarepureandunmixed。Inlikemanner，asmodernpoliteness，whichisnaturallysoornamental，runsoftenintoaffectationandfoppery，disguiseandinsincerity；sotheancientsimplicity，whichisnaturallysoamiableandaffecting，oftendegeneratesintorusticityandabuse，scurrilityandobscenity。

Ifthesuperiorityinpolitenessshouldbeallowedtomoderntimes，themodernnotionsof，thenaturalproduceofcourtsandmonarchies，willprobablybeassignedasthecausesofthisrefinement。Noonedeniesthisinventiontobemodern：[14]

Butsomeofthemorezealouspartizansoftheancients，haveassertedittobefoppishandridiculous，andareproach，ratherthanacredit，tothepresentage。[15]Itmayherebepropertoexaminethisquestion。

Naturehasimplantedinalllivingcreaturesanaffectionbetweenthesexes，which，eveninthefiercestandmostrapaciousanimals，isnotmerelyconfinedtothesatisfactionofthebodilyappetite，butbegetsafriendshipandmutualsympathy，whichrunsthroughthewholetenoroftheirlives。Nay，eveninthosespecies，wherenaturelimitstheindulgenceofthisappetitetooneseasonandtooneobject，andformsakindofmarriageorassociationbetweenasinglemaleandfemale，thereisyetavisiblecomplacencyandbenevolence，whichextendsfarther，andmutuallysoftenstheaffectionsofthesexestowardseachother。

Howmuchmoremustthishaveplaceinman，wheretheconfinementoftheappetiteisnotnatural；buteitherisderivedaccidentallyfromsomestrongcharmoflove，orarisesfromreflectionsondutyandconvenience？Nothing，therefore，canproceedlessfromaffectationthanthepassionofgallantry。Itisinthehighestdegree。Artandeducation，inthemostelegantcourts，makenomorealterationonit，thanonalltheotherlaudablepassions。Theyonlyturnthemindmoretowardsit；theyrefineit；theypolishit；andgiveitapropergraceandexpression。

Butgallantryisasasitis。Tocorrectsuchgrossvices，asleadustocommitrealinjuryonothers，isthepartofmorals，andtheobjectofthemostordinaryeducation。Whereisnotattendedto，insomedegree，nohumansocietycansubsist。Butinordertorenderconversation，andtheintercourseofmindsmoreeasyandagreeable，good—mannershavebeeninvented，andhavecarriedthemattersomewhatfarther。Wherevernaturehasgiventhemindapropensitytoanyvice，ortoanypassiondisagreeabletoothers，refinedbreedinghastaughtmentothrowthebiassontheoppositeside，andtopreserve，inalltheirbehaviour，theappearanceofsentimentsdifferentfromthosetowhichtheynaturallyincline。Thus，aswearecommonlyproudandselfish，andapttoassumethepreferenceaboveothers，apolitemanlearnstobehavewithdeferencetowardshiscompanions，andtoyieldthesuperioritytotheminallthecommonincidentsofsociety。Inlikemanner，whereveraperson’ssituationmaynaturallybegetanydisagreeablesuspicioninhim，itisthepartofgood—mannerstopreventit，byastudieddisplayofsentiments，directlycontrarytothoseofwhichheisapttobejealous。Thus，oldmenknowtheirinfirmities，andnaturallydreadcontemptfromtheyouth：Hence，well—educatedyouthredoubletheinstancesofrespectanddeferencetotheirelders。

Strangersandforeignersarewithoutprotection：Hence，inallpolitecountries，theyreceivethehighestcivilities，andareentitledtothefirstplaceineverycompany。Amanislordinhisownfamily，andhisguestsare，inamanner，subjecttohisauthority：Hence，heisalwaysthelowestpersoninthecompany；

attentivetothewantsofeveryone；andgivinghimselfallthetrouble，inordertoplease，whichmaynotbetraytoovisibleanaffectation，orimposetoomuchconstraintonhisguests。[16]

Gallantryisnothingbutaninstanceofthesamegenerousattention。Asnaturehasgiventhesuperiorityabove，byendowinghimwithgreaterstrengthbothofmindandbody；itishisparttoalleviatethatsuperiority，asmuchaspossible，bythegenerosityofhisbehaviour，andbyastudieddeferenceandcomplaisanceforallherinclinationsandopinions。

