第5章

§540。

Theguaranteeofaconstitution（i。e。thenecessitythatthelawsbereasonable，andtheiractualizationsecured）liesinthecollectivespiritofthenation—especiallyinthespecificwayinwhichitisitselfconsciousofitsreason。（Religionisthatconsciousnessinitsabsolutesubstantiality。）Buttheguaranteeliesalso，atthesametimeintheactualorganisationordevelopmentofthatprincipleinsuitableinstitutions。Theconstitutionpresupposesthatconsciousnessofthecollectivespirit，andconverselythatspiritpresupposestheconstitution：fortheactualspiritonlyhasadefiniteconsciousnessofitsprinciples，insofarasithasthemactuallyexistentbeforeit。

Thequestion—Towhom（towhatauthorityandhoworganised）belongsthepowertomakeaconstitution？isthesameasthequestion，Whohastomakethespiritofanation？Separateourideaofaconstitutionfromthatofthecollectivespirit，asifthelatterexistsorhasexistedwithoutaconstitution，andyourfancyonlyproveshowsuperficiallyyouhaveapprehendedthenexusbetweenthespiritinitsself—consciousnessandinitsactuality。Whatisthuscalled’making’a’constitution’，is—justbecauseofthisinseparability—athingthathasneverhappenedinhistory，justaslittleasthemakingofacodeoflaws。Aconstitutiononlydevelopsfromthenationalspiritidenticallywiththatspirit’sowndevelopment，andrunsthroughatthesametimewithitthegradesofformationandthealterationsrequiredbyitsconcept。Itistheindwellingspiritandthehistoryofthenation（and，beitadded，thehistoryisonlythatspirit’shistory）bywhichconstitutionshavebeenandaremade。

§541。

Thereallylivingtotality—thatwhichpreserves，inotherwordscontinuallyproducesthestateingeneralanditsconstitution，isthegovernment。Theorganisationwhichnaturalnecessitygivesisseenintheriseofthefamilyandofthe’estates’ofcivilsociety。Thegovernmentistheuniversalpartoftheconstitution，i。e。thepartwhichintentionallyaimsatpreservingthoseparts，butatthesametimegetsholdofandcarriesoutthosegeneralaimsofthewholewhichriseabovethefunction，ofthefamilyandofcivilsociety。Theorganisationofthegovernmentislikewiseitsdifferentiationintopowers，astheirpeculiaritieshaveabasisinprinciple;yetwithoutthatdifferencelosingtouchwiththeactualunitytheyhaveinthenotion’ssubjectivity。

Asthemostobviouscategoriesofthenotionarethoseofuniversalityandindividuality，andtheirrelationshipthatofsubsumptionofindividualunderuniversal，ithascomeaboutthatinthestatethelegislativeandexecutivepowerhavebeensodistinguishedastomaketheformerexistapartastheabsolutesuperior，andtosubdividethelatteragainintoadministrative（government）

powerandjudicialpower，accordingasthelawsareappliedtopublicorprivateaffairs。Thedivisionofthesepowershasbeentreatedastheconditionofpoliticalequilibrium，meaningbydivisiontheirindependenceoneofanotherinexistence—subjectalways，however，totheabovementionedsubsumptionofthepowersoftheindividualunderthepowerofthegeneral。Thetheoryofsuch’division’unmistakablyimpliestheelementsofthenotion，butsocombinedby’understanding’astoresultinanabsurdcollocation，insteadoftheself—redintegrationofthelivingspirit。Theoneessentialcanontomakelibertydeepandrealistogiveeverybusinessbelongingtothegeneralinterestsofthestateaseparateorganisationwherevertheyareessentiallydistinct。Suchrealdivisionmustbe：forlibertyisonlydeepwhenitisdifferentiatedinallitsfullnessandthesedifferencesmanifestedinexistence。Buttomakethebusinessoflegislationanindependentpower—tomakeitthefirstpower，withthefurtherprovisothatallcitizensshallhaveparttherein，andthegovernmentbemerelyexecutiveanddependent，presupposesignorancethatthetrueidea，andthereforethelivingandspiritualactuality，istheself—redintegratingnotion，inotherwords，thesubjectivitywhichcontainsinituniversalityasonlyoneofitsmoments。（Amistakestillgreater，ifitgoeswiththefancythattheconstitutionandthefundamentallawswerestillonedaytomake—inastateofsociety，whichincludesanalreadyexistingdevelopmentofdifferences。）Individualityisthefirstandsupremeprinciplewhichmakesitselffeltthroughthestate’sorganisation。Onlythroughthegovernment，andbyitsembracinginitselftheparticularbusinesses（includingtheabstractlegislativebusiness，whichtakenapartisalsoparticular），isthestateone。These，asalways，arethetermsonwhichthedifferentelementsessentiallyandalonetrulystandtowardseachotherinthelogicof’reason’，asopposedtotheexternalfootingtheystandonin’understanding’，whichnevergetsbeyondsubsumingtheindividualandparticularundertheuniversal。Whatdisorganisestheunityoflogicalreason，equallydisorganisesactuality。

§542。

Inthegovernment—regardedasorganictotality—thesovereignpower（principate）is（a）subjectivityastheinfiniteself—unityofthenotioninitsdevelopment;—theall—sustaining，all—decreeingwillofthestate，itshighestpeakandall—pervasiveunity。Intheperfectformofthestate，inwhicheachandeveryelementofthenotionhasreachedfreeexistence，thissubjectivityisnotaso—called’moralperson’，oradecreeissuingfromamajority（formsinwhichtheunityofthedecreeingwillhasnotanactualexistence），butanactualindividual—thewillofadecreeingindividual，—monarchy。Themonarchicalconstitutionisthereforetheconstitutionofdevelopedreason：allotherconstitutionsbelongtolowergradesofthedevelopmentandrealizationofreason。

Theunificationofallconcretestate—powersintooneexistence，asinthepatriarchalsociety—or，asinademocraticconstitution，theparticipationofallinallaffairs—impugnstheprincipleofthedivisionofpowers，i。e。thedevelopedlibertyoftheconstituentfactorsoftheIdea。Butnowhitlessmustthedivision（theworkingoutofthesefactorseachtoafreetotality）bereducedto’ideal’

unity，i。e。tosubjectivity。ThematuredifferentiationorrealizationoftheIdeameans，essentially，thatthissubjectivityshouldgrowtobeareal’moment’，anactualexistence;andthisactualityisnototherwisethanastheindividualityofthemonarch—thesubjectivityofabstractandfinaldecisionexistentinoneperson。Allthoseformsofcollectivedecreeingandwilling—acommonwillwhichshallbethesumandtheresultant（onaristocraticordemocraticprinciples）oftheatomisticofsinglewills，haveonthemthemarkoftheunrealityofanabstraction。Twopointsonlyareall—important，firsttoseethenecessityofeachofthenotionalfactors，andsecondlytheforminwhichitisactualised。Itisonlythenatureofthespeculativenotionwhichcanreallygivelightonthematter。Thatsubjectivity—beingthe’moment’whichemphasisestheneedofabstractdecidingingeneral—partlyleadsontotheprovisothatthenameofthemonarchappearasthebondandsanctionunderwhicheverythingisdoneinthegovernment;—partly，beingsimpleself—relation，hasattachedtoitthecharacteristicofimmediacy，andthenofnature—wherebythedestinationofindividualsforthedignityoftheprincelypowerisfixedbyinheritance。

