Gov.YehpolitelyandcalmlyrespondstothearrogantdemandsoftheexcitedyoungBritishConsul\'.Hestatesthereasonofthearrest,andregretsthatthereshouldhavebeenanymisunderstandinginthematter;
atthesametimeheunqualifiedlydeniestheslightestintentionofinsultingtheEnglishflag,andsendsbackthemen,whom,althoughlawfullyarrested,hedesirednottodetainattheexpenseofsoseriousamisunderstanding.ButthisisnotsatisfactorytoMr.ConsulParkes-hemusthaveanofficialapology,andamoreformalrestitution,orGov.Yehmustabidetheconsequences.NextarrivesAdmiralSeymourwiththeBritishfleet,andthencommencesanothercorrespondence,dogmaticandthreateningonthesideoftheAdmiral;cool,unimpassioned,polite,onthesideoftheChineseofficial.AdmiralSeymourdemandsapersonalinterviewwithinthewallsofCanton.Gov.
Yehsaysthisiscontrarytoallprecedent,andthatSirGeorgeBonhamhadagreedthatitshouldnotberequired.Hewouldreadilyconsenttoaninterview,asusual,outsidethewalledtownifnecessary,ormeettheAdmiral\'swishesinanyotherwaynotcontrarytoChineseusageandhereditaryetiquette.ButthisdidnotsuitthebellicoserepresentativeofBritishpowerintheEast.
Uponthegroundsthusbrieflystated——andtheofficialaccountsnowbeforethepeopleofEnglandfullybearoutthestatement——thismostunrighteouswarhasbeenwaged.TheunoffendingcitizensandpeacefultradesmenofCantonhavebeenslaughtered,theirhabitationsbatteredittotheground,andtheclaimsofhumanityviolated,ontheflimsypretencethat\"EnglishlifeandpropertyareendangeredbytheaggressiveactsoftheChinese!\"TheBritishGovernmentandtheBritishpeople——atleast,thosewhohavechosentoexaminethequestion——
knowhowfalseandhollowaresuchcharges.Anattempthasbeenmadetodivertinvestigationfromthemainissue,andtoimpressthepublicmindwiththeideathatalongseriesofinjuries,precedingthecaseofthelorchaArrow,formofthemselvesasufficientcasusbelli.Butthesesweepingassertionsarebaseless.TheChinesehaveatleastninety-nineinjuriestocomplainoftooneonthepartoftheEnglish.
HowsilentisthepressofEnglandupontheoutrageousviolationsofthetreatydailypracticedbyforeignerslivinginChinaunderBritishprotection!Wehearnothingoftheillicitopiumtrade,whichyearlyfeedstheBritishtreasuryattheexpenseofhumanlifeandmorality.
Wehearnothingoftheconstantbriberyofsub-officials,bymeansofwhichtheChineseGovernmentisdefraudedofitsrightfulrevenueonincomingandoutgoingmerchandise.Wehearnothingofthewrongsinflicted\"evenuntodeath\"uponmisguidedandbondedemigrantssoldtoworsethanSlaveryonthecoastofPeru,andintoCubanbondage.WehearnothingofthebullyingspiritoftenexercisedagainstthetimidnatureoftheChinese,oroftheviceintroducedbyforeignersattheportsopentotheirtrade.Wehearnothingofallthisandofmuchmore,first,becausethemajorityofpeopleoutofChinacarelittleaboutthesocialandmoralconditionofthatcountry;andsecondly,becauseitisthepartofpolicyandprudencenottoagitatetopicswherenopecuniaryadvantagewouldresult.Thus,theEnglishpeopleathome,wholooknofurtherthanthegrocer\'swheretheybuytheirtea,arepreparedtoswallowallthemisrepresentationswhichtheMinistryandthePresschoosetothrustdownthepublicthroat.
Meanwhile,inChina,thesmotheredfiresofhatredkindledagainsttheEnglishduringtheopiumwarhaveburstintoaflameofanimositywhichnotendersofpeaceandfriendshipwillbeverylikelytoquench.ForthesakeofChristianandcommercialintercoursewithChina,itisinthehighestdegreedesirablethatweshouldkeepoutofthisquarrel,andthattheChineseshouldnotbeledtoregardallthenationsoftheWesternWorldasunitedinaconspiracyagainstthem.
SOMEOFFICIALCORRESPONDENCENewYorkDailyTribuneJune2,1857
byKARLMARX
AMONGTHEpapersrelatingtoChinawhichLordPalmerstonhaslaidbeforeParliament,wefindsomeextractsfromthecorrespondencebetweenourDr.ParkerandMr.CommissionerYeh,inwhichwemustsaythatourDoctorseemstocomeoffsecondbest.Thus,theDoctorwrotetocomplainofthebread-poisoningatHongKongtowhichYehrepliedasfollows:
\"IreceivedyourExcellency\'scommunicationofthe16thult.onthe2ndinst.,andobservewhatitcontains:ThattheAmericanConsul,whohadarrivedatMacaofromHongKong,informedyoupersonallythattwoorthreedaysbefore,certainChinesepeopleinHongKonghadmixedpoisoninthebreadwhichtheyfurnishedthepublic,withoutdistinctionofcountry,ofwhichallhadeaten,andhadbeenmadeseriouslyill,andthatitwasnotyetknownwhethertheywouldsurvive.
\"Onreadingthis,Iwasverygreatlysurprised.TheChineseandAmericanshaveusuallybeenongoodterms,andthetradebetweenChinaandothercountrieshasheretoforebeenconductedamicably;
buttheEnglishhavenow,forseveralmonths,inamostunprovokedmanner,broughttheirtroopsandengagedinhostilities,andrepeatedlysettingfiretotheshopsanddwellingsofpeople,anddestroyingaverygreatnumberofbuildings,andhaveruinedsomeentirefamilies.DoubtlesstherearemanyChinesewhosehatredagainsttheEnglishhasbeenmuchincreasedbythis;buttopoisonpeopleinthisunderhandmannerisanactworthyofdetestation:
still,asitalloccurredinHongKongitisimpossibleformetoexamineintoallthefacts.TheactisowingtotheunnumberedevilswhichhavebeeninflictedupontheChinesebytheEnglish;
andthenativesofthesurroundingdistrictshavetakenthiswayofrevengingtheirprivatewrongs.
\"TheAmericanshavingneverinjuredtheChinese,thereis,ofcourse,nothingtomarthegoodfeelingexistingbetweenthem.
TourExcellencymightwithpropriety,issueadmonitoryexhortationsfortheAmericansquietlytoattendtotheirownbusiness,andtherecanbenoquestionbuttheChinesewillalwaystreattheminapropermanner.Whatcouldinducethemtothinkofsecretlypoisoningthem?——apointworthyofyourconsideration.
ForthisIreply——atthesametimewishingyoustablepeace.\"
Nothingcouldbebetterputthanthesuggestionwehaveplacedinitalics,thatDr.ParkerandhiscountrymenwoulddomuchbettertomindtheirownbusinessthantobemixingthemselvesupinthequarrelwhichtheEnglishhadpicked.
Instead,however,offallinginwiththispieceofgoodadvice,Dr.
ParkermustneedswritealettertoYeh,inwhichheundertakestojustifyhimselfandtheAmericanauthoritiesforsidingwiththeEnglishOfthisletterthefollowingisanextract:
\"Weretheundersignedcalledupontopassjudgmentuponthequestionwhoisrightandwhoiswronginthepresentcontroversy,hemightwishtoinquireifithadnotbeenright,whentheoccasionforseriouscomplaintarose,forthehighofficersofthetwoGovernmentstohavemetfacetoface,andaccordingtoreasonandjusticehavesettledthematter,andthushavepreventedthevastdestructionofpropertyandeffusionofbloodwhichhavebeeninconsequenceofyourExcellency\'sfailingtodoso.Hemight,also,perchance,inquireintothetruthofthestatementsregardingwhathadtranspiredinformeryearsinrelationtothesubjectoftheentreeoftheCityofCanton,whichdifferswidelyfromwhattheundersigned,whohaslongresidedinChina,apprehendstobethefactsofthecase.
