Thereis，however，acircumstancetakennoticeofinmostoftheaccountswehaveofChinathatitseemsdifficulttoreconcilewiththisreasoning。ItissaidthatearlymarriagesverygenerallyprevailthroughalltheranksoftheChinese。YetDrAdamSmithsupposesthatpopulationinChinaisstationary。
Thesetwocircumstancesappeartobeirreconcilable。ItcertainlyseemsverylittleprobablethatthepopulationofChinaisfastincreasing。Everyacreoflandhasbeensolongincultivationthatwecanhardlyconceivethereisanygreatyearlyadditiontotheaverageproduce。Thefact，perhaps，oftheuniversalityofearlymarriagesmaynotbesufficientlyascertained。Ifitbesupposedtrue，theonlywayofaccountingforthedifficulty，withourpresentknowledgeofthesubject，appearstobethattheredundantpopulation，necessarilyoccasionedbytheprevalenceofearlymarriages，mustberepressedbyoccasionalfamines，andbythecustomofexposingchildren，which，intimesofdistress，isprobablymorefrequentthaniseveracknowledgedtoEuropeans。
Relativetothisbarbarouspractice，itisdifficulttoavoidremarking，thattherecannotbeastrongerproofofthedistressesthathavebeenfeltbymankindforwantoffood，thantheexistenceofacustomthatthusviolatesthemostnaturalprincipleofthehumanheart。Itappearstohavebeenverygeneralamongancientnations，andcertainlytendedrathertoincreasepopulation。
InexaminingtheprincipalstatesofmodernEurope，weshallfindthatthoughtheyhaveincreasedveryconsiderablyinpopulationsincetheywerenationsofshepherds，yetthatatpresenttheirprogressisbutslow，andinsteadofdoublingtheirnumberseverytwenty—fiveyearstheyrequirethreeorfourhundredyears，ormore，forthatpurpose。Some，indeed，maybeabsolutelystationary，andothersevenretrograde。Thecauseofthisslowprogressinpopulationcannotbetracedtoadecayofthepassionbetweenthesexes。Wehavesufficientreasontothinkthatthisnaturalpropensityexistsstillinundiminishedvigour。
Whythendonotitseffectsappearinarapidincreaseofthehumanspecies？AnintimateviewofthestateofsocietyinanyonecountryinEurope，whichmayserveequallyforall，willenableustoanswerthisquestion，andtosaythataforesightofthedifficultiesattendingtherearingofafamilyactsasapreventivecheck，andtheactualdistressesofsomeofthelowerclasses，bywhichtheyaredisabledfromgivingtheproperfoodandattentiontotheirchildren，actasapositivechecktothenaturalincreaseofpopulation。
England，asoneofthemostflourishingstatesofEurope，maybefairlytakenforanexample，andtheobservationsmadewillapplywithbutlittlevariationtoanyothercountrywherethepopulationincreasesslowly。
ThepreventivecheckappearstooperateinsomedegreethroughalltheranksofsocietyinEngland。Therearesomemen，eveninthehighestrank，whoarepreventedfrommarryingbytheideaoftheexpensesthattheymustretrench，andthefanciedpleasuresthattheymustdeprivethemselvesof，onthesuppositionofhavingafamily。Theseconsiderationsarecertainlytrivial，butapreventiveforesightofthiskindhasobjectsofmuchgreaterweightforitscontemplationaswegolower。
Amanofliberaleducation，butwithanincomeonlyjustsufficienttoenablehimtoassociateintherankofgentlemen，mustfeelabsolutelycertainthatifhemarriesandhasafamilyheshallbeobliged，ifhemixesatallinsociety，torankhimselfwithmoderatefarmersandthelowerclassoftradesmen。
Thewomanthatamanofeducationwouldnaturallymaketheobjectofhischoicewouldbeonebroughtupinthesametastesandsentimentswithhimselfandusedtothefamiliarintercourseofasocietytotallydifferentfromthattowhichshemustbereducedbymarriage。Canamanconsenttoplacetheobjectofhisaffectioninasituationsodiscordant，probably，tohertastesandinclinations？Twoorthreestepsofdescentinsociety，particularlyatthisroundoftheladder，whereeducationendsandignorancebegins，willnotbeconsideredbythegeneralityofpeopleasafanciedandchimerical，butarealandessentialevil。Ifsocietybehelddesirable，itsurelymustbefree，equal，andreciprocalsociety，wherebenefitsareconferredaswellasreceived，andnotsuchasthedependentfindswithhispatronorthepoorwiththerich。
Theseconsiderationsundoubtedlypreventagreatnumberinthisrankoflifefromfollowingthebentoftheirinclinationsinanearlyattachment。Others，guidedeitherbyastrongerpassion，oraweakerjudgement，breakthroughtheserestraints，anditwouldbehardindeed，ifthegratificationofsodelightfulapassionasvirtuouslove，didnot，sometimes，morethancounterbalanceallitsattendantevils。ButIfearitmustbeownedthatthemoregeneralconsequencesofsuchmarriagesarerathercalculatedtojustifythantorepresstheforebodingsoftheprudent。
Thesonsoftradesmenandfarmersareexhortednottomarry，andgenerallyfinditnecessarytopursuethisadvicetilltheyaresettledinsomebusinessorfarmthatmayenablethemtosupportafamily。Theseeventsmaynot，perhaps，occurtilltheyarefaradvancedinlife。ThescarcityoffarmsisaverygeneralcomplaintinEngland。Andthecompetitionineverykindofbusinessissogreatthatitisnotpossiblethatallshouldbesuccessful。
Thelabourerwhoearnseighteenpenceadayandliveswithsomedegreeofcomfortasasingleman，willhesitatealittlebeforehedividesthatpittanceamongfourorfive，whichseemstobebutjustsufficientforone。Harderfareandharderlabourhewouldsubmittoforthesakeoflivingwiththewomanthatheloves，buthemustfeelconscious，ifhethinksatall，thatshouldhehavealargefamily，andanyillluckwhatever，nodegreeoffrugality，nopossibleexertionofhismanualstrengthcouldpreservehimfromtheheart—rendingsensationofseeinghischildrenstarve，orofforfeitinghisindependence，andbeingobligedtotheparishfortheirsupport。Theloveofindependenceisasentimentthatsurelynonewouldwishtobeerasedfromthebreastofman，thoughtheparishlawofEngland，itmustbeconfessed，isasystemofallothersthemostcalculatedgraduallytoweakenthissentiment，andintheendmayeradicateitcompletely。