§543。

（b）Intheparticulargovernment—powerthereemerges，first，thedivisionofstate—businessintoitsbranches（otherwisedefined），legislativepower，administrationofjusticeorjudicialpower，administrationandpolice，anditsconsequentdistributionbetweenparticularboardsoroffices，whichhavingtheirbusinessappointedbylaw，tothatendandforthatreason，possessindependenceofaction，withoutatthesametimeceasingtostandunderhighersupervision。

Secondly，too，therearisestheparticipationofseveralinstate—business，whotogetherconstitutethe’generalorder’（§528）insofarastheytakeonthemselvesthechargeofuniversalendsastheessentialfunctionoftheirparticularlife;—thefurtherconditionforbeingabletotakeindividuallypartinthisbusinessbeingacertaintraining，aptitude，andskillforsuchends。

§544。

Theestates—collegiumorprovincialcouncilisaninstitutionbywhichallsuchasbelongtocivilsocietyingeneral，andaretothatdegreeprivatepersons，participateinthegovernmentalpower，especiallyinlegislation—viz。suchlegislationasconcernstheuniversalscopeofthoseinterestswhichdonot，likepeaceandwar，involvethe，asitwere，personalinterferenceandactionoftheStateasoneman，andthereforedonotbelongspeciallytotheprovinceofthesovereignpower。Byvirtueofthisparticipationsubjectivelibertyandconceit，withtheirgeneralopinion，canshowthemselvespalpablyefficaciousandenjoythesatisfactionoffeelingthemselvestocountforsomething。

Thedivisionofconstitutionsintodemocracy，aristocracyandmonarchy，isstillthemostdefinitestatementoftheirdifferenceinrelationtosovereignty。Theymustatthesametimeberegardedasnecessarystructuresinthepathofdevelopment—inshort，inthehistoryoftheState。Henceitissuperficialandabsurdtorepresentthemasanobjectofchoice。Thepureforms—necessarytotheprocessofevolution—are，insofarastheyarefiniteandincourseofchange，conjoinedbothwithformsoftheirdegeneration—suchasochlocracy，etc。，andwithearliertransition—forms。

Thesetwoformsarenottobeconfusedwiththoselegitimatestructures。Thus，itmaybe—ifwelookonlytothefactthatthewillofoneindividualstandsattheheadofthestate—orientaldespotismisincludedunderthevaguenamemonarchy—asalsofeudalmonarchy，towhichindeedeventhefavouritenameof’constitutionalmonarchy’cannotberefused。Thetruedifferenceoftheseformsfromgenuinemonarchydependsonthetruevalueofthoseprinciplesofrightwhichareinvogueandhavetheiractualityandguaranteeinthestate—power。Theseprinciplesarethoseexpoundedearlier，libertyofproperty，andaboveallpersonalliberty，civilsociety，withitsindustryanditscommunities，andtheregulatedefficiencyoftheparticularbureauxinsubordinationtothelaws。

Thequestionwhichismostdiscussedisinwhatsensewearetounderstandtheparticipationofprivatepersonsinstateaffairs。Foritisasprivatepersonsthatthemembersofbodiesofestatesareprimarilytobetaken，betheytreatedasmereindividuals，orasrepresentativesofanumberofpeopleorofthenation。Theaggregateofprivatepersonsisoftenspokenofasthenation：butassuchanaggregateitisvulgus，notpopulus：andinthisdirectionitistheonesoleaimofthestatethatanationshouldnotcometoexistence，topowerandaction，assuchanaggregate。Suchaconditionofanationisaconditionoflawlessness，demoralization，brutishness：initthenationwouldonlybeashapeless，wild，blindforce，likethatofthestormy，elementalsea，which，however，isnotself—destructive，asthenation—aspiritualelement—wouldbe。Yetsuchaconditionmaybeoftenhearddescribedasthatoftruefreedom。Ifthereistobeanysenseinembarkinguponthequestionoftheparticipationofprivatepersonsinpublicaffairs，itisnotabrutishmass，butanalreadyorganisednation—oneinwhichagovernmentalpowerexists—whichshouldbepresupposed。Thedesirabilityofsuchparticipation，however，isnottobeputinthesuperiorityofparticularintelligence，whichprivatepersonsaresupposedtohaveoverstateofficials—thecontrarymustbethecase—norinthesuperiorityoftheirgoodwillforthegeneralbest。Themembersofcivilsocietyassuchareratherpeoplewhofindtheirnearestdutyintheirprivateinterestand（asespeciallyinthefeudalsociety）intheinterestoftheirprivilegedcorporation。TakethecaseofEnglandwhich，becauseprivatepersonshaveapredominantshareinpublicaffairs，hasbeenregardedashavingthefreestofallconstitutions。Experienceshowsthatthatcountry—ascomparedwiththeothercivilisedstatesofEurope—isthemostbackwardincivilandcriminallegislation，inthelawandlibertyofproperty，inarrangementsforartandscience，andthatobjectivefreedomorrationalrightisrathersacrificedtoformalrightandparticularprivateinterest;andthatthishappensevenintheinstitutionsandpossessionssupposedtobededicatedtoreligion。Thedesirabilityofprivatepersonstakingpartinpublicaffairsispartlytobeputintheirconcrete，andthereforemoreurgent，senseofgeneralwants。Butthetruemotiveistherightofthecollectivespirittoappearasanexternallyuniversalwill，actingwithorderlyandexpressefficacyforthepublicconcerns。Bythissatisfactionofthisrightitgetsitsownlifequickened，andatthesametimebreathesfreshlifeintheadministrativeofficials;whothushaveitbroughthometothemthatnotmerelyhavetheytoenforcedutiesbutalsotohaveregardtorights。

Privatecitizensareinthestatetheincomparablygreaternumber，andformthemultitudeofsuchasarerecognizedaspersons。Hencethewill—reasonexhibitsitsexistenceinthemasapreponderatingmajorityoffreemen，orinits’reflectional’universality，whichhasitsactualityvouchsafeditasaparticipationinthesovereignty。Butithasalreadybeennotedasa’moment’ofcivilsociety（§§

527，534）thattheindividualsrisefromexternalintosubstantialuniversality，andformaparticularkind—theEstates：anditisnotintheinorganicformofmereindividualsassuch（afterthedemocraticfashionofelection），butasorganicfactors，asestates，thattheyenteruponthatparticipation。Inthestateapoweroragencymustneverappearandactasaformless，inorganicshape，i。e。basingitselfontheprincipleofmulteityandmerenumbers。