\"Theundersignedmaybeallowed,inthespiritoftruefriendship,toexpresstoyourExcellencyhisbeliefthatthefountainofalldifficultiesbetweenChinaandforeignnationsistheunwillingnessofChinatoacknowledgeEngland,France,Americaandothergreatnations,oftheWestasherequalsandtruefriends,andtreatthemaccordingly.SofarasrespectsthisgravemattertheAmericanGovernmentissensiblethattheEnglishareintheright,anddoeschoosetocooperatewiththem.\"
Yeh\'sanswerisnotgiven,butitcanhardlybesupposedthathefailedtomaketheretorttowhichtheDoctorhadexposedhimself.TheDoctorknowsperfectlywell,nobodybetter,thatthetruecauseofthepresentandformerdifficultiesbetweentheChineseandtheEnglishwasandis,notashepretends\"theunwillingnessofChinatoacknowledgeEngland,France,AmericaandothergreatnationsoftheWestasherequals,\"buttheunwillingnessoftheChineseauthoritiestoallowtheirsubjectstobepoisonedwithopiumforthepecuniarybenefitoftheBritishEastIndiaCompanyandafewunprincipledBritish,AmericanandFrenchtraders.HowisitpossiblefortheChinesetoregardthese\"greatnationsoftheWest\"\"astheirtruefriends,andtotreatthemaccordingly,\"whentheyfindthattheprincipalbusinessofthesegreatnationsinChinahasbeenandistosellandspreadtheuseofopium,apoisonousdrugintroducedbytheseforeignerswithinacenturypast-beforewhichtimeitwasutterlyunknowntotheChinese——andtheuseofwhichincreaseswithafrightfulrapidity,fatalatoncetothemorals,thepecuniarywelfareandthehealthoftheFloweryEmpire?
Whenthese\"greatnations\"shallhavefirstprovedthemselves\"truefriends\"byjoiningwiththeChineseauthoritiestoputanendtothiswickedtraffic,itwillbequitetimetocomplainthattheChineseareunwillingtorecognizetheminthatcharacter.
OtherChineseofficialsseemnotinferiortoYchinthematterofdiplomaticcorrespondence.Onthe9thofDecember[1856]SirJohnBowringsenttotheViceroyofFukien,etc.,astatementofhiscomplaintsagainstYeh,requestingthattheCourtofPekingbeadvisedofthesame.InhisreplytheViceroysays:
\"ThedocumentforwardedtomebeinginEnglish,itscontentsareunknowntome,andIhavenomeansofdecipheringthem.
\"Inconclusion,itismydutytoaddthatourtwonationshavingbeenonfriendlytermsformanyyears,IamstillinhopesthatbydueobservanceoneithersideoftheTreatyofPeacethatwastolastforever,itwillbetheirgoodfortunetostrengthentheamicablerelationsheretoforeexistingbetweenthem.\"
TheViceroyofanotherprovince,towhomasimilarletterwassent,repliedasfollows:
\"IrejoiceinyourExcellency\'sprofessionsofpeace;butitwouldonlydoharmtotheinterestsofpeace,towhichyouprofessyourselfsofriendly,wereItotelltheEmperorthat,becauseofYeh\'sact,youhaveprecipitatelybrokenthepeacethattheTreatysaidwastolastforever.Anotherreasonagainstmyaddressingthethroneis,thatYeh,andhealone,iscompetenttodealwithcommercialquestions;andthiscanbenothingelse,beingaquestionwithforeigners.\"
ThefollowingImperialedictofthe27thDecember[1856]doesnotevinceanypresentdispositiononthepartoftheEmperortogivewaytothedemandsoftheEnglish:
\"WehavethisdayinstructedYch,thatiftheEnglishbarbariansturnfromtheirpresentcourseoftheirownmotion,anger(orhate)neednotbecarriedtoextremity;butiftheydaretopersistintheirextravaganceandobstinacy,peaceisnottobenegotiatedbyaconciliatorymovementonourpart,asthiswouldopenthewaytodemandsforotherconcessionsofimportance.
Yeh-mingchinhasbeenverylonginchargeoftheKwangprovinces,andissothoroughlycognizantwithbarbarianaffairsthathewillbeableinallprobabilitytodeviseapropercourseofproceeding.
\"ItoccurstousthattheseaboardofKiangsu,ChekiangandFukien,isgroundwithwhichthesteamersofthesebarbariansare,bylongexperience,wellacquainted,andasprecautionshouldbetakentodefend(thatcoast)alsoagainstthebarbarians,who,whentheyfindthemselvesunabletoworktheirwillintheCantonprovince,mayattempttodisturbotherportsalongit,wecommandEleang,Chaou,andIlo,togiveinstructionprivilytothelocalauthorities,intheeventofbarbarianshipsapproaching(theirjurisdiction),totakesuchstepsaswillrenderthemsecure,withoutsoundorsign(thatmayattractattention).IftheycometoexplainthecircumstancesoftheruptureatCanton,theymustbesosilencedbyreasonableargumentsthatnoloop-holebeleftthem;andseeingthis,theymaybemindedtofallbackfromtheirundertakingashopeless.But(theauthoritiesreferredto)areriotinanywaytotakethealarm,asthiswoulddisturbandperplexthepublicmind.\"
PERSIA-CHINANewYorkDailyTribuneJune5,1857
byKARLMARX
THEEnglishhavejustconcludedanAsiaticwar,andareenteringuponanother.TheresistanceofferedbythePersians,andthatwhichtheChinesehavesofaropposedtoBritishinvasion,formacontrastworthourattention.InPersia,theEuropeansystemofmilitaryorganizationhasbeenengrafteduponAsiaticbarbarity;inChina,therottingsemicivilizationoftheoldestStateintheworldmeetstheEuropeanswithitsownresources.Persiahasbeensignallydefeated,whiledistracted,half-dissolvedChinahashituponasystemofresistancewhich,iffollowedup,willrenderimpossiblearepetitionofthetriumphalmarchesofthefirstAnglo-Chinesewar.
PersiawasinastatesimilartothatofTurkeyduringthewarof1828-9againstRussia.English,French,RussianofficershadinturnstriedtheirhandsattheorganizationofthePersianarmy.Onesystemhadsucceededanother,andeachinitsturnhadbeenthwartedbythejealousy,theintrigues,theignorance,thecupidityandcorruptionoftheOrientalswhomitwastoformintoEuropeanofficersandsoldiers.Thenewregulararmyhadneverhadanopportunityoftryingitsorganizationandstrengthinthefield.ItsonlyexploitshadbeenconfinedtoafewcampaignsagainstKurds,TurcomansandAfghans,whereitservedasasortofnucleusorreservetothenumerousirregularcavalryofPersia.Thelatterdidmostoftheactualfighting;theregularshadgenerallybuttoimposeupontheenemybythedemonstrativeeffectoftheirseeminglyformidablearrays.Atlast,thewarwithEnglandbrokeout.
TheEnglishattackedBushire,andmetwithagallantthoughineffectiveresistance.ButthemenwhofoughtatBushirewerenotregulars;theywerecomposedoftheirregularleviesofthePersianandArabinhabitantsofthecoast.Theregularswereonlyconcentrating,somesixtymilesoff,inthehills.Atlasttheyadvanced.TheAnglo-Indianarmymetthemhalfway;and,thoughthePersiansusedtheirartillerywithcredittothemselves,andformedtheirsquaresonthemostapprovedprinciples,asinglechargeofonesingleIndiancavalryregimentsweptthewholePersianarmy,guardsandline,fromthefield.AndtoknowwhattheseIndianregularcavalryareconsideredtobeworthintheirownservice,wehaveonlytorefertoCapt.Nolan\'sbookonthesubject.Theyare,amongAnglo-Indianofficers,consideredworsethanuseless,andfarinferiortotheirregularAnglo-Indiancavalry.NotasingleactioncanCapt.Nolanfindwheretheywerecreditablyengaged.Andyet,thesewerethemen,sixhundredofwhomdrovetenthousandPersiansbeforethem!SuchwastheterrorspreadamongthePersianregularsthatneversincehavetheymadeastandanywhere-theartilleryaloneexcepted.AtMoharnmerah,theykeptoutofharm\'sway,leavingtheartillerytodefendthebatteries,andretiredassoonastheseweresilenced;andwhen,onareconnaissance,theBritishlandedthreehundredriflemenandfiftyirregularhorse,thewholeofthePersianhostmarchedoff,leavingbaggage,storesandgunsinthepossessionofthe——victorsyoucannotcallthem——theinvaders.
Allthis,however,neitherbrandsthePersiansasanationofcowards,norcondemnstheintroductionofEuropeantacticsamongOrientals.TheRusso-Turkishwarsof1809-12and1828-9offerplentyofsuchexamples.