Theservantswholiveingentlemen’sfamilieshaverestraintsthatareyetstrongertobreakthroughinventuringuponmarriage。Theypossessthenecessaries，andeventhecomfortsoflife，almostinasgreatplentyastheirmasters。Theirworkiseasyandtheirfoodluxuriouscomparedwiththeclassoflabourers。Andtheirsenseofdependenceisweakenedbytheconsciouspowerofchangingtheirmasters，iftheyfeelthemselvesoffended。Thuscomfortablysituatedatpresent，whataretheirprospectsinmarrying？Withoutknowledgeorcapital，eitherforbusiness，orfarming，andunusedandthereforeunable，toearnasubsistencebydailylabour，theironlyrefugeseemstobeamiserablealehouse，whichcertainlyoffersnoveryenchantingprospectofahappyeveningtotheirlives。Bymuchthegreaterpart，therefore，deterredbythisuninvitingviewoftheirfuturesituation，contentthemselveswithremainingsinglewheretheyare。
IfthissketchofthestateofsocietyinEnglandbenearthetruth，andIdonotconceivethatitisexaggerated，itwillbeallowedthatthepreventivechecktopopulationinthiscountryoperates，thoughwithvariedforce，throughalltheclassesofthecommunity。Thesameobservationwillholdtruewithregardtoalloldstates。Theeffects，indeed，oftheserestraintsuponmarriagearebuttooconspicuousintheconsequentvicesthatareproducedinalmosteverypartoftheworld，vicesthatarecontinuallyinvolvingbothsexesininextricableunhappiness。
CHAPTER5
Thesecond，orpositivechecktopopulationexamined，inEngland—ThetruecausewhythimmensesumcollectedinEnglandforthepoordoesnotbettertheircondition—Thepowerfultendencyofthepoorlawstodefeattheirownpurpose—Palliativeofthedistressesofthepoorproposed—Theabsoluteimpossibility，fromthefixedlawsofournature，thatthepressureofwantcaneverbecompletelyremovedfromthelowerclassesofsociety—
Allthecheckstopopulationmayberesolvedintomiseryorvice。
THEpositivechecktopopulation，bywhichImeanthecheckthatrepressesanincreasewhichisalreadybegun，isconfinedchiefly，thoughnotperhapssolely，tothelowestordersofsociety。
ThischeckisnotsoobvioustocommonviewastheotherIhavementioned，and，toprovedistinctlytheforceandextentofitsoperationwouldrequire，perhaps，moredatathanweareinpossessionof。ButIbelieveithasbeenverygenerallyremarkedbythosewhohaveattendedtobillsofmortalitythatofthenumberofchildrenwhodieannually，muchtoogreataproportionbelongstothosewhomaybesupposedunabletogivetheiroffspringproperfoodandattention，exposedastheyareoccasionallytoseveredistressandconfined，perhaps，tounwholesomehabitationsandhardlabour。Thismortalityamongthechildrenofthepoorhasbeenconstantlytakennoticeofinalltowns。Itcertainlydoesnotprevailinanequaldegreeinthecountry，butthesubjecthasnothithertoreceivedsufficientattentiontoenableanyonetosaythattherearenotmoredeathsinproportionamongthechildrenofthepoor，eveninthecountry，thanamongthoseofthemiddlingandhigherclasses。
Indeed，itseemsdifficulttosupposethatalabourer’swifewhohassixchildren，andwhoissometimesinabsolutewantofbread，shouldbeablealwaystogivethemthefoodandattentionnecessarytosupportlife。Thesonsanddaughtersofpeasantswillnotbefoundsuchrosycherubsinreallifeastheyaredescribedtobeinromances。Itcannotfailtoberemarkedbythosewholivemuchinthecountrythatthesonsoflabourersareveryapttobestuntedintheirgrowth，andarealongwhilearrivingatmaturity。Boysthatyouwouldguesstobefourteenorfifteenare，uponinquiry，frequentlyfoundtobeeighteenornineteen。Andtheladswhodriveplough，whichmustcertainlybeahealthyexercise，areveryrarelyseenwithanyappearanceofcalvestotheirlegs：acircumstancewhichcanonlybeattributedtoawanteitherofproperorofsufficientnourishment。
Toremedythefrequentdistressesofthecommonpeople，thepoorlawsofEnglandhavebeeninstituted;butitistobefeared，thatthoughtheymayhavealleviatedalittletheintensityofindividualmisfortune，theyhavespreadthegeneraleviloveramuchlargersurface。Itisasubjectoftenstartedinconversationandmentionedalwaysasamatterofgreatsurprisethat，notwithstandingtheimmensesumthatisannuallycollectedforthepoorinEngland，thereisstillsomuchdistressamongthem。Somethinkthatthemoneymustbeembezzled，othersthatthechurch—wardensandoverseersconsumethegreaterpartofitindinners。Allagreethatsomehoworotheritmustbeveryill—managed。Inshortthefactthatnearlythreemillionsarecollectedannuallyforthepoorandyetthattheirdistressesarenotremovedisthesubjectofcontinualastonishment。Butamanwhoseesalittlebelowthesurfaceofthingswouldbeverymuchmoreastonishedifthefactwereotherwisethanitisobservedtobe，orevenifacollectionuniversallyofeighteenshillingsinthepound，insteadoffour，weremateriallytoalterit。IwillstateacasewhichIhopewillelucidatemymeaning。
Supposethatbyasubscriptionoftherichtheeighteenpenceadaywhichmenearnnowwasmadeupfiveshillings，itmightbeimagined，perhaps，thattheywouldthenbeabletolivecomfortablyandhaveapieceofmeateverydayfortheirdinners。