Barbarousnationsdisplaythissuperiority，byreducingtheirfemalestothemostabjectslavery；byconfiningthem，bybeatingthem，bysellingthem，bykillingthem。Butthemalesex，amongapolitepeople，discovertheirauthorityinamoregenerous，thoughnotalessevidentmanner；bycivility，byrespect，bycomplaisance，and，inaword，bygallantry。Ingoodcompany，youneednotask，Whoisthemasterofthefeast？Theman，whositsinthelowestplace，andwhoisalwaysindustriousinhelpingeveryone，iscertainlytheperson。Wemusteithercondemnallsuchinstancesofgenerosity，asfoppishandaffected，oradmitofgallantryamongtherest。TheancientMuscovitesweddedtheirwiveswithawhip，insteadofaring。Thesamepeople，intheirownhouses，tookalwaystheprecedencyaboveforeigners，even[17]

foreignambassadors。Thesetwoinstancesoftheirgenerosityandpolitenessaremuchofapiece。

Gallantryisnotlesscompatiblewithand，thanwithand；andwhenunderproperregulations，contributesmorethananyotherinvention，totheandoftheyouthofbothsexes。

Amongeveryspeciesofanimals，naturehasfoundedonthelovebetweenthesexestheirsweetestandbestenjoyment。Butthesatisfactionofthebodilyappetiteisnotalonesufficienttogratifythemind；andevenamongbrute—creatures，wefind，thattheirplayanddalliance，andotherexpressionsoffondness，formthegreatestpartoftheentertainment。Inrationalbeings，wemustcertainlyadmitthemindforaconsiderableshare。Werewetorobthefeastofallitsgarnitureofreason，discourse，sympathy，friendship，andgaiety，whatremainswouldscarcelybeworthacceptance，inthejudgmentofthetrulyelegantandluxurious。

Whatbetterschoolformanners，thanthecompanyofvirtuouswomen；wherethemutualendeavourtopleasemustinsensiblypolishthemind，wheretheexampleofthefemalesoftnessandmodestymustcommunicateitselftotheiradmirers，andwherethedelicacyofthatsexputseveryoneonhisguard，lesthegiveoffencebyanybreachofdecency。

Amongtheancients，thecharacterofthefair—sexwasconsideredasaltogetherdomestic；norweretheyregardedaspartofthepoliteworldorofgoodcompany。This，perhaps，isthetruereasonwhytheancientshavenotleftusonepieceofpleasantrythatisexcellent，（unlessonemayexcepttheBanquetofXenophon，andtheDialoguesofLucian）thoughmanyoftheirseriouscompositionsarealtogetherinimitable。HoracecondemnsthecoarserailleriesandcoldjestsofPlautus：But，thoughthemosteasy，agreeable，andjudiciouswriterintheworld，ishisowntalentforridiculeverystrikingorrefined？This，therefore，isoneconsiderableimprovement，whichthepoliteartshavereceivedfromgallantry，andfromcourts，whereitfirstarose。

But，toreturnfromthisdigression，Ishalladvanceitasaobservationonthissubject，oftheriseandprogressoftheartsandsciences，。

Itmustbeconfessed，thatthismaxim，thoughconformabletoexperience，may，atfirstsight，beesteemedcontrarytoreason。

Ifthenaturalgeniusofmankindbethesameinallages，andinalmostallcountries，（asseemstobethetruth）itmustverymuchforwardandcultivatethisgenius，tobepossessedofpatternsineveryart，whichmayregulatethetaste，andfixtheobjectsofimitation。Themodelsleftusbytheancientsgavebirthtoalltheartsabout200yearsago，andhavemightilyadvancedtheirprogressineverycountryofEurope：WhyhadtheynotalikeeffectduringthereignofTrajanandhissuccessors；

whentheyweremuchmoreentire，andwerestilladmiredandstudiedbythewholeworld？SolateastheemperorJustinian，thePoet，bywayofdistinction，wasunderstood，amongtheGreeks，tobeHomer；amongtheRomans，Virgil。Suchadmirationstillremainedforthesedivinegeniuses；thoughnopoethadappearedformanycenturies，whocouldjustlypretendtohaveimitatedthem。

Aman’sgeniusisalways，inthebeginningoflife，asmuchunknowntohimselfastoothers；anditisonlyafterfrequenttrials，attendedwithsuccess，thathedaresthinkhimselfequaltothoseundertakings，inwhichthose，whohavesucceeded，havefixedtheadmirationofmankind。Ifhisownnationbealreadypossessedofmanymodelsofeloquence，henaturallycompareshisownjuvenileexerciseswiththese，andbeingsensibleofthegreatdisproportion，isdiscouragedfromanyfartherattempts，andneveraimsatarivalshipwiththoseauthors，whomhesomuchadmires。Anobleemulationisthesourceofeveryexcellence。

Admirationandmodestynaturallyextinguishthisemulation。Andnooneissoliabletoanexcessofadmirationandmodesty，asatrulygreatgenius。