AssembliesofEstateshavebeenwronglydesignatedasthelegislativepower，sofarastheyformonlyonebranchofthatpower—abranchinwhichthespecialgovernment—officialshaveanexofficioshare，whilethesovereignpowerhastheprivilegeoffinaldecision。Inacivilisedstate，moreover，legislationcanonlybeafurthermodificationofexistinglaws，andso—callednewlawscanonlydealwithminutiaeofdetailandparticularities（cf。§529note），themaindriftofwhichhasbeenalreadypreparedorpreliminarilysettledbythepracticeofthelaw—courts。Theso—calledfinanciallaw，insofarasitrequirestheassentoftheestates，isreallyagovernmentaffair：itisonlyimproperlycalledalaw，inthegeneralsenseofembracingawide，indeedthewhole，rangeoftheexternalmeansofgovernment。Thefinancesdealwithwhatintheirnatureareonlyparticularneeds，evernewlyrecurring，eveniftheytouchonthesumtotalofsuchneeds。Ifthemainpartoftherequirementwere—asitverylikelyis—regardedaspermanent，theprovisionforitwouldhavemorethenatureofalaw：buttobealawitwouldhavetobemadeonceforall，andnottobemadeyearly，oreveryfewyears，afresh。Thepartwhichvariesaccordingtotimeandcircumstancesconcernsinrealitythesmallestpartoftheamount，andtheprovisionswithregardtoithaveevenlessthecharacterofalaw：andyetitisandmaybeonlythisslightvariablepartwhichismatterofdispute，andcanbesubjectedtoavaryingyearlyestimate。Itisthislastthenwhichfalselybearsthehigh—soundingnamesofthe’Grant’oftheBudget，i。e。ofthewholeofthefinances。Alawforoneyearandmadeeachyearhaseventotheplainmansomethingpalpablyabsurd：forhedistinguishestheessentialanddevelopeduniversal，ascontentofatruelaw，fromthereflectionaluniversalitywhichonlyexternallyembraceswhatinitsnatureismany。Togivethenameofalawtotheannualfixingoffinancialrequirementsonlyserves—withthepresupposedseparationoflegislativefromexecutive—tokeepuptheillusionofthatseparationhavingrealexistence，andtoconcealthefactthatthelegislativepower，whenitmakesadecreeaboutfinance，isreallyengagedwithstrictexecutivebusiness。Buttheimportanceattachedtothepoweroffromtimetotimegranting’supply’，onthegroundthattheassemblyofestatespossessesinitacheckonthegovernment，andthusaguaranteeagainstinjusticeandviolence—thisimportanceisinonewayratherplausiblethanreal。Thefinancialmeasuresnecessaryforthestate’ssubsistencecannotbemadeconditionalonanyothercircumstances，norcanthestate’ssubsistencebeputyearlyindoubt。Itwouldbeaparallelabsurdityifthegovernmentwere，e。g。，tograntandarrangethejudicialinstitutionsalwaysforalimitedtimemerely;andthus，bythethreatofsuspendingtheactivityofsuchaninstitutionandthefearofaconsequentstateofbrigandage，reserveforitselfameansofcoercingprivateindividuals。Thenagain，thepicturesofaconditionofaffairs，inwhichitmightbeusefulandnecessarytohaveinhandmeansofcompulsion，arepartlybasedonthefalseconceptionofacontractbetweenrulersandruled，andpartlypresupposethepossibilityofsuchadivergenceinspiritbetweenthesetwopartiesaswouldmakeconstitutionandgovernmentquiteoutofthequestion。Ifwesupposetheemptypossibilityofgettinghelpbysuchcompulsivemeansbroughtintoexistence，suchhelpwouldratherbethederangementanddissolutionofthestate，inwhichtherewouldnolongerbeagovernment，butonlyparties，andtheviolenceandoppressionofonepartywouldonlybehelpedawaybytheother。Tofittogethertheseveralpartsofthestateintoaconstitutionafterthefashionofmereunderstanding—i。e。toadjustwithinitthemachineryofabalanceofpowersexternaltoeachother—istocontravenethefundamentalideaofwhatastateis。

§545。

Thefinalaspectofthestateistoappearinimmediateactualityasasinglenationmarkedbyphysicalconditions。Asasingleindividualitisexclusiveagainstotherlikeindividuals。Intheirmutualrelations，waywardnessandchancehaveaplace;

foreachpersonintheaggregateisautonomous：theuniversaloflawisonlypostulatedbetweenthem，andnotactuallyexistent。Thisindependenceofacentralauthorityreducesdisputesbetweenthemtotermsofmutualviolence，astateofwar，tomeetwhichthegeneralestateinthecommunityassumestheparticularfunctionofmaintainingthestate’sindependenceagainstotherstates，andbecomestheestateofbravery。

§546。

Thisstateofwarshowstheomnipotenceofthestateinitsindividuality—anindividualitythatgoeseventoabstractnegativity。Countryandfatherlandthenappearasthepowerbywhichtheparticularindependenceofindividualsandtheirabsorptionintheexternalexistenceofpossessionandinnaturallifeisconvictedofitsownnullity—asthepowerwhichprocuresthemaintenanceofthegeneralsubstancebythepatrioticsacrificeonthepartoftheseindividualsofthisnaturalandparticularexistence—somakingnugatorythenugatorinessthatconfrontsit。

（b）ExternalPublicLaw§547。

InthestateofwartheindependenceofStatesisatstake。Inonecasetheresultmaybethemutualrecognitionoffreenationalindividualities（§430）：andbypeace—conventionssupposedtobeforever，boththisgeneralrecognition，andthespecialclaimsofnationsononeanother，aresettledandfixed。Externalstate—rightsrestpartlyonthesepositivetreaties，buttothatextentcontainonlyrightsfailingshortoftrueactuality（§545）：partlyso—calledinternationallaw，thegeneralprincipleofwhichisitspresupposedrecognitionbytheseveralStates。

Itthusrestrictstheirotherwiseuncheckedactionagainstoneanotherinsuchawaythatthepossibilityofpeaceisleft;anddistinguishesindividualsasprivatepersons（non—belligerents）fromthestate。Ingeneral，internationallawrestsonsocialusage。

（c）UniversalHistory§548。

Asthemindofaspecialnationisactualanditslibertyisundernaturalconditions，itadmitsonthisnature—sidetheinfluenceofgeographicalandclimaticqualities。Itisintime;andasregardsitsrangeandscope，hasessentiallyaparticularprincipleonthelinesofwhichitmustrunthroughadevelopmentofitsconsciousnessanditsactuality。Ithas，inshort，ahistoryofitsown。Butasarestrictedminditsindependenceissomethingsecondary;itpassesintouniversalworld—history，theeventsofwhichexhibitthedialecticoftheseveralnationalminds—thejudgementoftheworld。

§549。

Thismovementisthepathofliberationforthespiritualsubstance，thedeedbywhichtheabsolutefinalaimoftheworldisrealisedinit，andthemerelyimplicitmindachievesconsciousnessandself—consciousness。Itisthustherevelationandactualityofitsessentialandcompletedessence，wherebyitbecomestotheoutwardeyeauniversalspirit—aworld—mind。Asthisdevelopmentisintimeandinrealexistence，asitisahistory，itsseveralstagesandstepsarethenationalminds，eachofwhich，assingleandenduedbynaturewithaspecificcharacter，isappointedtooccupyonlyonegrade，andaccomplishonetaskinthewholedeed。