Butthiswouldbeaveryfalseconclusion。Thetransferofthreeshillingsandsixpenceadaytoeverylabourerwouldnotincreasethequantityofmeatinthecountry。Thereisnotatpresentenoughforalltohaveadecentshare。Whatwouldthenbetheconsequence？Thecompetitionamongthebuyersinthemarketofmeatwouldrapidlyraisethepricefromsixpenceorsevenpence，totwoorthreeshillingsinthepound，andthecommoditywouldnotbedividedamongmanymorethanitisatpresent。Whenanarticleisscarce，andcannotbedistributedtoall，hethatcanshewthemostvalidpatent，thatis，hethatoffersmostmoney，becomesthepossessor。Ifwecansupposethecompetitionamongthebuyersofmeattocontinuelongenoughforagreaternumberofcattletoberearedannually，thiscouldonlybedoneattheexpenseofthecorn，whichwouldbeaverydisadvantagousexchange，foritiswellknownthatthecountrycouldnotthensupportthesamepopulation，andwhensubsistenceisscarceinproportiontothenumberofpeople，itisoflittleconsequencewhetherthelowestmembersofthesocietypossesseighteenpenceorfiveshillings。Theymustatalleventsbereducedtoliveuponthehardestfareandinthesmallestquantity。
Itwillbesaid，perhaps，thattheincreasednumberofpurchasersineveryarticlewouldgiveaspurtoproductiveindustryandthatthewholeproduceoftheislandwouldbeincreased。Thismightinsomedegreebethecase。Butthespurthatthesefanciedricheswouldgivetopopulationwouldmorethancounterbalanceit，andtheincreasedproducewouldbetobedividedamongamorethanproportionablyincreasednumberofpeople。AllthistimeIamsupposingthatthesamequantityofworkwouldbedoneasbefore。Butthiswouldnotreallytakeplace。Thereceiptoffiveshillingsaday，insteadofeighteenpence，wouldmakeeverymanfancyhimselfcomparativelyrichandabletoindulgehimselfinmanyhoursordaysofleisure。Thiswouldgiveastrongandimmediatechecktoproductiveindustry，and，inashorttime，notonlythenationwouldbepoorer，butthelowerclassesthemselveswouldbemuchmoredistressedthanwhentheyreceivedonlyeighteenpenceaday。
Acollectionfromtherichofeighteenshillingsinthepound，evenifdistributedinthemostjudiciousmanner，wouldhavealittlethesameeffectasthatresultingfromthesuppositionIhavejustmade，andnopossiblecontributionsorsacrificesoftherich，particularlyinmoney，couldforanytimepreventtherecurrenceofdistressamongthelowermembersofsociety，whoevertheywere。Greatchangesmight，indeed，bemade。
Therichmightbecomepoor，andsomeofthepoorrich，butapartofthesocietymustnecessarilyfeeladifficultyofliving，andthisdifficultywillnaturallyfallontheleastfortunatemembers。
Itmayatfirstappearstrange，butIbelieveitistrue，thatIcannotbymeansofmoneyraiseapoormanandenablehimtolivemuchbetterthanhedidbefore，withoutproportionablydepressingothersinthesameclass。IfIretrenchthequantityoffoodconsumedinmyhouse，andgivehimwhatIhavecutoff，I
thenbenefithim，withoutdepressingany。butmyselfandfamily，who，perhaps，maybewellabletobearit。IfIturnupapieceofuncultivatedland，andgivehimtheproduce，Ithenbenefitbothhimandallthemembersofthesociety，becausewhathebeforeconsumedisthrownintothecommonstock，andprobablysomeofthenewproducewithit。ButifIonlygivehimmoney，supposingtheproduceofthecountrytoremainthesame，Igivehimatitletoalargershareofthatproducethanformerly，whichsharehecannotreceivewithoutdiminishingthesharesofothers。Itisevidentthatthiseffect，inindividualinstances，mustbesosmallastobetotallyimperceptible;butstillitmustexist，asmanyothereffectsdo，which，likesomeoftheinsectsthatpeopletheair，eludeourgrosserperceptions。
Supposingthequantityoffoodinanycountrytoremainthesameformanyyearstogether，itisevidentthatthisfoodmustbedividedaccordingtothevalueofeachman’spatent，orthesumofmoneythathecanaffordtospendonthiscommoditysouniversallyinrequest。（MrGodwincallsthewealththatamanreceivesfromhisancestorsamouldypatent。Itmay，Ithink，veryproperlybetermedapatent，butIhardlyseetheproprietyofcallingitamouldyone，asitisanarticleinsuchconstantuse。）Itisademonstrativetruth，therefore，thatthepatentsofonesetofmencouldnotbeincreasedinvaluewithoutdiminishingthevalueofthepatentsofsomeothersetofmen。Iftherichweretosubscribeandgivefiveshillingsadaytofivehundredthousandmenwithoutretrenchingtheirowntables，nodoubtcanexist，thatasthesemenwouldnaturallylivemoreattheireaseandconsumeagreaterquantityofprovisions，therewouldbelessfoodremainingtodivideamongtherest，andconsequentlyeachman’spatentwouldbediminishedinvalueorthesamenumberofpiecesofsilverwouldpurchaseasmallerquantityofsubsistence。
Anincreaseofpopulationwithoutaproportionalincreaseoffoodwillevidentlyhavethesameeffectinloweringthevalueofeachman’spatent。Thefoodmustnecessarilybedistributedinsmallerquantities，andconsequentlyaday’slabourwillpurchaseasmallerquantityofprovisions。Anincreaseinthepriceofprovisionswouldariseeitherfromanincreaseofpopulationfasterthanthemeansofsubsistence，orfromadifferentdistributionofthemoneyofthesociety。Thefoodofacountrythathasbeenlongoccupied，ifitbeincreasing，increasesslowlyandregularlyandcannotbemadetoansweranysuddendemands，butvariationsinthedistributionofthemoneyofasocietyarenotinfrequentlyoccurring，andareundoubtedlyamongthecausesthatoccasionthecontinualvariationswhichweobserveinthepriceofprovisions。