TheprincipalresistanceofferedtotheRussianswasmadebytheirregularleviesbothfromthefortifiedtownsandfromthemountainprovinces.Theregulars,wherevertheyshowedthemselvesintheopenfield,wereatonceupsetbytheRussians,andveryoftenranawayatthefirstshot;whileasinglecompanyofArnautirregulars,inaravineatVarna,successfullyopposedtheRussiansiegeoperationsforweekstogether.Yet,duringthelatewartheTurkishregulararmyhavedefeatedtheRussiansineverysingleengagementfromOltenitzaandCitatetoKarsandtoIngur.
ThefactisthattheintroductionofEuropeanmilitaryorganizationwithbarbaricnationsisfarfrombeingcompletedwhenthenewannyhasbeensubdivided,equippedanddrilledaftertheEuropeanfashion.Thatismerelythefirststeptowardsit.NorwilltheenactmentofsomeEuropeanmilitarycodesuffice;itwillnomoreensureEuropeandisciplinethanaEuropeansetofdrill-regulationswillproduce,byitself,Europeantacticsandstrategy.Themainpoint,andatthesametimethemaindifficulty,isthecreationofabodyofofficersandsergeants,educatedonthemodernEuropeansystem,totallyfreedfromtheoldnationalprejudicesandreminiscencesinmilitarymatters,andfittoinspirelifeintothenewformation.Thisrequiresalongtime,andissuretomeetwiththemostobstinateoppositionfromOrientalignorance,impatience,prejudice,andthevicissitudesoffortuneandfavourinherenttoEasterncourts.ASultanorShahisbuttooapttoconsiderhisarmyequaltoanythingassoonasthemencandefileinparade,wheel,deployandformcolumnwithoutgettingintohopelessdisorder.Andastomilitaryschools,theirfruitsaresoslowinripeningthatundertheinstabilitiesofEasternGovernmentstheycanscarcelyeverbeexpectedtoshowany.EveninTurkey,thesupplyofeducatedofficersisbutscanty,andtheTurkisharmycouldnothavedoneatall,duringthelatewar,withoutthegreatnumberofrenegadesandtheEuropeanofficersinitsranks.
Theonlyarmwhicheverywhereformsanexceptionistheartillery.
HeretheOrientalsaresomuchatfaultandsohelplessthattheyhavetoleavethewholemanagementtotheirEuropeaninstructors.Theconsequenceisthat,asinTurkeysoinPersia,theartillerywasfaraheadoftheinfantryandcavalry.
ThatunderthesecircumstancestheAnglo-Indianarmy,theoldestofallEasternarmiesorganizedontheEuropeansystem,theonlyonethatissubjectnottoanEastern,butanexclusivelyEuropeangovernment,andofficeredalmostentirelybyEuropeans-thatthisarmy,supportedbyastrongreserveofBritishtroopsandapowerfulnavy,shouldeasilydispersethePersianregulars,isbutamatterofcourse.ThereversewilldothePersiansthemoregoodthemoresignalitwas.Theywillnowsee,astheTurkshaveseenbefore,thatEuropeandressandparade-drillisnotalismaninitself,and,maybe,twentyyearshence,thePersianswillturnoutasrespectableastheTurksdidintheirlatevictories.
ThetroopswhichconqueredBushireandMohammerahwill,itisunderstood,beatoncesenttoChina.Theretheywillfindadifferentenemy.NoattemptsatEuropeanevolutions,buttheirregulararrayofAsiaticmasses,willopposethemthere.Ofthesetheynodoubtwilleasilydispose;butwhatiftheChinesewageagainstthemanationalwar,andifbarbarismbeunscrupulousenoughtousetheonlyweaponswhichitknowshowtowield?
ThereisevidentlyadifferentspiritamongtheChinesenowtowhattheyshowedinthewarof1840to\'42.Then,thepeoplewerequiet;
theylefttheEmperor\'ssoldierstofighttheinvaders,andsubmittedafteradefeatwithEasternfatalismtothepoweroftheenemy.Butnow,atleastinthesouthernprovinces,towhichthecontesthassofarbeenconfined,themassofthepeopletakeanactive,nay,afanaticalpartinthestruggleagainsttheforeigners.TheypoisonthebreadoftheEuropeancommunityatHongKongbywholesale,andwiththecoolestpremeditation.(AfewloaveshavebeensenttoLiebigforexamination.Hefoundlargequantitiesofarsenicpervadingallpartsofthem,showingthatithadalreadybeenworkedintothedough.Thedose,however,wassostrongthatitmusthaveactedasanemetic,andtherebycounteractedtheeffectsofthepoison).Theygowithhiddenarmsonboardtradingsteamers,and,whenonthejourney,massacrethecrewandEuropeanpassengersandseizetheboat.
Theykidnapandkilleveryforeignerwithintheirreach.Theverycooliesemigratingtoforeigncountriesriseinmutiny,andasifbyconcert,onboardeveryemigrantship,andfightforitspossession,and,ratherthansurrender,godowntothebottomwithit,orperishinitsflames.EvenoutofChina,theChinesecolonists,themostsubmissiveandmeekofsubjectshitherto,conspireandsuddenlyriseinnightlyinsurrection,asatSarawak;or,asatSingapore,arehelddownbymainforceandvigilanceonly.ThepiraticalpolicyoftheBritishGovernmenthascausedthisuniversaloutbreakofallChineseagainstallforeigners,andmarkeditasawarofextermination.
Whatisanarmytodoagainstapeopleresortingtosuchmeansofwarfare?Where,howfar,isittopenetrateintotheenemy\'scountry,howtomaintainitselfthere?Civilizationmongerswhothrowhotshellsonadefencelesscityandaddrapetomurder,maycallthesystemcowardly,barbarous,atrocious;butwhatmattersittotheChineseifitbeonlysuccessful?SincetheBritishtreatthemasbarbarians,theycannotdenytothemthefullbenefitoftheirbarbarism.Iftheirkidnappings,surprises,midnightmassacresarewhatwecallcowardly,thecivilization-mongersshouldnotforgetthataccordingtotheirownshowingtheycouldnotstandagainstEuropeanmeansofdestructionwiththeirordinarymeansofwarfare.
Inshort,insteadofmoralizingonthehorribleatrocitiesoftheChinese,asthechivalrousEnglishpressdoes,wehadbetterrecognizethatthisisawarproarisetfocis,apopularwarforthemaintenanceofChinesenationality,withallitsoverbearingprejudice,stupidity,learnedignoranceandpedanticbarbarismifyoulike,butyetapopularwar.Andinapopularwarthemeansusedbytheinsurgentnationcannotbemeasuredbythecommonlyrecognizedrulesofregularwarfare,norbyanyotherabstractstandard,butbythedegreeofcivilizationonlyattainedbythatinsurgentnation.
TheEnglisharethistimeplacedinadifficultposition.Thusfar,thenationalChinesefanaticismseemstoextendnofartherthanoverthosesouthernprovinceswhichhavenotadheredtothegreatrebellion.
@1)Isthewartobeconfinedtothese?Thenitwouldcertainlyleadtonoresult,novitalpointoftheempirebeingmenaced.Atthesametime,itwouldbeaverydangerouswarfortheEnglishifthefanaticismextendstothepeopleoftheinterior.Cantonmaybetotallydestroyedandthecoastsnibbledatinallpossiblepoints,butalltheforcestheBritishcouldbringtogetherwouldnotsufficetoconquerandholdthetwoprovincesofKwangtungandKwang-si.What,then,cantheydofurther?ThecountrynorthofCanton,asfarasShanghaiandNanking,isinthehandsoftheChineseinsurgents,whomitwouldbebadpolicytooffend;andnorthofNankingtheonlypointofattackonwhichmightleadtoadecisiveresultisPeking.Butwhereisthearmytoformafortifiedandgarrisonedbaseofoperationsontheshore,toovercomeeveryobstacleontheroad,toleavedetachmentstosecurethecommunicationswiththeshore,andtoappearinanythinglikeformidablestrengthbeforethewallsofatownthesizeofLondon,ahundredmilesfromitslandingplace?Ontheotherside,asuccessfuldemonstrationagainstthecapitalwouldshaketoitsground——workstheveryexistenceoftheChineseEmpire——acceleratetheupsettingoftheManchudynastyandpavetheway,notforBritish,butforRussianprogress.