Thepresuppositionthathistoryhasanessentialandactualend，fromtheprinciplesofwhichcertaincharacteristicresultslogicallyflow，iscalledanaprioriviewofit，andphilosophyisreproachedwithapriorihistory—writing。Onthispoint，andonhistory—writingingeneral，thisnotemustgointofurtherdetail。Thathistory，andabovealluniversalhistory，isfoundedonanessentialandactualaim，whichactuallyisandwillberealisedinit—theplanofProvidence;that，inshort，thereisReasoninhistory，mustbedecidedonstrictlyphilosophicalground，andthusshowntobeessentiallyandinfactnecessary。Topresupposesuchaimisblameworthyonlywhentheassumedconceptionsorthoughtsarearbitrarilyadopted，andwhenadeterminedattemptismadetoforceeventsandactionsintoconformitywithsuchconceptions。Forsuchapriorimethodsoftreatmentatthepresentday，however，thosearechieflytoblamewhoprofesstobepurelyhistorical，andwhoatthesametimetakeopportunityexpresslytoraisetheirvoiceagainstthehabitofphilosophising，firstingeneral，andtheninhistory。Philosophyistothematroublesomeneighbour：

foritisanenemyofallarbitrarinessandhastysuggestions。Suchapriorihistory—writinghassometimesburstoutinquarterswhereonewouldleasthaveexpected。it，especiallyonthephilologicalside，andinGermanymorethaninFranceandEngland，wheretheartofhistoricalwritinghasgonethroughaprocessofpurificationtoafirmerandmaturercharacter。Fictions，likethatofaprimitiveageanditsprimitivepeople，possessedfromthefirstofthetrueknowledgeofGodandallthesciences—ofsacerdotalraces—and，whenwecometominutiae，ofaRomanepic，supposedtobethesourceofthelegendswhichpasscurrentforthehistoryofancientRome，etc。，havetakentheplaceofthepragmatisingwhichdetectedpsychologicalmotivesandassociations。Thereisawidecircleofpersonswhoseemtoconsideritincumbentonalearnedandingenioushistoriandrawingfromtheoriginalsourcestoconcoctsuchbaselessfancies，andformboldcombinationsofthemfromalearnedrubbish—heapofout—of—the—wayandtrivialfacts，indefianceofthebest—accreditedhistory。

Settingasidethissubjectivetreatmentofhistory，wefindwhatisproperlytheoppositeviewforbiddingustoimportintohistoryanobjectivepurpose。Thisisafterallsynonymouswithwhatseemstobethestillmorelegitimatedemandthatthehistorianshouldproceedwithimpartiality。

Thisisarequirementoftenandespeciallymadeonthehistoryofphilosophy：whereitisinsistedthereshouldbenoprepossessioninfavourofanideaoropinion，justasajudgeshouldhavenospecialsympathyforoneofthecontendingparties。Inthecaseofthejudgeitisatthesametimeassumedthathewouldadministerhisofficeillandfoolishly，ifhehadnotaninterest，andanexclusiveinterestinjustice，ifhehadnotthatforhisaimandonesoleaim，orifhedeclinedtojudgeatall。Thisrequirementwhichwemaymakeuponthejudgemaybecalledpartialityforjustice;andthereisnodifficultyhereindistinguishingitfromsubjectivepartiality。Butinspeakingoftheimpartialityrequiredfromthehistorian，thisself—satisfiedinsipidchatterletsthedistinctiondisappear，andrejectsbothkindsofinterest。Itdemandsthatthehistorianshallbringwithhimnodefiniteaimandviewbywhichhemaysortout，state，andcriticiseevents，butshallnarratethemexactlyinthecasualmodehefindsthem，intheirincoherentandunintelligentparticularity。Nowitisatleastadmittedthatahistorymusthaveanobject，e。g。Romeanditsfortunes，ortheDeclineofthegrandeuroftheRomanempire。Butlittlereflectionisneededtodiscoverthatthisisthepresupposedendwhichliesatthebasisoftheeventsthemselves，asofthecriticalexaminationintotheircomparativeimportance，i。e。theirnearerormoreremoterelationtoit。Ahistorywithoutsuchaimandsuchcriticismwouldbeonlyanimbecilementaldivagation，notasgoodasafairytale，forevenchildrenexpectamotifintheirstories，apurposeatleastdimlysurmisablewithwhicheventsandactionsareputinrelation。

Intheexistenceofanationthesubstantialaimistobeastateandpreserveitselfassuch。Anationwithnostateformation（amerenation），has，strictlyspeaking，nohistory—likethenationswhichexistedbeforetheriseofstatesandotherswhichstillexistinaconditionofsavagery。Whathappenstoanation，andtakesplacewithinit，hasitsessentialsignificanceinrelationtothestate：

whereasthemereparticularitiesofindividualsareatthegreatestdistancefromthetrueobjectofhistory。Itistruethatthegeneralspiritofanageleavesitsimprintinthecharacterofitscelebratedindividuals，andeventheirparticularitiesarebuttheverydistantandthedimmediathroughwhichthecollectivelightstillplaysinfaintercolours。Ay，evensuchsingularitiesasapettyoccurrence，aword，expressnotasubjectiveparticularity，butanage，anation，acivilization，instrikingportraitureandbrevity;andtoselectsuchtriflesshowsthehandofahistorianofgenius。But，ontheotherhand，themainmassofsingularitiesisafutileanduselessmass，bythepainstakingaccumulationofwhichtheobjectsofrealhistoricalvalueareoverwhelmedandobscured。Theessentialcharacteristicofthespiritanditsageisalwayscontainedinthegreatevents。Itwasacorrectinstinctwhichsoughttobanishsuchportraitureoftheparticularandthegleaningofinsignificanttraits，intotheNovel（asinthecelebratedromancesofWalterScott，etc。）。Wherethepicturepresentsanunessentialaspectoflifeitiscertainlyingoodtastetoconjoinitwithanunessentialmaterial，suchastheromancetalesfromprivateeventsandsubjectivepassions。Buttotaketheindividualpettinessesofanageandofthepersonsinit，and，intheinterestofso—calledtruth，weavethemintothepictureofgeneralinterests，isnotonlyagainsttasteandjudgement，butviolatestheprinciplesofobjectivetruth。Theonlytruthformindisthesubstantialandunderlyingessence，andnotthetrivialitiesofexternalexistenceandcontingency。Itisthereforecompletelyindifferentwhethersuchinsignificancesaredulyvouchedforbydocuments，or，asintheromance，inventedtosuitthecharacterandascribedtothisorthatnameandcircumstances。

ThepointofinterestofBiography—tosayawordonthathere—appearstorundirectlycountertoanyuniversalscopeandaim。Butbiographytoohasforitsbackgroundthehistoricalworld，withwhichtheindividualisintimatelyboundup：evenpurelypersonaloriginality，thefreakofhumour，etc。suggestsbyallusionthatcentralrealityandhasitsinterestheightenedbythesuggestion。Themereplayofsentiment，onthecontrary，hasanothergroundandinterestthanhistory。