ThepoorlawsofEnglandtendtodepressthegeneralconditionofthepoorinthesetwoways。Theirfirstobvioustendencyistoincreasepopulationwithoutincreasingthefoodforitssupport。Apoormanmaymarrywithlittleornoprospectofbeingabletosupportafamilyinindependence。Theymaybesaidthereforeinsomemeasuretocreatethepoorwhichtheymaintain，andastheprovisionsofthecountrymust，inconsequenceoftheincreasedpopulation，bedistributedtoeverymaninsmallerproportions，itisevidentthatthelabourofthosewhoarenotsupportedbyparishassistancewillpurchaseasmallerquantityofprovisionsthanbeforeandconsequentlymoreofthemmustbedriventoaskforsupport。
Secondly，thequantityofprovisionsconsumedinworkhousesuponapartofthesocietythatcannotingeneralbeconsideredasthemostvaluablepartdiminishesthesharesthatwouldotherwisebelongtomoreindustriousandmoreworthymembers，andthusinthesamemannerforcesmoretobecomedependent。Ifthepoorintheworkhousesweretolivebetterthantheynowdo，thisnewdistributionofthemoneyofthesocietywouldtendmoreconspicuouslytodepresstheconditionofthoseoutoftheworkhousesbyoccasioningariseinthepriceofprovisions。
FortunatelyforEngland，aspiritofindependencestillremainsamongthepeasantry。Thepoorlawsarestronglycalculatedtoeradicatethisspirit。Theyhavesucceededinpart，buthadtheysucceededascompletelyasmighthavebeenexpectedtheirpernicioustendencywouldnothavebeensolongconcealed。
Hardasitmayappearinindividualinstances，dependentpovertyoughttobehelddisgraceful。Suchastimulusseemstobeabsolutelynecessarytopromotethehappinessofthegreatmassofmankind，andeverygeneralattempttoweakenthisstimulus，howeverbenevolentitsapparentintention，willalwaysdefeatitsownpurpose。Ifmenareinducedtomarryfromaprospectofparishprovision，withlittleornochanceofmaintainingtheirfamiliesinindependence，theyarenotonlyunjustlytemptedtobringunhappinessanddependenceuponthemselvesandchildren，buttheyaretempted，withoutknowingit，toinjureallinthesameclasswiththemselves。Alabourerwhomarrieswithoutbeingabletosupportafamilymayinsomerespectsbeconsideredasanenemytoallhisfellow—labourers。
IfeelnodoubtwhateverthattheparishlawsofEnglandhavecontributedtoraisethepriceofprovisionsandtolowertherealpriceoflabour。Theyhavethereforecontributedtoimpoverishthatclassofpeoplewhoseonlypossessionistheirlabour。Itisalsodifficulttosupposethattheyhavenotpowerfullycontributedtogeneratethatcarelessnessandwantoffrugalityobservableamongthepoor，socontrarytothedispositionfrequentlytoberemarkedamongpettytradesmenandsmallfarmers。Thelabouringpoor，touseavulgarexpression，seemalwaystolivefromhandtomouth。Theirpresentwantsemploytheirwholeattention，andtheyseldomthinkofthefuture。Evenwhentheyhaveanopportunityofsavingtheyseldomexerciseit，butallthatisbeyondtheirpresentnecessitiesgoes，generallyspeaking，totheale—house。ThepoorlawsofEnglandmaythereforebesaidtodiminishboththepowerandthewilltosaveamongthecommonpeople，andthustoweakenoneofthestrongestincentivestosobrietyandindustry，andconsequentlytohappiness。
Itisageneralcomplaintamongmastermanufacturersthathighwagesruinalltheirworkmen，butitisdifficulttoconceivethatthesemenwouldnotsaveapartoftheirhighwagesforthefuturesupportoftheirfamilies，insteadofspendingitindrunkennessanddissipation，iftheydidnotrelyonparishassistanceforsupportincaseofaccidents。Andthatthepooremployedinmanufacturesconsiderthisassistanceasareasonwhytheymayspendallthewagestheyearnandenjoythemselveswhiletheycanappearstobeevidentfromthenumberoffamiliesthat，uponthefailureofanygreatmanufactory，immediatelyfallupontheparish，whenperhapsthewagesearnedinthismanufactorywhileitflourishedweresufficientlyabovethepriceofcommoncountrylabourtohaveallowedthemtosaveenoughfortheirsupporttilltheycouldfindsomeotherchannelfortheirindustry。
Amanwhomightnotbedeterredfromgoingtotheale—housefromtheconsiderationthatonhisdeath，orsickness，heshouldleavehiswifeandfamilyupontheparishmightyethesitateinthusdissipatinghisearningsifhewereassuredthat，ineitherofthesecases，hisfamilymuststarveorbelefttothesupportofcasualbounty。InChina，wheretherealaswellasnominalpriceoflabourisverylow，sonsareyetobligedbylawtosupporttheiragedandhelplessparents。WhethersuchalawwouldbeadvisableinthiscountryIwillnotpretendtodetermine。Butitseemsatanyratehighlyimproper，bypositiveinstitutions，whichrenderdependentpovertysogeneral，toweakenthatdisgrace，whichforthebestandmosthumanereasonsoughttoattachtoit。
Themassofhappinessamongthecommonpeoplecannotbutbediminishedwhenoneofthestrongestcheckstoidlenessanddissipationisthusremoved，andwhenmenarethusalluredtomarrywithlittleornoprospectofbeingabletomaintainafamilyinindependence。Everyobstacleinthewayofmarriagemustundoubtedlybeconsideredasaspeciesofunhappiness。Butasfromthelawsofournaturesomechecktopopulationmustexist，itisbetterthatitshouldbecheckedfromaforesightofthedifficultiesattendingafamilyandthefearofdependentpovertythanthatitshouldbeencouraged，onlytoberepressedafterwardsbywantandsickness。