ThenewAnglo-Chinesewarpresentssomanycomplicationsthatitisutterlyimpossibletoguesstheturnitmaytake.Forsomemonthsthewantoftroops,andforastilllongertimethewantofdecision,willkeeptheBritishprettyinactiveexcept,perhaps,onsomeunimportantpoint,towhichunderactualcircumstancesCantontoomaybesaidtobelong.
Onethingiscertain,thatthedeath-hourofOldChinaisrapidlydrawingnigh.CivilwarhasalreadydividedtheSouthfromtheNorthoftheEmpire,andtheRebelKingseemstobeassecurefromtheImperialists(ifnotfromtheintriguesofhisownfollowers)atNanking,astheHeavenlyEmperorfromtherebelsatPeking.Cantoncarrieson,sofar,asortofindependentwarwiththeEnglish,andallforeignersingeneral;andwhileBritishandFrenchfleetsandtroopsflocktoHongKong,slowlybutsteadilytheSiberian-lineCossacksadvancetheirstanitzasfromtheDaurianmountainstothebanksoftheAmur,andtheRussianmarinescloseinbyfortificationsthesplendidharboursofManchuria.TheveryfanaticismofthesouthernChineseintheirstruggleagainstforeignersseemstomarkaconsciousnessofthesupremedangerinwhichOldChinaisplaced;andbeforemanyyearspassawayweshallhavetowitnessthedeathstrugglesoftheoldestempireintheworld,andtheopeningdayofaneweraforallAsia.
[TRADEOROPIUM?]NewYorkDailyTribuneSeptember20,1858
byKARLMARX
THENEWSofthenewtreatywrungfromChinabythealliedPlenipotentiarieshas,itwouldappear,conjuredupthesamewildvistasofanimmenseextensionoftradewhichdancedbeforetheeyesofthecommercialmindin1845,aftertheconclusionofthefirstChinesewar.SupposingthePetersburgwirestohavespokentruth,isitquitecertainthatanincreaseoftheChinesetrademustfollowuponthemultiplicationofitsemporiums?IsthereanyprobabilitythatthewarOf1857-8willleadtomoresplendidresultsthanthewarof1839-42?
SomuchiscertainthattheTreatyOf1842,insteadofincreasingAmericanandEnglishexportstoChina,provedinstrumentalonlyinprecipitatingandaggravatingthecommercialcrisisof1847.Inasimilarway,byraisingdreamsofaninexhaustiblemarketandbyfosteringfalsespeculations,thepresenttreatymayhelppreparinganewcrisisattheverymomentwhenthemarketoftheworldisbutslowlyrecoveringfromtherecentuniversalshock.Besidesitsnegativeresult,thefirstopium-warsucceededinstimulatingtheopiumtradeattheexpenseoflegitimatecommerce,andsowillthissecondopium-wardoifEnglandbenotforcedbythegeneralpressureofthecivilizedworldtoabandonthecompulsoryopiumcultivationinIndiaandthearmedopiumpropagandatoChina.Weforbeardwellingonthemoralityofthattrade,describedbyMontgomeryMartin,himselfanEnglishman,inthefollowingterms:
\"Why,the\'slavetrade\'wasmercifulcomparedwiththe\'opiumtrade\'.WedidnotdestroythebodiesoftheAfricans,foritwasourimmediateinteresttokeepthemalive;wedidnotdebasetheirnatures,cormpttheirminds,nordestroytheirsouls.Buttheopiumsellerslaysthebodyafterhehascorrupted,degradedandannihilatedthemoralbeingofunhappysinners,while,everyhourisbringingnewvictimstoaMolochwhichknowsnosatiety,andwheretheEnglishmurdererandChinesesuicideviewitheachotherinofferingsathisshrine.\"
TheChinesecannottakebothgoodsanddrug;underactualcircumstances,extensionoftheChinesetraderesolvesintoextensionoftheopiumtrade;thegrowthofthelatterisincompatiblewiththedevelopmentoflegitimatecommercethesepropositionswereprettygenerallyadmittedtwoyearsago.ACommitteeoftheHouseofCommons,appointedin1847totakeintoconsiderationthestateofBritishcommercialintercoursewithChina,reportedthus:
Weregret\"thatthetradewiththatcountryhasbeenforsometimeinaveryunsatisfactorycondition,andthattheresultofourextendedintercoursehasbynomeansrealizedthejustexpectationswhichhadnaturallybeenfoundedonafreeraccesstosomagnificentamarketWefindthatthedifficultiesofthetradedonotarisefromanywantofdemandinChinaforarticlesofBritishmanufactureorfromtheincreasingcompetitionofothernationsThepaymentforopiumabsorbsthesilvertothegreatinconvenienceofthegeneraltrafficoftheChinese;andteaandsilkmustinfactabsorbtherest.\"
TheFriendofChina,OfJuly28,I849,generalizingthesameproposition,saysinsetterms:
\"Theopiumtradeprogressessteadily.TheincreasedconsumptionofteasandsilkinGreatBritainandtheUnitedStateswouldmerelyresultintheincreaseoftheopiumtrade;thecaseofthemanufacturersishopeless.\"
OneoftheleadingAmericanmerchantsinChinareduced,inanarticleinsertedinHunt\'sMerchants\'Magazine,forJanuary,1850,thewholequestionofthetradewithChinatothispoint:\"Whichbranchofcommerceistobesuppressed,theopiumtradeortheexporttradeofAmericanorEnglishproduce?\"TheChinesethemselvestookexactlythesameviewofthecase.MontgomeryMartinnarrates:\"IinquiredoftheTaoutaiatShanghaiwhichwouldbethebestmeansofincreasingourcommercewithChina,andhisfirstanswertome,inthepresenceofCapt.Balfour,HerMajesty\'sConsul,was:\'Ceasetosendussomuchopium,andwewillbeabletotakeyourmanufactures.\'\"
Thehistoryofgeneralcommerceduringthelasteightyearshas,inanewandstrikingmanner,illustratedthesepositions;but,beforeanalysingthedeleteriouseffectsonlegitimatecommerceoftheopiumtrade,weproposegivingashortreviewoftheriseandprogressofthatstupendoustrafficwhich,whetherweregardthetragicalcollisionsforming,sotosay,theaxisroundwhichitturns,ortheeffectsproducedbyitonthegeneralrelationsoftheEasternandWesternworlds,standssolitaryonrecordintheannalsofmankind.
Previousto1767thequantityofopiumexportedfromIndiadidnotexceed200chests,thechestweighingabout133lbs.OpiumwaslegallyadmittedinChinaonthepaymentofadutyofabout$3perchest,asamedicine;thePortuguese,whobroughtitfromTurkey,beingitsalmostexclusiveimportersintotheCelestialEmpire.InI773,ColonelWatsonandVice-PresidentWheeler——personsdeservingtotakeaplaceamongtheHermentiers,Palmersandotherpoisonersofworld-widefame——
suggestedtotheEastIndiaCompanytheideaofenteringupontheopiumtrafficwithChina.Consequently,therewasestablishedadepotforopiuminvesselsanchoredinabaytothesouthwestofMacao.Thespeculationprovedafailure.In1781theBengalGovernmentsentanarmedvessel,ladenwithopium,toChina;and,inI794,theCompanystationedalargeopiumvesselatWhampoa,theanchoragefortheportofCanton.ItseemsthatWhampoaprovedamoreconvenientdepotthanMacao,because,onlytwoyearsafteritsselection,theChineseGovernmentfounditnecessarytopassalawwhichthreatenedChinesesmugglersofopiumtobebeatenwithabambooandexposedinthestreetswithwoodencollarsaroundtheirnecks.About1798,theEastIndiaCompanyceasedtobedirectexportersofopium,buttheybecameitsproducers.TheopiummonopolywasestablishedinIndia;whiletheCompany\'sownshipswerehypocriticallyforbiddenfromtraffickinginthedrug,thelicencesitgrantedforprivateshipstradingtoChinacontainingaprovisionwhichattachedapenaltytothemiffreightedwithopiumofotherthantheCompany\'sownmake.In1800,theimportintoChinahadreachedthenumberof2,000chests.Having,duringtheeighteenthcentury,bornetheaspectcommontoallfeudsbetweentheforeignmerchantandthenationalcustom-house,thestrugglebetweentheEastIndiaCompanyandtheCelestialEmpireassumed,sincethebeginningofthenineteenthcentury,featuresquitedistinctandexceptional;whiletheChineseEmperor,inordertocheckthesuicideofhispeople,prohibitedatoncetheimportofthepoisonbytheforeigner,anditsconsumptionbythenatives,theEastIndiaCompanywasrapidlyconvertingthecultivationofopiuminIndia,anditscontrabandsaletoChina,intointernalpartsofitsownfinancialsystem.