Therequirementofimpartialityaddressedtothehistoryofphilosophy（andalso，wemayadd，tothehistoryofreligion，firstingeneral，andsecondly，tochurchhistory）generallyimpliesanevenmoredecidedbaragainstpresuppositionofanyobjectiveaim。AstheStatewasalreadycalledthepointtowhichinpoliticalhistorycriticismhadtoreferallevents，soherethe’Truth’mustbetheobjecttowhichtheseveraldeedsandeventsofthespiritwouldhavetobereferred。Whatisactuallydoneisrathertomakethecontrarypresupposition。Historieswithsuchanobjectasreligionorphilosophyareunderstoodtohaveonlysubjectiveaimsfortheirtheme，i。e。onlyopinionsandmereideas，notanessentialandrealisedobjectlikethetruth。Andthatwiththemereexcusethatthereisnotruth。Onthisassumptionthesympathywithtruthappearsasonlyapartialityoftheusualsort，apartialityforopinionandmereideas，whichallalikehavenostuffinthem。andarealltreatedasindifferent。Inthatwayhistoricaltruthmeansbutcorrectness—anaccuratereportofexternals，withoutcriticaltreatmentsaveasregardsthiscorrectness—

admitting，inthiscase，onlyqualitativeandquantitativejudgements，nojudgementsofnecessityornotion（cf。notesto§§172and175）。But，really，ifRomeortheGermanempire，etc。areanactualandgenuineobjectofpoliticalhistory，andtheaimtowhichthephenomenaaretoberelatedandbywhichtheyaretobejudged;theninuniversalhistorythegenuinespirit，theconsciousnessofit，andofitsessence，iseveninahigherdegreeatrueandactualobjectandtheme，andanaimtowhichallotherphenomenaareessentiallyandactuallysubservient。Onlythereforethroughtheirrelationshiptoit，i。e。throughthejudgementinwhichtheyaresubsumedunderit，whileitinheresinthem，havetheytheirvalueandeventheirexistence。Itisthespiritwhichnotmerelybroodsoverhistoryasoverthewatersbutlivesinitandisaloneitsprincipleofmovement：andinthepathofthatspirit，liberty，i。e。adevelopmentdeterminedbythenotionofspirit，istheguidingprincipleandonlyitsnotionitsfinalaim，i。e。truth。ForSpiritisconsciousness。Suchadoctrine—orinotherwordsthatReasonisinhistory—willbepartlyatleastaplausiblefaith，partlyitisacognitionofphilosophy。

§550。

Thisliberationofmind，inwhichitproceedstocometoitselfandtorealiseitstruth，andthebusinessofsodoing，isthesupremeright，theabsoluteLaw。Theself—consciousnessofaparticularnationisavehicleforthecontemporarydevelopmentofthecollectivespiritinitsactualexistence：itistheobjectiveactualityinwhichthatspiritforthetimeinvestsitswill。Againstthisabsolutewilltheotherparticularnaturalmindshavenorights：thatnationdominatestheworld：

butyettheuniversalwillstepsonwardoveritspropertyforthetimebeing，asoveraspecialgrade，andthendeliversitovertoitschanceanddoom。

§551。

Tosuchextentasthisbusinessofactualityappearsasanaction，andthereforeasaworkofindividuals，theseindividuals，asregardsthesubstantialissueoftheirlabour，areinstruments，andtheirsubjectivity，whichiswhatispeculiartothem，istheemptyformofactivity。Whattheypersonallyhavegainedthereforethroughtheindividualsharetheytookinthesubstantialbusiness（preparedandappointedindependentlyofthem）isaformaluniversalityorsubjectivementalidea—Fame，whichistheirreward。

§552。

Thenationalspiritcontainsnature—necessity，andstandsinexternalexistence（§

483）：theethicalsubstance，potentiallyinfinite，isactuallyaparticularandlimitedsubstance（§§549，550）;onitssubjectivesideitlaboursundercontingency，intheshapeofitsunreflectivenaturalusages，anditscontentispresentedtoitassomethingexistingintimeandtiedtoanexternalnatureandexternalworld。Thespirit，however（whichthinksinthismoralorganism）overridesandabsorbswithinitselfthefinitudeattachingtoitasnationalspiritinitsstateandthestate’stemporalinterests，inthesystemoflawsandusages。Itrisestoapprehenditselfinitsessentiality。Suchapprehension，however，stillhastheimmanentlimitednessofthenationalspirit。Butthespiritwhichthinksinuniversalhistory，strippingoffatthesametimethoselimitationsoftheseveralnationalmindsanditsowntemporalrestrictions，laysholdofitsconcreteuniversality，andrisestoapprehendtheabsolutemind，astheeternallyactualtruthinwhichthecontemplativereasonenjoysfreedom，whilethenecessityofnatureandthenecessityofhistoryareonlyministranttoitsrevelationandthevesselsofitshonour。

ThestrictlytechnicalaspectsoftheMind’selevationtoGodhavebeenspokenofintheIntroductiontotheLogic（cf。especially§51，note）。Asregardsthestarting—pointofthatelevation，Kanthasonthewholeadoptedthemostcorrect，whenhetreatsbeliefinGodasproceedingfromthepracticalReason。Forthatstarting—pointcontainsthematerialorcontentwhichconstitutesthecontentofthenotionofGod。ButthetrueconcretematerialisneitherBeing（asinthecosmological）normereactionbydesign（asinthephysico—theologicalproof）buttheMind，theabsolutecharacteristicandfunctionofwhichiseffectivereason，i。e。theself—determiningandself—realizingnotionitself—Liberty。ThattheelevationofsubjectivemindtoGodwhichtheseconsiderationsgiveisbyKantagaindeposedtoapostulate—amere’ought’—isthepeculiarperversity，formerlynoticed，ofcalmlyandsimplyreinstatingastrueandvalidthatveryantithesisoffinitude，thesupersessionofwhichintotruthistheessenceofthatelevation。

Asregardsthe’mediation’which，asithasbeenalreadyshown（§192，cf。§204note），thatelevationtoGodreallyinvolves，thepointspeciallycallingfornoteisthe’moment’ofnegationthroughwhichtheessentialcontentofthestarting—pointispurgedofitsfinitudesoastocomeforthfree。Thisfactor，abstractintheformaltreatmentoflogic，nowgetsitsmostconcreteinterpretation。Thefinite，fromwhichthestartisnowmade，istherealethicalself—consciousness。

Thenegationthroughwhichthatconsciousnessraisesitsspirittoitstruth，isthepurification，actuallyaccomplishedintheethicalworld，wherebyitsconscienceispurgedofsubjectiveopinionanditswillfreedfromtheselfishnessofdesire。Genuinereligionandgenuinereligiosityonlyissuefromthemorallife：religionisthatliferisingtothink，i。e。becomingawareofthefreeuniversalityofitsconcreteessence。OnlyfromthemorallifeandbythemorallifeistheIdeaofGodseentobefreespirit：outsidetheethicalspiritthereforeitisvaintoseekfortruereligionandreligiosity。

But—asisthecasewithallspeculativeprocess—thisdevelopmentofonethingoutofanothermeansthatwhatappearsassequelandderivativeisrathertheabsolutepriusofwhatitappearstobemediatedby，andhereinmindisalsoknownasitstruth。