Itshouldberememberedalwaysthatthereisanessentialdifferencebetweenfoodandthosewroughtcommodities，therawmaterialsofwhichareingreatplenty。Ademandfortheselastwillnotfailtocreatetheminasgreataquantityastheyarewanted。Thedemandforfoodhasbynomeansthesamecreativepower。Inacountrywhereallthefertilespotshavebeenseized，highoffersarenecessarytoencouragethefarmertolayhisdressingonlandfromwhichhecannotexpectaprofitablereturnforsomeyears。Andbeforetheprospectofadvantageissufficientlygreattoencouragethissortofagriculturalenterprise，andwhilethenewproduceisrising，greatdistressesmaybesufferedfromthewantofit。Thedemandforanincreasedquantityofsubsistenceis，withfewexceptions，constanteverywhere，yetweseehowslowlyitisansweredinallthosecountriesthathavebeenlongoccupied。
ThepoorlawsofEnglandwereundoubtedlyinstitutedforthemostbenevolentpurpose，butthereisgreatreasontothinkthattheyhavenotsucceededintheirintention。Theycertainlymitigatesomecasesofveryseveredistresswhichmightotherwiseoccur，yetthestateofthepoorwhoaresupportedbyparishes，consideredinallitscircumstances，isveryfarfrombeingfreefrommisery。Butoneoftheprincipalobjectionstothemisthatforthisassistancewhichsomeofthepoorreceive，initselfalmostadoubtfulblessing，thewholeclassofthecommonpeopleofEnglandissubjectedtoasetofgrating，inconvenient，andtyrannicallaws，totallyinconsistentwiththegenuinespiritoftheconstitution。Thewholebusinessofsettlements，eveninitspresentamendedstate，isutterlycontradictorytoallideasoffreedom。Theparishpersecutionofmenwhosefamiliesarelikelytobecomechargeable，andofpoorwomenwhoarenearlying—in，isamostdisgracefulanddisgustingtyranny。Andtheobstructionscontinuityoccasionedinthemarketoflabourbytheselawshaveaconstanttendencytoaddtothedifficultiesofthosewhoarestrugglingtosupportthemselveswithoutassistance。
Theseevilsattendantonthepoorlawsareinsomedegreeirremediable。Ifassistancebetobedistributedtoacertainclassofpeople，apowermustbegivensomewhereofdiscriminatingtheproperobjectsandofmanagingtheconcernsoftheinstitutionsthatarenecessary，butanygreatinterferencewiththeaffairsofotherpeopleisaspeciesoftyranny，andinthecommoncourseofthingstheexerciseofthispowermaybeexpectedtobecomegratingtothosewhoaredriventoaskforsupport。ThetyrannyofJustices，Church—wardens，andOverseers，isacommoncomplaintamongthepoor，butthefaultdoesnotliesomuchinthesepersons，whoprobably，beforetheywereinpower，werenotworsethanotherpeople，butinthenatureofallsuchinstitutions。
Theevilisperhapsgonetoofartoberemedied，butIfeellittledoubtinmyownmindthatifthepoorlawshadneverexisted，thoughtheremighthavebeenafewmoreinstancesofveryseveredistress，yetthattheaggregatemassofhappinessamongthecommonpeoplewouldhavebeenmuchgreaterthanitisatpresent。
MrPitt’sPoorBillhastheappearanceofbeingframedwithbenevolentintentions，andtheclamourraisedagainstitwasinmanyrespectsilldirected，andunreasonable。Butitmustbeconfessedthatitpossessesinahighdegreethegreatandradicaldefectofallsystemsofthekind，thatoftendingtoincreasepopulationwithoutincreasingthemeansforitssupport，andthustodepresstheconditionofthosethatarenotsupportedbyparishes，and，consequently，tocreatemorepoor。
Toremovethewantsofthelowerclassesofsocietyisindeedanarduoustask。Thetruthisthatthepressureofdistressonthispartofacommunityisanevilsodeeplyseatedthatnohumaningenuitycanreachit。WereItoproposeapalliative，andpalliativesareallthatthenatureofthecasewilladmit，itshouldbe，inthefirstplace，thetotalabolitionofallthepresentparish—laws。ThiswouldatanyrategivelibertyandfreedomofactiontothepeasantryofEngland，whichtheycanhardlybesaidtopossessatpresent。Theywouldthenbeabletosettlewithoutinterruption，wherevertherewasaprospectofagreaterplentyofworkandahigherpriceforlabour。Themarketoflabourwouldthenbefree，andthoseobstaclesremovedwhich，asthingsarenow，oftenforaconsiderabletimepreventthepricefromrisingaccordingtothedemand。
Secondly，premiumsmightbegivenforturningupfreshland，anditpossibleencouragementsheldouttoagricultureabovemanufactures，andtotillageabovegrazing。Everyendeavourshouldbeusedtoweakenanddestroyallthoseinstitutionsrelatingtocorporations，apprenticeships，etc。，whichcausethelaboursofagriculturetobeworsepaidthanthelaboursoftradeandmanufactures。Foracountrycanneverproduceitsproperquantityoffoodwhilethesedistinctionsremaininfavourofartisans。Suchencouragementstoagriculturewouldtendtofurnishthemarketwithanincreasingquantityofhealthywork，andatthesametime，byaugmentingtheproduceofthecountry，wouldraisethecomparativepriceoflabourandamelioratetheconditionofthelabourer。Beingnowinbettercircumstances，andseeingnoprospectofparishassistance，hewouldbemoreable，aswellasmoreinclined，toenterintoassociationsforprovidingagainstthesicknessofhimselforfamily。
Lastly，forcasesofextremedistress，countyworkhousesmightbeestablished，supportedbyratesuponthewholekingdom，andfreeforpersonsofallcounties，andindeedofallnations。
Thefareshouldbehard，andthosethatwereableobligedtowork。Itwouldbedesirablethattheyshouldnotbeconsideredascomfortableasylumsinalldifficulties，butmerelyasplaceswhereseveredistressmightfindsomealleviation。Apartofthesehousesmightbeseparated，orothersbuiltforamostbeneficialpurpose，whichhasnotbeeninfrequentlytakennoticeof，thatofprovidingaplacewhereanyperson，whethernativeorforeigner，mightdoaday’sworkatalltimesandreceivethemarketpriceforit。Manycaseswouldundoubtedlybeleftfortheexertionofindividualbenevolence。