Nexttoemulation，thegreatestencouragerofthenobleartsispraiseandglory。Awriterisanimatedwithnewforce，whenhehearstheapplausesoftheworldforhisformerproductions；and，beingrousedbysuchamotive，heoftenreachesapitchofperfection，whichisequallysurprizingtohimselfandtohisreaders。Butwhenthepostsofhonourarealloccupied，hisfirstattemptsarebutcoldlyreceivedbythepublic；beingcomparedtoproductions，whicharebothinthemselvesmoreexcellent，andhavealreadytheadvantageofanestablishedreputation。WereMoli妑eandCorneilletobringuponthestageatpresenttheirearlyproductions，whichwereformerlysowellreceived，itwoulddiscouragetheyoungpoets，toseetheindifferenceanddisdainofthepublic。Theignoranceoftheagealonecouldhavegivenadmissiontothe；butitistothatweowe：Hadbeenrejected，wehadneverseen。

Perhaps，itmaynotbefortheadvantageofanynationtohavetheartsimportedfromtheirneighboursintoogreatperfection。Thisextinguishesemulation，andsinkstheardourofthegenerousyouth。SomanymodelsofItalianpaintingbroughtintoEngland，insteadofexcitingourartists，isthecauseoftheirsmallprogressinthatnobleart。Thesame，perhaps，wasthecaseofRome，whenitreceivedtheartsfromGreece。ThatmultitudeofpoliteproductionsintheFrenchlanguage，dispersedalloverGermanyandtheNorth，hinderthesenationsfromcultivatingtheirownlanguage，andkeepthemstilldependentontheirneighboursforthoseelegantentertainments。

Itistrue，theancientshadleftusmodelsineverykindofwriting，whicharehighlyworthyofadmiration。Butbesidesthattheywerewritteninlanguages，knownonlytothelearned；

besidesthis，Isay，thecomparisonisnotsoperfectorentirebetweenmodernwits，andthosewholivedinsoremoteanage。HadWallerbeenborninRome，duringthereignofTiberius，hisfirstproductionshadbeendespised，whencomparedtothefinishedodesofHorace。ButinthisislandthesuperiorityoftheRomanpoetdiminishednothingfromthefameoftheEnglish。Weesteemedourselvessufficientlyhappy，thatourclimateandlanguagecouldproducebutafaintcopyofsoexcellentanoriginal。

Inshort，theartsandsciences，likesomeplants，requireafreshsoil；andhoweverrichthelandmaybe，andhoweveryoumayrecruititbyartorcare，itwillnever，whenonceexhausted，produceanythingthatisperfectorfinishedinthekind。

OftheStandardofTasteDavidHume1757

ThegreatvarietyofTaste，aswellasofopinion，whichprevailsintheworld，istooobviousnottohavefallenundereveryone’sobservation。Menofthemostconfinedknowledgeareabletoremarkadifferenceoftasteinthenarrowcircleoftheiracquaintance，evenwherethepersonshavebeeneducatedunderthesamegovernment，andhaveearlyimbibedthesameprejudices。Butthose，whocanenlargetheirviewtocontemplatedistancenationsandremoteages，arestillmoresurprisedatthegreatinconsistenceandcontrariety。Weareapttocallbarbarouswhateverdepartswidelyfromourowntasteandapprehension：Butsoonfindtheepithetofreproachretortedonus。Andthehighestarroganceandself—conceitisatlaststartled，onobservinganequalassuranceonallsides，andscruples，amidstsuchacontestofsentiment，topronouncepositivelyinitsownfavour。

Asthisvarietyoftasteisobvioustothemostcarelessenquirer；sowillitbefound，onexamination，tobestillgreaterinrealitythaninappearance。Thesentimentsofmenoftendifferwithregardtobeautyanddeformityofallkinds，evenwhiletheirgeneraldiscourseisthesame。Therearecertaintermsineverylanguage，whichimportblame，andotherspraise；

andallmen，whousethesametongue，mustagreeintheirapplicationofthem。Everyvoiceisunitedinapplaudingelegance，propriety，simplicity，spiritinwriting；andinblamingfustian，affectation，coldnessandafalsebrilliancy：

Butwhencriticscometoparticulars，thisseemingunanimityvanishes；anditisfound，thattheyhadaffixedaverydifferentmeaningtotheirexpressions。Inallmattersofopinionandscience，thecaseitopposite：Thedifferenceamongmenisthereoftenerfoundtolieingeneralsthaninparticulars；andtobelessinrealitythaninappearance。Anexplanationofthetermscommonlyendsthecontroversy；andthedisputantsaresurprisedtofind，thattheyhadbeenquarreling，whileatbottomtheyagreedintheirjudgment。