Whilethesemi-barbarianstoodontheprincipleofmorality,thecivilizedopposedtohimtheprincipleofself.Thatagiantempire,containingalmostone-thirdofthehumanrace,vegetatingintheteethoftime,insulatedbytheforcedexclusionofgeneralintercourse,andthuscontrivingtodupeitselfwithdelusionsofCelestialperfection-thatsuchanempireshouldatlastbeovertakenbyfateon[the]occasionofadeadlyduel,inwhichtherepresentativeoftheantiquatedworldappearspromptedbyethicalmotives,whiletherepresentativeofoverwhelmingmodernsocietyfightsfortheprivilegeofbuyinginthecheapestandsellinginthedearestmarkets-this,indeed,isasortoftragicalcoupletstrangerthananypoetwouldeverhavedaredtofancy.
FREETRADEANDMONOPOLYNewYorkDailyTribuneSeptember25,1858
byKARLMARX
ITWAStheassumptionoftheopiummonopolyinIndiabytheBritishGovernmentwhichledtotheproscriptionoftheopiumtradeinChina.
ThecruelpunishmentsinflictedbytheCelestiallegislatoruponhisowncontumacioussubjects,andthestringentprohibitionestablishedattheChinesecustom-housesprovedalikenugatory.ThenexteffectofthemoralresistanceoftheChinamanwasthedemoralization,bytheEnglishman,oftheImperialauthorities,custom-houseofficersandmandarinsgenerally.ThecorruptionthatateintotheheartoftheCelestialbureaucracy,anddestroyedthebulwarkofthepatriarchalconstitution,was,togetherwiththeopiumchests,smuggledintotheEmpirefromtheEnglishstoreshipsanchoredatWhampoa.
NurturedbytheEastIndiaCompany,vainlycombatedbytheCentralGovernmentatPekin,theopiumtradegraduallyassumedlargerproportions,untilitabsorbedabout$2,500,000in1816.ThethrowingopeninthatyearoftheIndiancommerce,withthesingleexceptionoftheteatrade,whichstillcontinuedtobemonopolizedbytheEastIndiaCompany,gaveanewandpowerfulstimulustotheoperationsoftheEnglishcontrabandists.In1820,thenumberofchestssmuggledintoChinahadincreasedto5,147;in182Ito7,000,andin1824to12,639.Meanwhile,theChineseGovernment,atthesametimethatitaddressedthreateningremonstrancestotheforeignmerchants,punishedtheHongKongmerchants,knownastheirabettors,developedanunwontedactivityinitsprosecutionofthenativeopiumconsumers,and,atitscustom-houses,putintopracticemorestringentmeasures.Thefinalresult,likethatofsimilarexertionsin1794,wastodrivetheopiumdepotsfromaprecarioustoamoreconvenientbasisofoperations.
MacaoandWhampoawereabandonedfortheIslandofLin-Tin,attheentranceoftheCantonRiver,theretobecomemanned.Inthesameway,whentheChineseGovernmenttemporarilysucceededinstoppingtheoperationsoftheoldCantonhouses,thetradeonlyshiftedhands,andpassedtoalowerclassofmen,preparedtocarryitonatallhazardsandbywhatevermeans.Thankstothegreaterfacilitiesthusafforded,theopiumtradeincreasedduringthetenyearsfrom1824to1834from12,639to21,785chests.
Liketheyears1800,1816and1824,theyear1834marksanepochinthehistoryoftheopiumtrade.TheEastIndiaCompanythenlostnotonlyitsprivilegeoftradinginChinesetea,buthadtodiscontinueandabstainfromallcommercialbusinesswhatever.Itbeingthustransformedfromamercantileintoamerelygovernmentestablishment,thetradetoChinabecamecompletelythrownopentoEnglishprivateenterprisewhichpushedonwithsuchvigourthat,in1837,39,000
chestsofopium,valuedat$25,000,000,weresuccessfullysmuggledintoChina,despitethedesperateresistanceoftheCelestialGovernment.
Twofactshereclaimourattention:First,thatofeverystepintheprogressoftheexporttradeofChinasince1816,adisproportionatelylargepartprogressivelyfellupontheopium-smugglingbranch;andsecondly,thathandinhandwiththegradualextinctionoftheostensiblemercantileinterestoftheAnglo-IndianGovernmentintheopiumtradegrewtheimportanceofitsfiscalinterestinthatillicittraffic.In1837theChineseGovernmenthadatlastarrivedatapointwheredecisiveactioncouldnolongerbedelayed.Thecontinuousdrainofsilver,causedbytheopiumimportations,hadbeguntoderangetheexchequer,aswellasthemoneyedcirculationoftheCelestialEmpire.
HeuNailzi,oneofthemostdistinguishedChinesestatesmen,proposedtolegalizetheopiumtradeandmakemoneyoutofit;butafterafulldeliberation,inwhichallthehighofficersoftheEmpireshared,andwhichextendedoveraperiodofmorethanayear\'sduration,theChineseGovernmentdecidedthat,\"Onaccountoftheinjuriesitinflictedonthepeople,thenefarioustrafficshouldnotbelegalized.\"Asearlyas1830,adutyof25percentwouldhaveyieldedarevenueOf$3,850,000.In1837,itwouldhaveyieldeddoublethatsum,butthentheCelestialbarbariandeclined,layingataxsuretoriseinproportiontothedegradationofhispeople.In1853,HienFang,thepresentEmperor,understillmoredistressedcircumstances,andwiththefullknowledgeofthefutilityofalleffortsatstoppingtheincreasingimportofopium,perseveredinthesternpolicyofhisancestors.Letmeremark,enPassant,thatbypersecutingtheopiumconsumptionasaheresytheEmperorgaveitstrafficalltheadvantagesofareligiouspropaganda.TheextraordinarymeasuresoftheChineseGovernmentduringtheyears1837,1838and1839,whichculminatedinCommissionerLin\'sarrivalatCanton,andtheconfiscationanddestruction,byhisorders,ofthesmuggledopium,affordedthepretextforthefirstAnglo-Chinesewar,theresultsofwhichdevelopedthemselvesintheChineserebellion,theutterexhaustionoftheImperialexchequer,thesuccessfulencroachmentofRussiafromtheNorth,andthegiganticdimensionsassumedbytheopiumtradeintheSouth.AlthoughproscribedinthetreatywithwhichEnglandterminatedawar,commencedandcarriedoninitsdefence,theopiumtradehaspracticallyenjoyedperfectimpunitysince1843.Theimportationwasestimated,in1856,atabout$35,000,000,whileinthesameyear,theAnglo-IndianGovernmentdrewarevenueOf$25,000,000,justthesixthpartofitstotalStateincome,fromtheopiummonopoly.Thepretextsonwhichthesecondopiumwarhasbeenundertakenareoftoorecentdatetoneedanycommentary.
Wecannotleavethispartofthesubjectwithoutsinglingoutoneflagrantself-contradictionoftheChristianity-cantingandcivilization-mongeringBritishGovernment.Initsimperialcapacityitaffectstobeathoroughstrangertothecontrabandopiumtrade,andeventoenterintotreatiesproscribingit.Yet,initsIndiancapacity,itforcestheopiumcultivationuponBengal,tothegreatdamageoftheproductiveresourcesofthatcountry;compelsonepartoftheIndianryotstoengageinthepoppyculture;enticesanotherpartintothesamebydintofmoneyadvances;keepsthewholesalemanufactureofthedeleteriousdrugaclosemonopolyinitshands;
watchesbyawholearmyofofficialspiesitsgrowth,itsdeliveryatappointedplaces,itsinspissationandpreparationforthetasteoftheChineseconsumers,itsformationintopackagesespeciallyadaptedtotheconveniencyofsmuggling,andfinallyitsconveyancetoCalcutta,whereitisputupatauctionattheGovernmentsales,andmadeoverbytheStateofficerstothespeculators,thencetopassintothehandsofthecontrabandistswholanditinChina.ThechestcostingtheBritishGovernmentabout250rupeesissoldattheCalcuttaauctionmartatapricerangingfrom1,210to1,600rupees.But,notyetsatisfiedwiththismatter-of-factcomplicity,thesameGovernment,tothishour,entersintoexpressprofitandlossaccountswiththemerchantsandshippers,whoembarkinthehazardousoperationofpoisoninganempire.