Aplanofthiskind，thepreliminaryofwhichshouldbeanabolitionofallthepresentparishlaws，seemstobethebestcalculatedtoincreasethemassofhappinessamongthecommonpeopleofEngland。Topreventtherecurrenceofmisery，is，alas！beyondthepowerofman。Inthevainendeavourtoattainwhatinthenatureofthingsisimpossible，wenowsacrificenotonlypossiblebutcertainbenefits。Wetellthecommonpeoplethatiftheywillsubmittoacodeoftyrannicalregulations，theyshallneverbeinwant。Theydosubmittotheseregulations。Theyperformtheirpartofthecontract，butwedonot，naycannot，performours，andthusthepoorsacrificethevaluableblessingoflibertyandreceivenothingthatcanbecalledanequivalentinreturn。
Notwithstanding，then，theinstitutionofthepoorlawsinEngland，Ithinkitwillbeallowedthatconsideringthestateofthelowerclassesaltogether，bothinthetownsandinthecountry，thedistresseswhichtheysufferfromthewantofproperandsufficientfood，fromhardlabourandunwholesomehabitations，mustoperateasaconstantchecktoincipientpopulation。
Tothesetwogreatcheckstopopulation，inalllongoccupiedcountries，whichIhavecalledthepreventiveandthepositivechecks，maybeaddedviciouscustomswithrespecttowomen，greatcities，unwholesomemanufactures，luxury，pestilence，andwar。
Allthesechecksmaybefairlyresolvedintomiseryandvice。
AndthatthesearethetruecausesoftheslowincreaseofpopulationinallthestatesofmodernEurope，willappearsufficientlyevidentfromthecomparativelyrapidincreasethathasinvariablytakenplacewheneverthesecauseshavebeeninanyconsiderabledegreeremoved。
CHAPTER6
Newcolonies—Reasonsfortheirrapidincrease—NorthAmericanColonies—Extraordinaryinstanceofincreaseinthebacksettlements—Rapiditywithwhichevenoldstatesrecovertheravagesofwar，pestilence，famine，ortheconvulsionsofnature。
IThasbeenuniversallyremarkedthatallnewcoloniessettledinhealthycountries，wheretherewasplentyofroomandfood，haveconstantlyincreasedwithastonishingrapidityintheirpopulation。SomeofthecoloniesfromancientGreece，innoverylongperiod，morethanequalledtheirparentstatesinnumbersandstrength。Andnottodwellonremoteinstances，theEuropeansettlementsinthenewworldbearampletestimonytothetruthofaremark，which，indeed，hasnever，thatIknowof，beendoubted。
Aplentyofrichland，tobehadforlittleornothing，issopowerfulacauseofpopulationastoovercomeallotherobstacles。NosettlementscouldwellhavebeenworsemanagedthanthoseofSpaininMexico，Peru，andQuito。Thetyranny，superstition，andvicesofthemother—countrywereintroducedinamplequantitiesamongherchildren。ExorbitanttaxeswereexactedbytheCrown。Themostarbitraryrestrictionswereimposedontheirtrade。Andthegovernorswerenotbehindhandinrapacityandextortionforthemselvesaswellastheirmaster。
Yet，underallthesedifficulties，thecoloniesmadeaquickprogressinpopulation。ThecityofLima，foundedsincetheconquest，isrepresentedbyUlloaascontainingfiftythousandinhabitantsnearfiftyyearsago。6Quito，whichhadbeenbutahamletofindians，isrepresentedbythesameauthorasinhistimeequallypopulous。Mexicoissaidtocontainahundredthousandinhabitants，which，notwithstandingtheexaggerationsoftheSpanishwriters，issupposedtobefivetimesgreaterthanwhatit。containedinthetimeofMontezuma。
InthePortuguesecolonyofBrazil，governedwithalmostequaltyranny，thereweresupposedtobe，thirtyyearssince，sixhundredthousandinhabitantsofEuropeanextraction。
TheDutchandFrenchcolonies，thoughunderthegovernmentofexclusivecompaniesofmerchants，which，asDrAdamSmithsaysveryjustly，istheworstofallpossiblegovernments，stillpersistedinthrivingundereverydisadvantage。
ButtheEnglishNorthAmericancolonies，nowthepowerfulpeopleoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica，madebyfarthemostrapidprogress。TotheplentyofgoodlandwhichtheypossessedincommonwiththeSpanishandPortuguesesettlements，theyaddedagreaterdegreeoflibertyandequality。Thoughnotwithoutsomerestrictionsontheirforeigncommerce，theywereallowedaperfectlibertyofmanagingtheirowninternalaffairs。Thepoliticalinstitutionsthatprevailedwerefavourabletothealienationanddivisionofproperty。Landsthatwerenotcultivatedbytheproprietorwithinalimitedtimeweredeclaredgrantabletoanyotherperson。InPennsylvaniatherewasnorightofprimogeniture，andintheprovincesofNewEnglandtheeldesthadonlyadoubleshare。TherewerenotithesinanyoftheStates，andscarcelyanytaxes。Andonaccountoftheextremecheapnessofgoodlandacapitalcouldnotbemoreadvantageouslyemployedthaninagriculture，whichatthesametimethatitsuppliesthegreatestquantityofhealthyworkaffordsmuchthemostvaluableproducetothesociety。
Theconsequenceofthesefavourablecircumstancesunitedwasarapidityofincreaseprobablywithoutparallelinhistory。
Throughoutallthenortherncolonies，thepopulationwasfoundtodoubleitselfintwenty—fiveyears。TheoriginalnumberofpersonswhohadsettledinthefourprovincesofnewEnglandin1643was21，200。（ItakethesefiguresfromDrPrice’stwovolumesofObservations;nothavingDrStyles’pamphlet，fromwhichhequotes，byme。）Afterwards，itissupposedthatmoreleftthemthanwenttothem。Intheyear1760，theywereincreasedtohalfamillion。Theyhadthereforeallalongdoubledtheirownnumberintwenty—fiveyears。InNewJerseytheperiodofdoublingappearedtobetwenty—twoyears;andinRhodeislandstillless。