Thosewhofoundmoralityonsentiment，morethanonreason，areinclinedtocomprehendethicsundertheformerobservation，andtomaintain，that，inallquestions，whichregardconductandmanners，thedifferenceamongmenisreallygreaterthanatfirstsightitappears。Itisindeedobvious，thatwritersofallnationsandallagesconcurinapplaudingjustice，humanity，magnanimity，prudence，veracity；andinblamingtheoppositequalities。Evenpoetsandotherauthors，whosecompositionsarechieflycalculatedtopleasetheimagination，areyetfound，fromHOMERdowntoFENELON，toinculcatethesamemoralprecepts，andtobestowtheirapplauseandblameonthesamevirtuesandvices。

Thisgreatunanimityisusuallyascribedtotheinfluenceofplainreason；which，inallthesecases，maintainssimilarsentimentsinallmen，andpreventsthosecontroversies，towhichtheabstractsciencesaresomuchexposed。Sofarastheunanimityisreal，thisaccountmaybeadmittedassatisfactory：

Butwemustalsoallowthatsomepartoftheseemingharmonyinmoralsmaybeaccountedforfromtheverynatureoflanguage。Thewordvirtue，withitsequivalentineverytongue，impliespraise；

asthatofvicedoesblame：Andnoone，withoutthemostobviousandgrossestimpropriety，couldaffixreproachtoaterm，whichingeneralacceptationisunderstoodinagoodsense；orbestowapplause，wheretheidiomrequiresdisapprobation。HOMER’sgeneralprecepts，wherehedeliversanysuchwillneverbecontroverted；butitisobvious，that，whenhedrawsparticularpicturesofmanners，andrepresentsheroisminACHILLESandprudenceinULYSSES，heintermixesamuchgreaterdegreeofferocityintheformer，andofcunningandfraudinthelatter，thanFENELONwouldadmitof。ThesameULYSSESintheGREEKpoetseemstodelightinliesandfictions；andoftenemploysthemwithoutanynecessityofevenadvantage：Buthismorescrupulousson，intheFRENCHepicwriter，exposeshimselftothemostimminentperils，ratherthandepartfromthemostexactlineoftruthandveracity。

TheadmirersandfollowsoftheALCORANinsistontheexcellentmoralpreceptsinterspersedthroughoutthatwildandabsurdperformance。Butitistobesupposed，thattheARABIC

words，whichcorrespondtotheENGLISH，equity，justice，temperance，meekness，charity，weresuchas，fromtheconstantuseofthattongue，mustalwaysbetakeninagoodsense；anditwouldhavearguedthegreatestignorance，notofmorals，butoflanguage，tohavementionedthemwithanyepithets，besidesthoseofapplauseandapprobation。Butwouldweknow，whetherthepretendedprophethadreallyattainedajustsentimentofmorals？

Letusattendtohisnarration；andweshallsoonfind，thathebestowspraiseonsuchinstancesoftreachery，inhumanity，cruelty，revenge，bigotry，asareutterlyincompatiblewithcivilizedsociety。Nosteadyruleofrightseemstheretobeattendedto；andeveryactionisblamedorpraised，sofaronlyasitisbeneficialorhurtfultothetruebelievers。

Themeritofdeliveringtruegeneralpreceptsinethicsisindeedverysmall。Whoeverrecommendsanymoralvirtues，reallydoesnomorethanisimpliedinthetermsthemselves。Thatpeople，whoinventedthewordcharity，anduseitinagoodsense，inculcatedmoreclearlyandmuchmoreefficaciously，theprecept，becharitable，thananypretendedlegislatororprophet，whoshouldinsertsuchamaximinhiswritings。Ofallexpressions，those，which，togetherwiththeirothermeaning，implyadegreeeitherofblameorapprobation，aretheleastliabletobepervertedormistaken。

ItisnaturalforustoseekaStandardofTaste；arule，bywhichthevarioussentimentsofmenmaybereconciled；atleast，adecision，afforded，confirmingonesentiment，andcondemninganother。

Thereisaspeciesofphilosophy，whichcutsoffallhopesofsuccessinsuchanattempt，andrepresentstheimpossibilityofeverattaininganystandardoftaste。Thedifference，itissaid，isverywidebetweenjudgmentandsentiment。Allsentimentisright；becausesentimenthasareferencetonothingbeyonditself，andisalwaysreal，whereveramanisconsciousofit。