TheIndianfinancesoftheBritishGovernmenthave,infact,beenmadetodependnotonlyontheopiumtradewithChina,butonthecontrabandcharacterofthattrade.WeretheChineseGovernmenttolegalizetheopiumtradesimultaneouslywithtoleratingthecultivationofthepoppyinChina,theAnglo-Indianexchequerwouldexperienceaseriouscatastrophe.Whileopenlypreachingfreetradeinpoison.itsecretlydefendsthemonopolyofitsmanufacture.WheneverwelookcloselyintothenatureofBritishfreetrade,monopolyisprettygenerallyfoundtolieatthebottomofits\"freedom.\"
TRADEANDTHETREATYNewYorkDailyTribuneOctober5,1858
byKARLMARX
THEUNSUCCESSFULissue,inacommercialpointofview,ofSirHenryPottinger\'sChinesetreaty,signedonAugust29,1842,anddictated,likethenewtreatieswithChina,atthecannon\'smouth,isafactnowrecollectedevenbythateminentorganofBritishFreeTrade,theLondonEconomist.HavingstoodforwardasoneofthestaunchestapologistsofthelateinvasionofChina,thatjournalnowfeelsitselfobligedto\"temper\"thesanguinehopeswhichhavebeencultivatedinotherquarters.TheEconomistconsiderstheeffectsontheBritishexporttradeofthetreatyof1842,\"aprecedentbywhichtoguardourselvesagainsttheresultofmistakenoperations.\"Thiscertainlyissoundadvice.Thereasons,however,whichMr.WilsonallegesinexplanationofthefailureofthefirstattemptatforciblyenlargingtheChinesemarketforWesternproduce,appearfarfromconclusive.
ThefirstgreatcausepointedoutofthesignalfailureisthespeculativeoverstockingoftheChinesemarket,duringthefirstthreeyearsfollowingthePottingertreaty,andthecarelessnessoftheEnglishmerchantsastothenatureoftheChinesedemand.TheEnglishexportstoChinawhich,in1836,amountedto?,326,000,hadfallenin1842to?69000
Theirrapidandcontinuedriseduringthefollowingsixyearsisshownbythesefigures:
1842?69,000
1843?,456,000
1844?,305,000
1845?,295,000
Yetin1846theexportsdidnotonlysinkbelowthelevelof1836,butthedisastersovertakingtheChinahousesatLondonduringthecrisisof1847provedthecomputedvalueoftheexportsfrom1843to1846,suchasitappearsintheofficialreturntables,tohavebynomeanscorrespondedtothevalueactuallyrealized.IftheEnglishexportersthuserredinthequantity,theydidnotlesssointhequalityofthearticlesofferedtoChineseconsumption.Inproofofthelatterassertion,theEconomistquotesfromMr.W.Cooke,thelatecorrespondentoftheLondonTimesatShanghaiandCanton,thefollowingpassages:
\"In1843,1844and1845,whenthenorthernportshadjustbeenopened,thepeopleathomewerewildwithexcitement.AneminentfirmatSheffieldsentoutalargeconsignmentofknivesandforks,anddeclaredthemselvespreparedtosupplyallChinawithcutleryTheyweresoldatpriceswhichscarcelyrealizedtheirfreight.ALondonhouse,offamousname,sentoutatremendousconsignmentofpianofortes,\'whichsharedthesamefate.\'Whathappenedinthecaseofcutleryandpianosoccurredalso,inalessnoticeablemanner,\'inthecaseofworstedandcottonmanufactures.\'Manchestermadeagreatblindeffortwhentheportswereopened,andthateffortfailed.Sincethenshehasfallenintoanapathy,andtruststothechapterofaccidents.\"
Lastly,toprovethedependenceofthereduction,maintenanceorimprovementofthetrade,onthestudyofthewantsoftheconsumer,theEconomistreproducesfromthesameauthoritythefollowingreturnfortheyear1856:
1845.1846.1856.
WorstedStuffi(pieces)13,5693,4157,428
Camlets13,3748,0344,470
Longells91,53175,78496,642
Woollens62,73156,99638,553
PrintedCottons100,6158x,150281,784
PlainCottons2,998,1261,859,7402,817,624
CottonTwistlbs2,640,0985,324,0505,579,600
Nowalltheseargumentsandillustrationsexplainnothingbeyondthereactionfollowingtheovertradeof1843-45,ItisaphenomenonbynomeanspeculiartotheChinesetrade,thatasuddenexpansionofcommerceshouldbefollowedbyitsviolentcontractions,orthatanewmarket,atitsopening.shouldbechokedbyBritishoversupplies;thearticlesthrownuponitbeingnotverynicelycalculated,inregardeithertotheactualwantsorthepayingpowersoftheconsumers.Infact,thisisastandingfeatureinthehistoryofthemarketsoftheworld.OnNapoleon\'sfall,aftertheopeningoftheEuropeancontinent,Britishexportsprovedsodisproportionatetothecontinentalfacultiesofabsorptionthat\"thetransitionfromwartopeace\"provedmoredisastrousthanthecontinentalsystemitself.
Canning\'srecognitionoftheindependenceoftheSpanishcoloniesinAmericawasalsoinstrumentalinproducingthecommercialcrisisof1825WarescalculatedforthemeridianofMoscowwerethendispatchedtoMexicoandColombia.Andinourownday,notwithstandingitselasticity,evenAustraliahasnotescapedthefatecommontoallnewmarkets,ofhavingitspowersofconsumptionaswellasitsmeansofpaymentover-stocked.ThephenomenonpeculiartotheChinesemarketisthis:thatsinceitsopeningbythetreatyof1842,theexporttoGreatBritainofteaandsilk,ofChineseproduce,hascontinuallybeenexpanding,whiletheimporttradeintoChinaofBritishmanufactureshas,onthewhole,remainedstationary.ThecontinuousandincreasingbalanceoftradeinfavourofChinamightbesaidtobearananalogytothestateofcommercialbalancebetweenRussiaandGreatBritain;butthen,inthelattercase,everythingisexplainedbytheprotectivepolicyofRussia,whiletheChineseimportdutiesarelowerthanthoseofanyothercountryEnglandtradeswith.TheaggregatevalueofChineseexportstoEngland,whichbefore1842mightberatedataboutIC.7,000,000,amountedin1856tothesumofaboutIC9,500,000.WhilethequantityofteaimportedintoGreatBritainneverreachedmorethan50,000,000lbs.before1842,ithadswollenin1856toabout90,000,000
lbs.Ontheotherhand,theimportanceoftheBritishimportofChinesesilksonlydatesfrom1852.Itsprogressmaybecomputedfromthefollowingfigures:
1852.1853.1854.1855.1856.
Silkimp\'dlbs2,418,3432,838,0474,576,7064,436,9623,723,693
Value?3,318,II23,013,3963,676,116
Nowtake,ontheotherhand,themovementoftheBRITISHEXPORTSTOCHINA
VALUEDINPOUNDSSTERLING.
1834?42,852
18351,074,708
18361,326,388
18381,204,356
Fortheperiodfollowingtheopeningofthemarketin1842andtheacquisitionofHongKongbytheBritish,wefindthefollowingreturns:
1845?,359,000
18461,200,000
18481,445,950
18522,508,399
18531,749,597
18541,000,716
18551,122,241
1856upwardof2,000,000
TheEconomisttriestoaccountforthestationaryandrelativelydecreasingimportsofBritishmanufactureintotheChinesemarketbyforeigncompetition,andMr.Cookeisagainquotedtobearwitnesstothisproposition.Accordingtothisauthority,theEnglisharebeatenbyfaircompetitionintheChinesemarketinmanybranchesoftrade.