Inthebacksettlements，wheretheinhabitantsappliedthemselvessolelyto。agriculture，andluxurywasnotknown，theywerefoundtodoubletheirownnumberinfifteenyears，amostextraordinaryinstanceofincrease。Alongtheseacoast，whichwouldnaturallybefirstinhabited，theperiodofdoublingwasaboutthirty—fiveyears;andinsomeofthemaritimetowns，thepopulationwasabsolutelyatastand。
（Ininstancesofthiskindthepowersoftheearthappeartobefullyequaltoansweritthedemandsforfoodthatcanbemadeuponitbyman。Butweshouldbeledintoanerrorifwewerethencetosupposethatpopulationandfoodeverreallyincreaseinthesameratio。Theoneisstillageometricalandtheotheranarithmeticalratio，thatis，oneincreasesbymultiplication，andtheotherbyaddition。Wheretherearefewpeople，andagreatquantityoffertileland，thepoweroftheearthtoaffordayearlyincreaseoffoodmaybecomparedtoagreatreservoirofwater，suppliedbyamoderatestream。Thefasterpopulationincreases，themorehelpwillbegottodrawoffthewater，andconsequentlyanincreasingquantitywillbetakeneveryyear。Butthesooner，undoubtedly，willthereservoirbeexhausted，andthestreamsonlyremain。Whenacrehasbeenaddedtoacre，tillallthefertilelandisoccupied，theyearlyincreaseoffoodwilldependupontheameliorationofthelandalreadyinpossession;
andeventhismoderatestreamwillbegraduallydiminishing。Butpopulation，coulditbesuppliedwithfood，wouldgoonwithunexhaustedvigour，andtheincreaseofoneperiodwouldfurnishthepowerofagreaterincreasethenext，andthiswithoutanylimit。）
Thesefactsseemtoshewthatpopulationincreasesexactlyintheproportionthatthetwogreatcheckstoit，miseryandvice，areremoved，andthatthereisnotatruercriterionofthehappinessandinnocenceofapeoplethantherapidityoftheirincrease。Theunwholesomenessoftowns，towhichsomepersonsarenecessarilydrivenfromthenatureoftheirtrades，mustbeconsideredasaspeciesofmisery，andeverytheslightestchecktomarriage，fromaprospectofthedifficultyofmaintainingafamily，maybefairlyclassedunderthesamehead。Inshortitisdifficulttoconceiveanychecktopopulationwhichdoesnotcomeunderthedescriptionofsomespeciesofmiseryorvice。
ThepopulationofthethirteenAmericanStatesbeforethewarwasreckonedataboutthreemillions。NobodyimaginesthatGreatBritainislesspopulousatpresentfortheemigrationofthesmallparentstockthatproducedthesenumbers。Onthecontrary，acertaindegreeofemigrationisknowntobefavourabletothepopulationofthemothercountry。IthasbeenparticularlyremarkedthatthetwoSpanishprovincesfromwhichthegreatestnumberofpeopleemigratedtoAmerica，becameinconsequencemorepopulous。WhateverwastheoriginalnumberofBritishemigrantsthatincreasedsofastintheNorthAmericanColonies，letusask，whydoesnotanequalnumberproduceanequalincreaseinthesametimeinGreatBritain？Thegreatandobviouscausetobeassignedisthewantofroomandfood，or，inotherwords，misery，andthatthisisamuchmorepowerfulcauseeventhanviceappearssufficientlyevidentfromtherapiditywithwhichevenoldstatesrecoverthedesolationsofwar，pestilence，ortheaccidentsofnature。Theyarethenforashorttimeplacedalittleinthesituationofnewstates，andtheeffectisalwaysanswerabletowhatmightbeexpected。Iftheindustryoftheinhabitantsbenotdestroyedbyfearortyranny，subsistencewillsoonincreasebeyondthewantsofthereducednumbers，andtheinvariableconsequencewillbethatpopulationwhichbefore，perhaps，wasnearlystationary，willbeginimmediatelytoincrease。
ThefertileprovinceofFlanders，whichhasbeensooftentheseatofthemostdestructivewars，afterarespiteofafewyears，hasappearedalwaysasfruitfulandaspopulousasever。
EventhePalatinateliftedupitsheadagainaftertheexecrableravagesofLouistheFourteenth。TheeffectsofthedreadfulplagueinLondonin1666werenotperceptiblefifteenortwentyyearsafterwards。ThetracesofthemostdestructivefaminesinChinaandIndostanarebyallaccountsverysoonobliterated。10
ItmayevenbedoubtedwhetherTurkeyandEgyptareuponanaveragemuchlesspopulousfortheplaguesthatperiodicallylaythemwaste。Ifthenumberofpeoplewhichtheycontainbelessnowthanformerly，itis，probably，rathertobeattributedtothetyrannyandoppressionofthegovernmentunderwhichtheygroan，andtheconsequentdiscouragementstoagriculture，thantothelosswhichtheysustainbytheplague。Themosttremendousconvulsionsofnature，suchasvolcaniceruptionsandearthquakes，iftheydonothappensofrequentlyastodriveawaytheinhabitants，ortodestroytheirspiritofindustry，havebutatriflingeffectontheaveragepopulationofanystate。Naples，andthecountryunderVesuvius，arestillverypopulous，notwithstandingtherepeatederuptionsofthatmountain。AndLisbonandLimaarenow，probably，nearlyinthesamestatewithregardtopopulationastheywerebeforethelastearthquakes。
CHAPTERVII
Aprobablecauseofepidemics—ExtractsfromMrSuessmilch’stables—Periodicalreturnsofsicklyseasonstobeexpectedincertaincases—Proportionofbirthstoburialsforshortperiodsinanycountryaninadequatecriterionoftherealaverageincreaseofpopulation—Bestcriterionofapermanentincreaseofpopulation—GreatfrugalityoflivingoneofthecausesofthefaminesofChinaandIndostan—EviltendencyofoneoftheclausesinMrPitt’sPoorBill—Onlyoneproperwayofencouragingpopulation—CausesoftheHappinessofnations—
Famine，thelastandmostdreadfulmodebywhichnaturerepressesaredundantpopulation—Thethreepropositionsconsideredasestablished。