Herethenistheplacetogomoredeeplyintothereciprocalrelationsbetweenthestateandreligion，andindoingsotoelucidatetheterminologywhichisfamiliarandcurrentonthetopic。Itisevidentandapparentfromwhathasprecededthatmorallifeisthestateretractedintoitsinnerheartandsubstance，whilethestateistheorganisationandactualizationofmorallife;andthatreligionistheverysubstanceofthemorallifeitselfandofthestate。Atthisrate，thestaterestsontheethicalsentiment，andthatonthereligious。Ifreligionthenistheconsciousnessof’absolute’

truth，thenwhateveristorankasrightandjustice，aslawandduty，i。e。astrueintheworldoffreewill，canbesoesteemedonlyasitisparticipantinthattruth，asitissubsumedunderitandisitssequel。Butifthetrulymorallifeistobeasequelofreligion，thenperforcereligionmusthavethegenuinecontent;i。e。theideaofGoditknowsmustbethetrueandreal。Theethicallifeisthedivinespiritasindwellinginself—consciousness，asitisactuallypresentinanationanditsindividualmembers。Thisself—consciousnessretiringuponitselfoutofitsempiricalactualityandbringingitstruthtoconsciousnesshas，initsfaithandinitsconscience，onlywhatithasconsciouslysecuredinitsspiritualactuality。Thetwoareinseparable：therecannotbetwokindsofconscience，onereligiousandanotherethical，differingfromtheformerinbodyandvalueoftruth。Butinpointofform，i。e。forthoughtandknowledge—（andreligionandethicallifebelongtointelligenceandareathinkingandknowing）—thebodyofreligioustruth，asthepureself—subsistingandthereforesupremetruth，exercisesasanctionoverthemorallifewhichliesinempiricalactuality。Thusforself—consciousnessreligionisthe’basis’ofmorallifeandofthestate。Ithasbeenthemonstrousblunderofourtimestotrytolookupontheseinseparablesasseparablefromoneanother，andevenasmutuallyindifferent。Theviewtakenoftherelationshipofreligionandthestatehasbeenthat，whereasthestatehadanindependentexistenceofitsown，springingfromsomeforceandpower，religionwasalateraddition，somethingdesirableperhapsforstrengtheningthepoliticalbulwarks，butpurelysubjectiveinindividuals：—oritmaybe，religionistreatedassomethingwithouteffectonthemorallifeofthestate，i。e。itsreasonablelawandconstitutionwhicharebasedonagroundoftheirown。

Astheinseparabilityofthetwosideshasbeenindicated，itmaybeworthwhiletonotetheseparationasitappearsonthesideofreligion。Itisprimarilyapointofform：theattitudewhichself—consciousnesstakestothebodyoftruth。Solongasthisbodyoftruthistheverysubstanceorindwellingspiritofself—consciousnessinitsactuality，thenself—consciousnessinthiscontenthasthecertaintyofitselfandisfree。Butifthispresentself—consciousnessislacking，thentheremaybecreated，inpointofform，aconditionofspiritualslavery，eventhoughtheimplicitcontentofreligionisabsolutespirit。Thisgreatdifference（tociteaspecificcase）comesoutwithintheChristianreligionitself，eventhoughhereitisnotthenature—elementinwhichtheideaofGodisembodied，andthoughnothingofthesortevenentersasafactorintoitscentraldogmaandsolethemeofaGodwhoisknowninspiritandintruth。AndyetinCatholicismthisspiritofalltruthisinactualitysetinrigidoppositiontotheself—consciousspirit。And，firstofall，Godisinthe’host’

presentedtoreligiousadorationasanexternalthing。（IntheLutheranChurch，onthecontrary，thehostassuchisnotatfirstconsecrated，butinthemomentofenjoyment，i。e。intheannihilationofitsexternality。andintheactoffaith，i。e。inthefreeself—certainspirit：onlythenisitconsecratedandexaltedtobepresentGod。）Fromthatfirstandsupremestatusofexternalizationflowseveryotherphaseofexternality—ofbondage，non—spirituality，andsuperstition。Itleadstoalaity，receivingitsknowledgeofdivinetruth，aswellasthedirectionofitswillandconsciencefromwithoutandfromanotherorder—whichorderagaindoesnotgetpossessionofthatknowledgeinaspiritualwayonly，buttothatendessentiallyrequiresanexternalconsecration。Itleadstothenon—spiritualstyleofpraying—partlyasmeremovingofthelips，partlyinthewaythatthesubjectforegoeshisrightofdirectlyaddressingGod，andpraysotherstopray—addressinghisdevotiontomiracle—workingimages，eventobones，andexpectingmiraclesfromthem。Itleads，generally，tojustificationbyexternalworks，ameritwhichissupposedtobegainedbyacts，andeventobecapableofbeingtransferredtoothers。Allthisbindsthespiritunderanexternalismbywhichtheverymeaningofspiritispervertedandmisconceivedatitssource，andlawandjustice，moralityandconscience，responsibilityanddutyarecorruptedattheirroot。

Alongwiththisprincipleofspiritualbondage，andtheseapplicationsofitinthereligiouslife，therecanonlygointhelegislativeandconstitutionalsystemalegalandmoralbondage，andastateoflawlessnessandimmoralityinpoliticallife。Catholicismhasbeenloudlypraisedandisstilloftenpraised—logicallyenough—astheonereligionwhichsecuresthestabilityofgovernments。Butinrealitythisappliesonlytogovernmentswhichareboundupwithinstitutionsfoundedonthebondageofthespirit（ofthatspiritwhichshouldhavelegalandmoralliberty），i。e。withinstitutionsthatembodyinjusticeandwithamorallycorruptandbarbaricstateofsociety。Butthesegovernmentsarenotawarethatinfanaticismtheyhaveaterriblepower，whichdoesnotriseinhostilityagainstthem，onlysolongasandonlyonconditionthattheyremainsunkinthethraldomofinjusticeandimmorality。Butinmindthereisaverydifferentpoweravailableagainstthatexternalismanddismembermentinducedbyafalsereligion。Mindcollectsitselfintoitsinwardfreeactuality。Philosophyawakesinthespiritofgovernmentsandnationsthewisdomtodiscernwhatisessentiallyandactuallyrightandreasonableintherealworld。Itwaswelltocalltheseproductsofthought，andinaspecialsensePhilosophy，thewisdomoftheworld;forthoughtmakesthespirit’struthanactualpresent，leadsitintotherealworld，andthusliberatesitinitsactualityandinitsownself。

Thussetfree，thecontentofreligionassumesquiteanothershape。Solongastheform，i。e。ourconsciousnessandsubjectivity，lackedliberty，itfollowednecessarilythatself—consciousnesswasconceivedasnotimmanentintheethicalprincipleswhichreligionembodies，andtheseprinciplesweresetatsuchadistanceastoseemtohavetruebeingonlyasnegativetoactualself—consciousness。InthisunrealityethicalcontentgetsthenameofHoliness。Butoncethedivinespiritintroducesitselfintoactuality，andactualityemancipatesitselftospirit，thenwhatintheworldwasapostulateofholinessissupplantedbytheactualityofmorallife。Insteadofthevowofchastity，marriagenowranksastheethicalrelation;and，therefore，asthehighestonthissideofhumanitystandsthefamily。Insteadofthevowofpoverty（muddledupintoacontradictionofassigningmerittowhosoevergivesawaygoodstothepoor，i。e。whosoeverenrichesthem）isthepreceptofactiontoacquiregoodsthroughone’sownintelligenceandindustry，—ofhonestyincommercialdealing，andintheuseofproperty—inshortmorallifeinthesocioeconomicsphere。