TheAmericans,hesays,beattheEnglishindrillsandsheetings.AtShanghaiin1856theimportswere221,716piecesofAmericandrills,against8,745English,and14,420ofAmericansheetings,against1,240
English.Inwoollengoods,ontheotherhand,GermanyandRussiaaresaidtopresshardlyontheirEnglishrivals.WewantnootherproofthanthisillustrationtoconvinceusthatMr.CookeandtheEconomistarebothmistakenintheappreciationoftheChinesemarket.TheyconsideraslimitedtotheAnglo-ChinesetradefeatureswhichareexactlyreproducedinthetradebetweentheUnitedStatesandtheCelestialEmpire.In1837,theexcessoftheChineseexportstotheUnitedStatesovertheimportsintoChinawasabout?60,000.Duringtheperiodsincethetreatyof1842,theUnitedStateshavereceivedanannualaverageof?,000,000inChineseproduce,forwhichwepaidinAmericanmerchandise?00,000.Ofthe?,602,849towhichtheaggregateimportsintoShanghai,exclusiveofspecieandopium,amountedin1855,Englandsupplied?,122,24I,America?72,708,andothercountries?07,900;whiletheexportsreachedatotalof?2,603,540,ofwhich?,405,040weretoEngland,?,396,406toAmerica,and?02,088toothercountries.CompareonlytheAmericanexportstothevalueof?72,708withtheirimportsfromShanghaiexceeding?,000,000.If,nevertheless,Americancompetitionhas,toanysensibledegree,madeinroadsonBritishtraffic,howlimitedafieldofemploymentfortheaggregatecommerceofforeignnationstheChinesemarketmustoffer.
ThelastcauseassignedtothetriflingimportancetheChineseimportmarkethasassumedsinceitsopeningin1842,istheChineserevolution,butnotwithstandingthatrevolution,theexportstoChinarelatively[swelled]in1851-52,inthegeneralincreaseoftrade,and,duringthewholeoftherevolutionaryepoch,theopiumtrade,insteadoffallingoff,rapidlyobtainedcolossaldimensions.Howeverthatmaybe,thismuchwillbeadmitted,thatalltheobstaclestoforeignimportsoriginatinginthedisorderedstateoftheempiremustbeincreased,insteadofbeingdiminished,bythelatepiraticalwar,andthefreshhumiliationsheapedontherulingdynasty.
Itappearstous,afteracarefulsurveyofthehistoryofChinesecommerce,that,generallyspeaking,theconsumingandpayingpowersoftheCclestialshavebeengreatlyoverestimated.WiththepresenteconomicalframeworkofChinesesociety,whichturnsupondiminutiveagricultureanddomesticmanufacturesasitspivots,anylargeimportofforeignproduceisoutofthequestion.Still,totheamountofL8,000,000,asumwhichmayberoughlycalculatedtoformtheaggregatebalanceinfavourofChina,asagainstEnglandandtheUnitedStates,itmightgraduallyabsorbasurplusquantityofEnglishandAmericangoodsiftheopiumtradeweresuppressed.ThisconclusionisnecessarilyarrivedatontheanalysisofthesimplefactthattheChinesefinancesandmonetarycirculation,inspiteofthefavourablebalanceoftrade,areseriouslyderangedbyanimportofopiumtotheamountofabout?,000,000.
JohnBull,however,usedtoplumehimselfonhishighstandardofmorality,preferstobringuphisadversebalanceoftradebyperiodicalwartributesextortedfromChinaonpiraticalpretexts.HeonlyforgetsthattheCarthegenianandRomanmethodsofmakingforeignpeoplepay,are,ifcombinedinthesamehands,suretoclashwithanddestroyeachother.
THEBRITISHANDCHINESETREATYNewYorkDailyTribuneOctober15,1858
byKARLMARX
THEOFFICIALsummaryoftheAnglo-Chinesetreaty,whichtheBritishMinistryhasatlastlaidbeforethepublic,adds,onthewhole,butlittletotheinformationthathadalreadybeenconveyedthroughdifferentotherchannels.Thefirstandthelastarticlescomprise,infact,thepointsinthetreatyofexclusivelyEnglishinterest.Bythefirstarticle,\"theSupplementaryTreatyandgeneralregulationsoftrade,\"stipulatedaftertheconclusionofthetreatyofNanking,are\"abrogated.\"ThatsupplementarytreatyprovidedthattheEnglishConsulsresidingatHongKong,andthefiveChineseportsopenedtoBritishcommerce,weretocooperatewiththeChineseauthoritiesincaseanyEnglishvesselsshouldarrivewithintherangeoftheirconsularjurisdictionwithopiumonboard.AformalprohibitionwasthuslaiduponEnglishmerchantstoimportthecontrabanddrug,andtheEnglishGovernment,tosomedegree,constituteditselfoneoftheCustom-HouseofficersoftheCelestialEmpire.Thatthesecondopiumwarshouldendinremovingthefettersbywhichthefirstopiumwarstillaffectedtochecktheopiumtraffic,appearsaresultquitelogical,andaconsummationdevoutlycalledforbythatpartoftheBritishmercantilepublicwhichchantedmostlustyapplausetoPalmerston\'sCantonfireworks.Weare,however,muchmistakenifthisofficialabandonmentoilthepartofEnglandofherhypocriticaloppositiontotheopiumtradeisnottoleadtoconsequencesquitethereverseofthoseexpected.ByengagingtheBritishGovernmenttocooperateinthesuppressionoftheopiumtraffic,theChineseGovernmenthadrecognizeditsinabilitytodosoonitsownaccount.
TheSupplementaryTreatyofNankingwasasupremeandratherdesperateeffortatgettingridoftheopiumtradebyforeignaid.Thisefforthavingfailed,andbeingnowproclaimedafailure,theopiumtraffic,beingnow,sofarasEng.landisconcerned,legalized,littledoubtcanremainthattheChineseGovernmentwilltryamethodalikerecommendedbypoliticalandfinancialconsiderations——viz:legalizethecultiva.tionofthepoppyinChina,andlaydutiesontheforeignopiumimported.WhatevermaybetheintentionsofthepresentChineseGovernment,theverycircumstancesinwhichitfindsitselfplacedbythetreatyofTientsin,showallthatway.
Thatchangeonceeffected,theopiummonopolyofIndia,andwithittheIndianExchequer,mustreceiveadeadlyblow,whiletheBritishopiumtrafficwillshrinktothedimensionsofanordinarytrade,andverysoonprovealosingone.Tillnow,ithasbeenagameplayedbyJohnBullwithloadeddice.Tohavebaffleditsownobjectseems,therefore,themostobviousresultoftheopiumwarNo.II.
Havingdeclared\"ajustwar\"onRussia,generousEnglanddesisted,attheconclusionofpeace,fromdemandinganyindemnityforherwarexpenses.Having,ontheotherhand,allalongprofessedtobeatpeacewithChinaitself,she,accordingly,cannotbutmakeitpayforexpensesincurred,intheopinionofherownpresentMinisters,bypiracyonherownpart.However,thefirsttidingsofthefifteenortwentymillionsofpoundssterlingtobepaidbytheCelestialsprovedaquietertothemostscrupulousBritishconscience,andverypleasantcalculationsastothebeneficialeffectsoftheSyceesilveruponthebalanceoftrade,andthemetalreserveoftheBankofEngland,wereenteredintobytheEconomistandthewritersofmoneyarticlesgenerally.Butalas!thefirstimpressionswhichthePalmerstonianpresshadgivenitselfsomuchtroubletoproduceandworkupon,weretootendertobeartheshockofrealinformation.
A\"separatearticleprovidesthatasumoftwomillionsoftaels\"shallbepaid\"onaccountofthelossessustainedbyBritishsubjectsthroughthemisconductoftheChineseauthoritiesatCanton;andafurthersumoftwomillionsoftaelsonaccountof\"theexpensesofthewar.Now,thesesumstogetheramountto?,334,000only,whilein1842,theEmperorofChinahadtopay?,200,000,ofwhich?,200,000wasindemnityforthecontrabandopiumconfiscated,and?,000,000fortheexpensesofthewar.Tocomedownfrom?,200,000,withHongKongintothebargain,toasimple?,334,000,seemsnothrivingtradeafterall;
buttheworstremainsstilltobesaid.Since,saystheChineseEmperor,yourswasnowarwithChina,buta\"provincialwar\"withCantononly,tryyourselveshowtosqueezeoutoftheprovinceofKwangtungthedamageswhichyouramiablewarsteamershavecompelledmetoadjudgetoyou.Meanwhile,yourillustriousGen.StraubenzeemaykeepCantonasamaterialguaranty,andcontinuetomaketheBritisharmsthelaughing-stockevenofChinesebraves.ThedolefulfeelingsofsanguineJohnBullattheseclauses,whichthesmallbootyof?,334,000isencumberedwith,havealreadyventedthemselvesinaudiblegroans.