Butalldeterminationsoftheunderstandingarenotright；

becausetheyhaveareferencetosomethingbeyondthemselves，towit，realmatteroffact；andarenotalwaysconformabletothatstandard。Amongathousanddifferentopinionswhichdifferentmenmayentertainofthesamesubject，thereisone，andbutone，thatisjustandtrue；andtheonlydifficultyistofixandascertainit。Onthecontrary，athousanddifferentsentiments，excitedbythesameobject，areallright：Becausenosentimentrepresentswhatisreallyintheobject。Itonlymarksacertainconformityorrelationbetweentheobjectandtheorgansorfacultiesofthemind；andifthatconformitydidnotreallyexist，thesentimentcouldneverpossiblyhavebeing。Beautyisnoqualityinthingsthemselves：Itexistsmerelyinthemindwhichcontemplatesthem；andeachmindperceivesadifferentbeauty。Onepersonmayevenperceivedeformity，whereanotherissensibleofbeauty；andeveryindividualoughttoacquiesceinhisownsentiment，withoutpretendingtoregulatethoseofothers。Toseekintherealbeauty，orrealdeformity，isasfruitlessanenquiry，astopretendtoascertaintherealsweetorrealbitter。Accordingtothedispositionoftheorgans，thesameobjectmaybebothsweetandbitter；andtheproverbhasjustlydeterminedittobefruitlesstodisputeconcerningtastes。Itisverynatural，andevenquitenecessarytoextendthisaxiomtomental，aswellasbodilytaste；andthuscommonsense，whichissooftenatvariancewithphilosophy，especiallywiththeskepticalkind，isfound，inoneinstanceatleast，toagreeinpronouncingthesamedecision。

Butthoughthisaxiom，bypassingintoaproverb，seemstohaveattainedthesanctionofcommonsense；thereiscertainlyaspeciesofcommonsensewhichopposesit，atleastservestomodifyandrestrainit。WhoeverwouldassertanequalityofgeniusandelegancebetweenOGILBYandMILTON，orBUNYANandADDISON，wouldbethoughttodefendnolessanextravagance，thanifhehadmaintainedamole—hilltobeashighasTENERIFFE，orapondasextensiveastheocean。Thoughtheremaybefoundpersons，whogivethepreferencetotheformerauthors；noonepaysattentiontosuchataste；andwepronouncewithoutscruplethesentimentofthesepretendedcriticstobeabsurdandridiculous。Theprincipleofthenaturalequalityoftastesisthentotallyforgot，andwhileweadmititonsomeoccasions，wheretheobjectsseemnearanequality，itappearsanextravagantparadox，orratherapalpableabsurdity，whereobjectssodisproportionedarecomparedtogether。

Itisevidentthatnoneoftherulesofcompositionarefixedbyreasoningsapriori，orcanbeesteemedabstractconclusionsoftheunderstanding，fromcomparingthosehabitudesandrelationsofideas，whichareeternalandimmutable。Theirfoundationisthesamewiththatofallthepracticalsciences，experience；noraretheyanythingbutgeneralobservations，concerningwhathasbeenuniversallyfoundtopleaseinallcountriesandinallages。Manyofthebeautiesofpoetryandevenofeloquencearefoundedonfalsehoodandfiction，onhyperboles，metaphors，andanabuseorperversionoftermsfromtheirnaturalmeaning。Tocheckthesalliesoftheimagination，andtoreduceeveryexpressiontogeometricaltruthandexactness，wouldbethemostcontrarytothelawsofcriticism；

becauseitwouldproduceawork，which，byuniversalexperience，hasbeenfoundthemostinsipidanddisagreeable。Butthoughpoetrycanneversubmittoexacttruth，itmustbeconfinedbyrulesofart，discoveredtotheauthoreitherbygeniusorobservation。Ifsomenegligentorirregularwritershavepleased，theyhavenotpleasedbytheirtransgressionsofruleororder，butinspiteofthesetransgressions：Theyhavepossessedotherbeauties，whichwereconformabletojustcriticism；andtheforceofthesebeautieshasbeenabletooverpowercensure，andgivethemindasatisfactionsuperiortothedisgustarisingfromtheblemishes。ARIOSTOleases；butnotbyhismonstrousandimprobablefictions，byhisbizarremixtureoftheseriousandcomicstyles，bythewantofcoherenceinhisstories，orbythecontinualinterruptionsofhisnarration。Hecharmsbytheforceandclearnessofhisexpression，bythereadinessandvarietyofhisinventions，andbyhisnaturalpicturesofthepassions，especiallythoseofthegayandamorouskind：Andhoweverhisfaultsmaydiminishoursatisfaction，theyarenotableentirelytodestroyit。Didourpleasurereallyarisefromthosepartsofhispoem，whichwedenominatefaults，thiswouldbenoobjectiontocriticismingeneral：Itwouldonlybeanobjectiontothoseparticularrulesofcriticism，whichwouldestablishsuchcircumstancestobefaults，andwouldrepresentthemasuniversallyblameable。Iftheyarefoundtoplease，theycannotbefaults；letthepleasure，whichtheyproduce，beeversounexpectedandunaccountable。