Andinsteadofthevowofobedience，truereligionsanctionsobediencetothelawandthelegalarrangementsofthestate—anobediencewhichisitselfthetruefreedom，becausethestateisaself—possessed，self—realizingreason—inshort，morallifeinthestate。Thus，andthusonly，canlawandmoralityexist。Thepreceptofreligion，’GivetoCaesarwhatisCaesar’sandtoGodwhatisGod’s’isnotenough：thequestionistosettlewhatisCaesar’s，whatbelongstothesecularauthority：anditissufficientlynotoriousthatthesecularnolessthantheecclesiasticalauthorityhaveclaimedalmosteverythingastheirown。Thedivinespiritmustinterpenetratetheentiresecularlife：

wherebywisdomisconcretewithinit，anditcarriesthetermsofitsownjustification。Butthatconcreteindwellingisonlytheaforesaidethicalorganisations。Itisthemoralityofmarriageasagainstthesanctityofacelibateorder;—themoralityofeconomicandindustrialactionagainstthesanctityofpovertyanditsindolence;—themoralityofanobediencededicatedtothelawofthestateasagainstthesanctityofanobediencefromwhichlawanddutyareabsentandwhereconscienceisenslaved。Withthegrowingneedforlawandmoralityandthesenseofthespirit’sessentialliberty，theresetsinaconflictofspiritwiththereligionofunfreedom。Itisnousetoorganisepoliticallawsandarrangementsonprinciplesofequityandreason，solongasinreligiontheprincipleofunfreedomisnotabandoned。Afreestateandaslavishreligionareincompatible。Itissillytosupposethatwemaytrytoallotthemseparatespheres，undertheimpressionthattheirdiversenatureswillmaintainanattitudeoftranquillityonetoanotherandnotbreakoutincontradictionandbattle。Principlesofcivilfreedomcanbebutabstractandsuperficial，andpoliticalinstitutionsdeducedfromthemmustbe，iftakenalone，untenable，solongasthoseprinciplesintheirwisdommistakereligionsomuchasnottoknowthatthemaximsofthereasoninactualityhavetheirlastandsupremesanctioninthereligiousconscienceinsubsumptionundertheconsciousnessof’absolute’truth。Letussupposeeventhat，nomatterhow，acodeoflawshouldarise，sotospeakapriori，foundedonprinciplesofreason，butincontradictionwithanestablishedreligionbasedonprinciplesofspiritualunfreedom;still，asthedutyofcarryingoutthelawsliesinthehandsofindividualmembersofthegovernment，andofthevariousclassesoftheadministrativepersonnel，itisvaintodeludeourselveswiththeabstractandemptyassumptionthattheindividualswillactonlyaccordingtotheletterormeaningofthelaw，andnotinthespiritoftheirreligionwheretheirinmostconscienceandsupremeobligationlies。Opposedtowhatreligionpronouncesholy，thelawsappearsomethingmadebyhumanhands：eventhoughbackedbypenaltiesandexternallyintroduced，theycouldoffernolastingresistancetothecontradictionsandattacksofthereligiousspirit。Suchlaws，howeversoundtheirprovisionsmaybe，thusfounderontheconscience，whosespiritisdifferentfromthespiritofthelawsandrefusestosanctionthem。Itisnothingbutamodernfollytotrytoalteracorruptmoralorganisationbyalteringitspoliticalconstitutionandcodeoflawswithoutchangingthereligion，—tomakearevolutionwithouthavingmadeareformation，tosupposethatapoliticalconstitutionopposedtotheoldreligioncouldliveinpeaceandharmonywithitanditssanctities，andthatstabilitycouldbeprocuredforthelawsbyexternalguarantees，e。g。，so—called’chambers’，andthepowergiventhemtofixthebudget，etc。

（cf。§544note）。Atbestitisonlyatemporaryexpedient—whenitisobviouslytoogreatatasktodescendintothedepthsofthereligiousspiritandtoraisethatsamespirittoitstruth—toseektoseparatelawandjusticefromreligion。Thoseguaranteesarebutrottenbulwarksagainsttheconsciencesofthepersonschargedwithadministeringthelaws—amongwhichlawstheseguaranteesareincluded。Itisindeedtheheightandprofanityofcontradictiontoseektobindandsubjecttothesecularcodethereligiousconsciencetowhichmerehumanlawisathingprofane。

TheperceptionhaddawneduponPlatowithgreatclearnessofthegulfwhichinhisdayhadcommencedtodividetheestablishedreligionandthepoliticalconstitution，ononehand，fromthosedeeperrequirementswhich，ontheotherhand，weremadeuponreligionandpoliticsbylibertywhichhadlearnttorecognizeitsinnerlife。PlatogetsholdofthethoughtthatagenuineconstitutionandasoundpoliticallifehavetheirdeeperfoundationontheIdea—ontheessentiallyandactuallyuniversalandgenuineprinciplesofeternalrighteousness。Nowtoseeandascertainwhattheseareiscertainlythefunctionandthebusinessofphilosophy。ItisfromthispointofviewthatPlatobreaksoutintothecelebratedornotoriouspassagewherehemakesSocratesemphaticallystatethatphilosophyandpoliticalpowermustcoincide，thattheIdeamustberegent，ifthedistressofnationsistoseeitsend。WhatPlatothusdefinitelysetbeforehismindwasthattheIdea—whichimplicitlyindeedisthefreeself—determiningthought—couldnotgetintoconsciousnesssaveonlyintheformofathought;thatthesubstanceofthethoughtcouldonlybetruewhensetforthasauniversal，andassuchbroughttoconsciousnessunderitsmostabstractform。

TocomparethePlatonicstandpointinallitsdefinitenesswiththepointofviewfromwhichtherelationshipofstateandreligionishereregarded，thenotionaldifferencesonwhicheverythingturnsmustberecalledtomind。Thefirstoftheseisthatinnaturalthingstheirsubstanceorgenusisdifferentfromtheirexistenceinwhichthatsubstanceisassubject：furtherthatthissubjectiveexistenceofthegenusisdistinctfromthatwhichitgets，whenspeciallysetinreliefasgenus，or，toputitsimply，astheuniversalinamentalconceptoridea。Thisadditional’individuality’—thesoilonwhichtheuniversalandunderlyingprinciplefreelyandexpresslyexists—istheintellectualandthinkingself。Inthecaseofnaturalthingstheirtruthandrealitydoesnotgettheformofuniversalityandessentialitythroughthemselves，andtheir’individuality’isnotitselftheform：theformisonlyfoundinsubjectivethinking，whichinphilosophygivesthatuniversaltruthandrealityanexistenceofitsown。Inman’scaseitisotherwise：histruthandrealityisthefreeminditself，anditcomestoexistenceinhisself—consciousness。Thisabsolutenucleusofman—mindintrinsicallyconcrete—isjustthis—tohavetheform（tohavethinking）itselfforacontent。TotheheightofthethinkingconsciousnessofthisprincipleAristotleascendedinhisnotionoftheentelechyofthought，thussurmountingthePlatonicIdea（thegenus，oressentialbeing）。Butthoughtalways—andthatonaccountofthisveryprinciple—containstheimmediateself—subsistenceofsubjectivitynolessthanitcontainsuniversality;thegenuineIdeaoftheintrinsicallyconcretemindisjustasessentiallyundertheoneofitsterms（subjectiveconsciousness）asundertheother（universality）：andintheoneasintheotheritisthesamesubstantialcontent。Underthesubjectiveform，however，fallfeeling，intuition，pictorialrepresentation;anditisinfactnecessarythatinpointoftimetheconsciousnessoftheabsoluteIdeashouldbefirstreachedandapprehendedinthisform：inotherwords，itmustexistinitsimmediaterealityasreligion，earlierthanitdoesasphilosophy。