\"Instead,\"saysoneLondonpaper,\"ofbeingabletowithdrawour53
ships-of-war,andseethemreturntriumphantwithmillionsofSyceesilver,wemaylookforwardtothepleasingnecessityofsendinganarmyof5,000mentorecaptureandholdCanton,andtoassistthefleetincarryingonthatprovincialwarwhichtheConsul\'sdeputyhasdeclared.ButwillthisprovincialwarhavenoconsequencesbeyonddrivingourCantontradetootherChineseports?Willnotthecontinuationofit[theprovincialwar]giveRussiaalargeportionoftheteatrade?MaynottheContinent,andEnglandherself,becomedependentonRussiaandtheUnitedStatesfortheirtea?\"
JohnBull\'sanxietyastotheeffectsofthe\"provincialwar\"upontheteatradeisnotquitegratuitous.FromMacgregor\'sCommercialTariffiitmaybeseenthatinthelastyearoftheformerChinesewar,Russiareceived120,000chestsofteaatKiachta.
TheyearaftertheconclusionofpeacewithChinatheRussiandemandfelloff75percent,amountingto30,000only.Atallevents,thecostsstilltobeincurredbytheBritishindistrainingKwangtungaresuresotoswellthewrongsideofthebalancethatthissecondChinawarwillhardlybeself-paying,thegreatestfaultwhich,asMr.
Emersonjustlyremarks,anythingcanbeguiltyofinBritishestimation.
AnothergreatsuccessoftheEnglishinvasioniscontainedinArt-51,accordingtowhichtheterm\"barbarian\"\"shallnotbeapplied\"totheBritishGovernmentortoBritishsubjects\"inanyChineseofficialdocumentissuedbytheChineseauthorities.\"TheChineseauthoritiesstylingthemselvesCelestials,howhumbletotheirunderstandingmustnotappearJohnBull,who,insteadofinsistingonbeingcalleddivineorOlympian,contentshimselfwithweedingthecharacterrepresentingthewordbarbarianoutoftheofficialdocuments.
ThecommercialarticlesoftheTreatygiveEnglandnoadvantagenottobeenjoyedbyherrivals,and,forthepresent,dissolveintoshadowypromises,forthegreaterpartnotworththeparchmenttheyarewrittenon.Art.10stipulates:
\"BritishmerchantshipsshallhaveauthoritytotradeupontheGreatRiver(Yang-tse),butinthepresentdisturbedstateoftheUpperandLowerValley,noportistobeopenedfortradewiththeexceptionofChin-kiang,whichistobeopenedinayearfromthesignatureoftheTreaty.Whenpeaceisrestored,Britishvesselsaretobe\"admittedtotradeatsuchportsasfarasHankow,notexceedingthreeinnumber,astheBritishMinister,afterconsultationwiththeChineseSecretaryofState,maydetermine.\"
Bythisarticle,theBritishareinfactexcludedfromthegreatcommercialarteryofthewholeempire,from\"theonlyline,\"asTheMorningStarjustlyremarks,\"bywhichtheycanpushtheirmanufacturesintotheinterior.\"Iftheywillbegoodboys,andhelptheImperialGovernmentindislodgingtherebelsfromtheregionsnowoccupiedbythem,thentheymayeventuallynavigatethegreatriver,butonlytoparticularharbours.Astothenewseaportsopened,from\"all\"theportsasatfirstadvertised,theyhavedwindleddowntofiveports,addedtothefiveportsoftheTreatyofNanking,and,asaLondonpaperremarks,\"theyaregenerallyremoteorinsular.\"Besides,atthistimeoftheday,thedelusivenotionofthegrowthoftradebeingproportionatetothenumberofportsopened,shouldhavebeenexploded.
ConsidertheharboursonthecoastsofGreatBritain,orFrance,ortheUnitedStates;howfewofthemhavedevelopedthemselvesintorealemporiumsofcommerce?BeforethefirstChinesewar,theEnglishtradedexclusivelytoCanton.Theconcessionoffivenewports,insteadofcreatingfivenewemporiumsofcommerce,hasgraduallytransferredtradefromCantontoShanghai,asmaybeseenfromthefollowingfigures,extractedfromtheParliamentaryBlueBookonthetradeofvariousplacesfor1856-57.Atthesametime,itshouldberecollectedthattheCantonimportsincludetheimportstoAmoyandPochow,whicharetranshipedatCanton.
BritishimporttradetoBritishexporttradetoCanton.Shanghai.Canton.Shanghai.
1844$15,500,000$2,500,000$17,900,000$2,300,000
184510,700,0005,100,00027,700,0006,000,000
18469,900,0003,800,00015,300,0006,400,000
18479,600,0004,300,00015,700,0006,700,000
18486,500,0002,500,0008,600,0005,000,000
18497,900,0004,400,00011,400,0006,600,000
18506,800,0003,900,0009,900,0008,000,000
185110,000,0005,400,00013,200,00011,600,000
1852M00,0004,600,0006,500,00011,400,000
18534,000,0003,900,0006,500,00013,300,000
18543,300,0001,100,1006,000,00011,700,000
18553,600,0003,400,0002,900,00019,900,000
18569,100,0006,200,0008,200,00023,800,000
The\"commercialclauses\"ofthetreaty\"areunsatisfactory,\"isaconclusionarrivedatbytheDailyTelegraph,Palmerston\'smostabjectsycophant;butitchucklesat\"thebrightestpointintheprogramme,\"
viz:\"thataBritishMinistermayestablishhimselfatPeking,whileaMandarinwillinstallhimselfinLondon,andpossiblyinvitetheQueentoaballatAlbertGate.\"HoweverJohnBullmayindulgethisfun,therecanbenodoubtthatwhateverpoliticalinfluencemaybeexercisedatPekingwillfalltothepartofRussia,which,bydintofthelasttreaty,holdsanewterritory,beingaslargeasFrance,and,ingreatpart,onitsfrontier,8oomilesonlydistantfromPeking.ItisbynomeansacomfortablereflectionforJohnBullthathehimself,byhisfirstopiumwar,procuredRussiaatreatyyieldingherthenavigationoftheAmurandfreetradeonthelandfrontier,whilebyhissecondopiumwarhehashelpedhertotheinvaluabletractlyingbetweentheGulfofTartaryandLakeBaikal,aregionsomuchcovetedbyRussiathatfromCzarAlexeyMichaelovitchdowntoNicholas,shehasalwaysattemptedtogetit.SodeeplydidtheLondonTimesfeelthatstingthat,initspublicationoftheSt.Petersburgnews,whichgreatlyexaggeratedtheadvantageswonbyGreatBritain,goodcarewastakentosuppressthatpartofthetelegramwhichmentionedRussia\'sacquisitionbytreatyofthevalleyoftheAmur.
THENEWCHINESEWARNewYorkDailyTribuneOctober1,1859
byKARLMARX
ACabinetCouncilisannouncedforto-morrowinordertodecideuponthecoursetobetakeninregardtotheChinesecatastrophe.ThelucubrationsoftheFrenchMoniteurandtheLondonTimesleavenodoubtastotheresolutionsarrivedatbyPalmerstonandBonaparte.TheywantanotherChinesewar.IaminformedfromanauthenticsourcethatattheimpendingCabinetCouncilMr.MilnerGibson,inthefirstinstance,willcontestthevalidityofthepleaforwar;inthesecondinstance,willprotestagainstanydeclarationofwarnotpreviouslysanctionedbybothHousesofParliament;andifhisopinionbeoverwhelmedbyamajorityofvotes,willsecedefromtheCabinet,thusagaingivingthesignalforanewonslaughtonPalmerston\'sadministrationandthebreakupoftheLiberalcoalitionthatledtotheoustingoftheDerbyCabinet.PalmerstonissaidtofeelsomewhatnervousastotheintendedproceedingsofMr.MilnerGibson,theonlyoneofhiscolleagueswhomheisafraidof,andwhomhehascharacterizedmorethanonceasamanpeculiarlyable\"inpickingholes.\"ItispossiblethatsimultaneouslywiththisletteryoumayreceivefromLiverpoolthenewsoftheresultsoftheMinisterialCouncil.Meanwhiletherealbearingofthecaseinquestionmaybebestjudged,notfromwhathasbeenprinted,butfromwhathasbeenwilfullysuppressedbythePalmerstonorgansintheirfirstpublicationsofthenewsconveyedbythelastoverlandmail.