Butthoughallthegeneralrulesofartarefoundedonlyonexperienceandontheobservationofthecommonsentimentsofhumannature，wemustnotimagine，that，oneveryoccasionthefeelingsofmenwillbeconformabletotheserules。Thosefineremotionsofthemindareofaverytenderanddelicatenature，andrequiretheconcurrenceofmanyfavourablecircumstancestomakethemplaywithfacilityandexactness，accordingtotheirgeneralandestablishedprinciples。Theleastexteriorhindrancetosuchsmallsprings，ortheleastinternaldisorder，disturbstheirmotion，andconfoundstheoperationofthewholemachine。

Whenwewouldmakeanexperimentofthisnature，andwouldtrytheforceofanybeautyordeformity，wemustchoosewithcareapropertimeandplace，andbringthefancytoasuitablesituationanddisposition。Aperfectserenityofmind，arecollectionofthought，adueattentiontotheobject；ifanyofthesecircumstancesbewanting，ourexperimentwillbefallacious，andweshallbeunabletojudgeofthecatholicanduniversalbeauty。Therelation，whichnaturehasplacedbetweentheformandthesentimentwillatleastbemoreobscure；anditwillrequiregreateraccuracytotraceanddiscernit。Weshallbeabletoascertainitsinfluencenotsomuchfromtheoperationofeachparticularbeauty，asfromthedurableadmiration，whichattendsthoseworks，thathavesurvivedallthecapricesofmodeandfashion，allthemistakesofignoranceandenvy。

ThesameHOMER，whopleasedatATHENSandROMEtwothousandyearsago，isstilladmiredatPARISandatLONDON。Allthechangesofclimate，government，religion，andlanguage，havenotbeenabletoobscurehisglory。Authorityorprejudicemaygiveatemporaryvoguetoabadpoetororator，buthisreputationwillneverbedurableorgeneral。Whenhiscompositionsareexaminedbyposterityorbyforeigners，theenchantmentisdissipated，andhisfaultsappearintheirtruecolours。Onthecontrary，arealgenius，thelongerhisworksendure，andthemorewidetheyarespread，themoresincereistheadmirationwhichhemeetswith。

Envyandjealousyhavetoomuchplaceinanarrowcircle；andevenfamiliaracquaintancewithhispersonmaydiminishtheapplauseduetohisperformances。Butwhentheseobstructionsareremoved，thebeauties，whicharenaturallyfittedtoexciteagreeablesentiments，immediatelydisplaytheirenergyandwhiletheworldendures，theymaintaintheirauthorityoverthemindsofmen。

Itappearsthen，that，amidstallthevarietyandcapriceoftaste，therearecertaingeneralprinciplesofapprobationorblame，whoseinfluenceacarefuleyemaytraceinalloperationsofthemind。Someparticularformsorqualities，fromtheoriginalstructureoftheinternalfabric，arecalculatedtoplease，andotherstodisplease；andiftheyfailoftheireffectinanyparticularinstance，itisfromsomeapparentdefectorimperfectionintheorgan。Amaninafeverwouldnotinsistonhispalateasabletodecideconcerningflavours；norwouldone，affectedwiththejaundice，pretendtogiveaverdictwithregardtocolours。Ineachcreature，thereisasoundandadefectivestate；andtheformeralonecanbesupposedtoaffordusatruestandardofaconsiderableuniformityofsentimentamongmen，wemaythencederiveanideaoftheperfectbeauty；inlikemannerastheappearanceofobjectsindaylight，totheeyeofamaninhealth，isdenominatedtheirtrueandrealcolour，evenwhilecolourisallowedtobemerelyaphantasmofthesenses。

Manyandfrequentarethedefectsintheinternalorgans，whichpreventorweakentheinfluenceofthosegeneralprinciples，onwhichdependsoursentimentofbeautyordeformity。Thoughsomeobjects，bythestructureofthemind，benaturallycalculatedtogivepleasure，itisnottobeexpected，thatineveryindividualthepleasurewillbeequallyfelt。

Particularincidentsandsituationsoccur，whicheitherthrowafalselightontheobjects，orhinderthetruefromconveyingtotheimaginationthepropersentimentandperception。

Oneobviouscause，whymanyfeelnotthepropersentimentofbeauty，isthewantofthatdelicacyofimagination，whichisrequisitetoconveyasensibilityofthosefineremotions。Thisdelicacyeveryonepretendsto：Everyonetalksofit；andwouldreduceeverykindoftasteorsentimenttoitsstandard。Butasourintentioninthisessayistominglesomelightoftheunderstandingwiththefeelingsofsentiment，itwillbepropertogiveamoreaccuratedefinitionofdelicacy，thanhashithertobeenattempted。Andnottodrawourphilosophyfromtooprofoundasource，weshallhaverecoursetoanotedstoryinDONQUIXOTE。