BYgreatattentiontocleanliness，theplagueseemsatlengthtobecompletelyexpelledfromLondon。Butitisnotimprobablethatamongthesecondarycausesthatproduceevensicklyseasonsandepidemicsoughttoberankedacrowdedpopulationandunwholesomeandinsufficientfood。Ihavebeenledtothisremark，bylookingoversomeofthetablesofMrSuessmilch，whichDrPricehasextractedinoneofhisnotestothepostscriptonthecontroversyrespectingthepopulationofEnglandandWales。Theyareconsideredasverycorrect，andifsuchtablesweregeneral，theywouldthrowgreatlightonthedifferentwaysbywhichpopulationisrepressedandpreventedfromincreasingbeyondthemeansofsubsistenceinanycountry。Iwillextractapartofthetables，withDrPrice’sremarks。
INTHEKINGDOM0FPRUSSIA，ANDDUKEDOMOFLITHUANIA
ProportionProportionBirthsBurialsMarriagesofBirthstoofBirthsMarriagesBurials10Yrsto170221，96314，7185，92837to10150
to100
5Yrsto171621，60211，9844，96837to10180
to100
5Yrsto175628，39219，1545，59950to10148
to100
’N。B。In1709and1710，apestilencecarriedoff247，733oftheinhabitantsofthiscountry，andin1736and1737，epidemicsprevailed，whichagaincheckeditsincrease。’
Itmayberemarked，thatthegreatestproportionofbirthstoburials，wasinthefiveyearsafterthegreatpestilence。
DUCHYOFPOMERANIA
ProportionProportionAnnualAverageBirthsBurialsMarriagesofBirthstoofBirthsMarriagesBurials6yrsto17026，5404，6471，81036to10140
to100
6yrsto17087，4554，2081，87539to10177
to100
6yrsto17268，4325，6272，13139to10150
to100
6yrsto175612，7679，2812，95743to10137
to100
’Inthisinstancetheinhabitantsappeartohavebeenalmostdoubledinfifty—sixyears，noverybadepidemicshavingonceinterruptedtheincrease，butthethreeyearsimmediatelyfollowingthelastperiod（to1759）weresosicklythatthebirthsweresunkto10，229andtheburialsraisedto15，068。’
Isitnotprobablethatinthiscasethenumberofinhabitantshadincreasedfasterthanthefoodandtheaccommodationsnecessarytopreservetheminhealth？Themassofthepeoplewould，uponthissupposition，beobligedtoliveharder，andagreaternumberwouldbecrowdedtogetherinonehouse，anditisnotsurelyimprobablethatthesewereamongthenaturalcausesthatproducedthethreesicklyyears。Thesecausesmayproducesuchaneffect，thoughthecountry，absolutelyconsidered，maynotbeextremelycrowdedandpopulous。Inacountryeventhinlyinhabited，ifanincreaseofpopulationtakeplace，beforemorefoodisraised，andmorehousesarebuilt，theinhabitantsmustbedistressedinsomedegreeforroomandsubsistence。WerethemarriagesinEngland，forthenexteightortenyears，tobemoreprolifickthanusual，orevenwereagreaternumberofmarriagesthanusualtotakeplace，supposingthenumberofhousestoremainthesame，insteadoffiveorsixtoacottage，theremustbesevenoreight，andthis，addedtothenecessityofharderliving，wouldprobablyhaveaveryunfavourableeffectonthehealthofthecommonpeople。
NEUMARKOFBRANDENBURGH
ProportionProportionAnnualAverageBirthsBurialsMarriagesofBirthstoofBirthsMarriagesBurials5yrsto17015，4333，4831，43637to10155
to100
5yrsto17267，0124，2541，71340to10164
to100
5yrsto17567，9785，5671，89142to10143
to100
’Epidemicsprevailedforsixyears，from1736，to1741，whichcheckedtheincrease。’
DUKEDOMOFMAGDEBURGH
ProportionProportionAnnualAverageBirthsBurialsMarriagesofBirthstoofBirthsMarriagesBurials5yrsto17026，4314，1031，68138to10156
to100
5yrsto17177，5905，3352，07636to10142
to100
5yrsto17568，8508，0692，19340to10109
to100
’Theyears1738，1740，1750，and1751，wereparticularlysickly。’
Forfurtherinformationonthissubject，IreferthereadertoMrSuessmilch’stables。TheextractsthatIhavemadearesufficienttoshewtheperiodical，thoughirregular，returnsofsicklyseasons，anditseemshighlyprobablethatascantinessofroomandfoodwasoneoftheprincipalcausesthatoccasionedthem。
Itappearsfromthetablesthatthesecountrieswereincreasingratherfastforoldstates，notwithstandingtheoccasionalseasonsthatprevailed。Cultivationmusthavebeenimproving，andmarriages，consequently，encouraged。Forthecheckstopopulationappeartohavebeenratherofthepositive，thanofthepreventivekind。Whenfromaprospectofincreasingplentyinanycountry，theweightthatrepressespopulationisinsomedegreeremoved，itishighlyprobablethatthemotionwillbecontinuedbeyondtheoperationofthecausethatfirstimpelledit。Or，tobemoreparticular，whentheincreasingproduceofacountry，andtheincreasingdemandforlabour，sofaramelioratetheconditionofthelabourerasgreatlytoencouragemarriage，itisprobablethatthecustomofearlymarriageswillcontinuetillthepopulationofthecountryhasgonebeyondtheincreasedproduce，andsicklyseasonsappeartobethenaturalandnecessaryconsequence。Ishouldexpect，therefore，thatthosecountrieswheresubsistencewasincreasingsufficienCyattimestoencouragepopulationbutnottoanswerallitsdemands，wouldbemoresubjecttoperiodicalepidemicsthanthosewherethepopulationcouldmorecompletelyaccommodateitselftotheaverageproduce。
Anobservationtheconverseofthiswillprobablyalsobefoundtrue。Inthosecountriesthataresubjecttoperiodicalsicknesses，theincreaseofpopulation，ortheexcessofbirthsabovetheburials，willbegreaterintheintervalsoftheseperiodsthanisusual，caeterisparibus，inthecountriesnotsomuchsubjecttosuchdisorders。IfTurkeyandEgypthavebeennearlystationaryintheiraveragepopulationforthelastcentury，intheintervalsoftheirperiodicalplagues，thebirthsmusthaveexceededtheburialsinagreaterproportionthaninsuchcountriesasFranceandEngland。