Itiswithgoodreason，saysSANCHOtothesquirewiththegreatnose，thatIpretendtohaveajudgmentinwine：thisisaqualityhereditaryinourfamily。Twoofmykinsmenwereoncecalledtogivetheiropinionofahogshead，whichwassupposedtobeexcellent，beingoldandofagoodvintage。Oneofthemtastesit；considersit；andaftermaturereflectionpronouncesthewinetobegood，wereitnotforasmalltasteofleather，whichheperceivedinit。Theother，afterusingthesameprecautions，givesalsohisverdictinfavourofthewine；butwiththereserveofatasteofiron，whichhecouldeasilydistinguish。

Youcannotimaginehowmuchtheywerebothridiculedfortheirjudgment。Butwholaughedintheend？Onemptyingthehogshead，therewasfoundatthebottom，anoldkeywithaleathernthongtiedtoit。

Thegreatresemblancebetweenmentalandbodilytastewilleasilyteachustoapplythisstory。Thoughitbecertain，thatbeautyanddeformity，morethansweetandbitter，arenotqualitiesinobjects，butbelongentirelytothesentiment，internalorexternal；itmustbeallowed，thattherearecertainqualitiesinobjects，whicharefittedbynaturetoproducethoseparticularfeelings。Nowasthesequalitiesmaybefoundinasmalldegree，ormaybemixedandconfoundedwitheachother，itoftenhappens，thatthetasteisnotaffectedwithsuchminutequalities，orisnotabletodistinguishalltheparticularflavours，amidstthedisorder，inwhichtheyarepresented。Wheretheorgansaresofine，astoallownothingtoescapethem；andatthesametimesoexactastoperceiveeveryingredientinthecomposition：Thiswecalldelicacyoftaste，whetherweemploythesetermsintheliteralormetaphoricalsense。Herethenthegeneralrulesofbeautyareofuse；beingdrawnfromestablishedmodels，andfromtheobservationofwhatpleasesordispleases，whenpresentedsinglyandinahighdegree：Andifthesamequalities，inacontinuedcompositionandinasmalldegree，affectnottheorganswithasensibledelightoruneasiness，weexcludethepersonfromallpretensionstothisdelicacy。Toproducethesegeneralrulesoravowedpatternsofcompositionislikefindingthekeywiththeleathernthong；whichjustifiedtheverdictofSANCHO’skinsmen，andconfoundedthosepretendedjudgeswhohadcondemnedthem。Thoughthehogsheadhadneverbeenemptied，thetasteoftheonewasstillequallydelicate，andthatoftheotherequallydullandlanguid：Butitwouldhavebeenmoredifficulttohaveprovedthesuperiorityoftheformer，totheconvictionofeveryby—stander。Inlikemanner，thoughthebeautiesofwritinghadneverbeenmethodized，orreducedtogeneralprinciples；thoughnoexcellentmodelshadeverbeenacknowledged；thedifferentdegreesoftastewouldstillhavesubsisted，andthejudgmentofonemanhadbeenpreferabletothatofanother；butitwouldnothavebeensoeasytosilencethebadcritic，whomightalwaysinsistuponhisparticularsentiment，andrefusetosubmittohisantagonist。Butwenweshowhimanavowedprincipleofart；whenweillustratethisprinciplebyexamples，whoseoperation，fromhisownparticulartaste，heacknowledgestobeconformabletotheprinciple；whenweprove，thatthesameprinciplemaybeappliedtothepresentcase，wherehedidnotperceiveorfeelitsinfluence：Hemustconclude，uponthewhole，thatthefaultliesinhimself，andthathewantsthedelicacy，whichisrequisitetomakehimsensibleofeverybeautyandeveryblemish，inanycompositionordiscourse。

Itisacknowledgedtobetheperfectionofeverysenseorfaculty，toperceivewithexactnessitsmostminuteobjects，andallownothingtoescapeitsnoticeandobservation。Thesmallertheobjectsare，whichbecomesensibletotheeye，thefineristhatorgan，andthemoreelaborateitsmakeandcomposition。A

goodpalateisnottriedbystrongflavours；butbyamixtureofsmallingredients，wherewearestillsensibleofeachpart，notwithstandingitsminutenessanditsconfusionwiththerest。

Inlikemanner，aquickandacuteperceptionofbeautyanddeformitymustbetheperfectionofourmentaltaste；norcanamanbesatisfiedwithhimselfwhilehesuspects，thatanyexcellenceorblemishinadiscoursehaspassedhimunobserved。

Inthiscase，theperfectionoftheman，andtheperfectionofthesenseorfeeling，arefoundtobeunited。Averydelicatepalate，onmanyoccasions，maybeagreatinconveniencebothtoamanhimselfandtohisfriends：Butadelicatetasteofwitorbeautymustalwaysbeadesirablequality；becauseitisthesourceofallthefinestandmostinnocentenjoyments，ofwhichhumannatureissusceptible。Inthisdecisionthesentimentsofallmankindareagreed。Whereveryoucanascertainadelicacyoftaste，itissuretomeetwithapprobation；andthebestwayofascertainingitistoappealtothosemodelsandprinciples，whichhavebeenestablishedbytheuniformconsentandexperienceofnationsandages。

Butthoughtherebenaturallyawidedifferenceinpointofdelicacybetweenonepersonandanother，nothingtendsfurthertoencreaseandimprovethistalent，thanpracticeinaparticularart，andthefrequentsurveyorcontemplationofaparticularspeciesofbeauty。Whenobjectsofanykindarefirstpresentedtotheeyeorimagination，thesentiment，whichattendsthem，isobscureandconfused；andthemindis，inagreatmeasure，incapableofpronouncingconcerningtheirmeritsordefects。Thetastecannotperceivetheseveralexcellencesoftheperformance；

muchlessdistinguishtheparticularcharacterofeachexcellency，andascertainitsqualityanddegree。Ifitpronouncethewholeingeneraltobebeautifulordeformed，itistheutmostthatcanbeexpected；andeventhisjudgment，aperson，sounpracticed，willbeapttodeliverwithgreathesitationandreserve。Butallowhimtoacquireexperienceinthoseobjects，hisfeelingbecomesmoreexactandnice：Henotonlyperceivesthebeautiesanddefectsofeachpart，butmarksthedistinguishingspeciesofeachquality，andassignsitsuitablepraiseorblame。Aclearanddistinctsentimentattendshimthroughthewholesurveyoftheobjects；andhediscernsthatverydegreeandkindofapprobationordispleasure，whicheachpartisnaturallyfittedtoproduce。Themistdissipates，whichseemedformerlytohangovertheobject：theorganacquiresgreaterperfectioninitsoperations；andcanpronounce，withoutdangerofmistake，concerningthemeritsofeveryperformance。Inaword，thesameaddressanddexterity，whichpracticegivestotheexecutionofanywork，isalsoacquiredbythesamemeansinthejudgingofit。

Soadvantageousispracticetothediscernmentofbeauty，that，beforewecangivejudgmentofanyworkofimportance，itwillevenberequisite，thatthatveryindividualperformancebemorethanonceperusedbyus，andbesurveyedindifferentlightswithattentionanddeliberation。Thereisaflutterorhurryofthoughtwhichattendsthefirstperusalofanypiece，andwhichconfoundsthegenuinesentimentofbeauty。Therelationofthepartsisnotdiscerned：Thetruecharactersofstylearelittledistinguished：Theseveralperfectionsanddefectsseemwrappedupinaspeciesofconfusion，andpresentthemselvesindistinctlytotheimagination。Nottomention，thatthereisaspeciesofbeauty，which，asitisfloridandsuperficial，pleasesatfirst；

butbeingfoundincompatiblewithajustexpressioneitherofreasonorpassion，soonpallsuponthetaste，andisthenrejectedwithdisdain，atleastratedatamuchlowervalue。

Itisimpossibletocontinueinthepracticeofcontemplatinganyorderofbeauty，withoutbeingfrequentlyobligedtoformcomparisonsbetweentheseveralspeciesanddegreesofexcellence，andestimatingtheirproportiontoeachother。Aman，whohashadnoopportunityofcomparingthedifferentkindsofbeauty，isindeedtotallyunqualifiedtopronounceanopinionwithregardtoanyobjectpresentedtohim。

Bycomparisonalonewefixtheepithetsofpraiseorblame，andlearnhowtoassigntheduedegreeofeach。Thecoarsestdaubingcontainsacertainlustreofcoloursandexactnessofimitation，whicharesofarbeauties，andwouldaffectthemindofapeasantorIndianwiththehighestadmiration。Themostvulgarballadsarenotentirelydestituteofharmonyornature；andnotbutaperson，familiarizedtosuperiorbeauties，wouldpronouncetheirnumbersharsh，ornarrationuninteresting。Agreatinferiorityofbeautygivespaintoapersonconversantinthehighestexcellenceofthekind，andisforthatreasonpronouncedadeformity：Asthemostfinishedobject，withwhichweareacquainted，isnaturallysupposedtohavereachedthepinnacleofperfection，andtobeentitledtothehighestapplause。Oneaccustomedtosee，andexamine，andweightheseveralperformances，admiredindifferentagesandnations，canonlyratethemeritsofaworkexhibitedtohisview，andassignitsproperrankamongtheproductionsofgenius。