Philosophyisalaterdevelopmentfromthisbasis（justasGreekphilosophyitselfislaterthanGreekreligion），andinfactreachesitscompletionbycatchingandcomprehendinginallitsdefiniteessentialitythatprincipleofspiritwhichfirstmanifestsitselfinreligion。ButGreekphilosophycouldsetitselfuponlyinoppositiontoGreekreligion：theunityofthoughtandthesubstantialityoftheIdeacouldtakeupnonebutahostileattitudetoanimaginativepolytheism，andtothegladsomeandfrivoloushumoursofitspoeticcreations。Theforminitsinfinitetruth，thesubjectivityofmind，brokeforthatfirstonlyasasubjectivefreethinking，whichwasnotyetidenticalwiththesubstantialityitself—andthusthisunderlyingprinciplewasnotyetapprehendedasabsolutemind。Thusreligionmightappearasfirstpurifiedonlythroughphilosophy—throughpureself—existentthought：buttheformpervadingthisunderlyingprinciple—theformwhichphilosophyattacked—wasthatcreativeimagination。

Politicalpower，whichisdevelopedsimilarly，butearlierthanphilosophy，fromreligion。exhibitstheone—sidedness，whichintheactualworldmayinfectitsimplicitlytrueIdea，asdemoralization。

Plato，incommonwithallhisthinkingcontemporaries，perceivedthisdemoralizationofdemocracyandthedefectivenessevenofitsprinciple;hesetinreliefaccordinglytheunderlyingprincipleofthestate，butcouldnotworkintohisideaofittheinfiniteformofsubjectivity，whichstillescapedhisintelligence。Hisstateistherefore，onitsownshowing，wantinginsubjectiveliberty（§503

note，§513，etc。）。Thetruthwhichshouldbeimmanentinthestate，shouldknitittogetherandcontrolit，he，forthesereasons，gotholdofonlyintheformofthought—outtruth，ofphilosophy;

andhencehemakesthatutterancethat’solongasphilosophersdonotruleinthestates，orthosewhoarenowcalledkingsandrulersdonotsoundlyandcomprehensivelyphilosophize，solongneitherthestatenortheraceofmencanbeliberatedfromevils—solongwilltheideaofthepoliticalconstitutionfallshortofpossibilityandnotseethelightofthesun’。ItwasnotvouchsafedtoPlatotogoonsofarastosaythatsolongastruereligiondidnotspringupintheworldandholdawayinpoliticallife，solongthegenuineprincipleofthestatehadnotcomeintoactuality。Butsolongtoothisprinciplecouldnotemergeeveninthought，norcouldthoughtlayholdofthegenuineideaofthestate—theideaofthesubstantialmorallife，withwhichisidenticalthelibertyofanindependentself—consciousness。Onlyintheprincipleofmind，whichisawareofitsownessence，isimplicitlyinabsoluteliberty，andhasitsactualityintheactofself—liberation，doestheabsolutepossibilityandnecessityexistforpoliticalpower，religion，andtheprinciplesofphilosophycoincidinginone，andforaccomplishingthereconciliationofactualityingeneralwiththemind，ofthestatewiththereligiousconscienceaswellaswiththephilosophicalconsciousness。

Self—realizingsubjectivityisinthiscaseabsolutelyidenticalwithsubstantialuniversality。Hencereligionassuch，andthestateassuch—bothasformsinwhichtheprincipleexists—eachcontaintheabsolutetruth：sothatthetruth，initsphilosophicphase，isafterallonlyinoneofitsforms。Butevenreligion，asitgrowsandexpands，letsotheraspectsoftheIdeaofhumanitygrowandexpandalso（§§566ff。）。Asitleftthereforebehind，initsfirstimmediate，andsoalsoone—sidedphase，Religionmay，orrathermust，appearinitsexistencedegradedtosensuousexternality，andthusinthesequelbecomeaninfluencetooppresslibertyofspiritandtodepravepoliticallife。Stilltheprinciplehasinittheinfinite’elasticity’ofthe’absolute’form’，soastoovercomethisdepravingoftheform—determination（andthecontentbythesemeans），andtobringaboutthereconciliationofthespiritinitself。Thusultimately，intheProtestantconsciencetheprinciplesofthereligiousandoftheethicalconsciencecometobeoneandthesame：thefreespiritlearningtoseeitselfinitsreasonablenessandtruth。IntheProtestantstate，theconstitutionandthecode，aswellastheirseveralapplications，embodytheprincipleandthedevelopmentofthemorallife，whichproceedsandcanonlyproceedfromthetruthofreligion，whenreinstatedinitsoriginalprincipleandinthatwayassuchfirstbecomeactual。Themorallifeofthestateandthereligiousspiritualityofthestatearethusreciprocalguaranteesofstrength。

iii：AbsoluteSpirit§453。

Theconceptofthespirithasitsrealityinthespirit。Ifthisrealityisincompletedidentitywiththatconceptastheknowledgeoftheabsoluteidea，thenthenecessaryaspectisthattheimplicitlyfreeintelligenceliberatesitselfforitsconcept，inorderforittobeashapeworthyofit。Thesubjectiveandtheobjectivespiritcanthereforebeseenasthepathonwhichthissideofrealityorexistenceformsitself（§304）。Conversely，thispathalsohasthesignificancethatthesubjectivespiritisseenasthefirstentitywhichexistsinitsimmediacywithouttheconcept，graspsitsessenceandformsitselffromthere，andtherebyreachesitsfreeidentitywiththeconcept，itsabsolutereality。

§454。

Sincethesubjectiveindividualityinitsfreedevelopmentisessentiallyaprocessthatbeginswithimmediatelife，thehighestidentitywhichbeinghas，andthereforeobservesallthedeterminatebeingsintheworldasanullityandentitiestobesacrificed，theethicalsubstancehasthesignificanceofabsolutepowerandtheabsolutesoul，andcontainsthesignificanceoftheessenceofnatureandofthespirit。

§455。

Thediremptionofthisgeneralandpuresubstanceofthespiritisthereforethejudgmentinitselfandtheknowledgeforwhichitexistsassuch。

（a）TheReligionofArt§456。

Theimmediateshapeofthisknowledgeisthatoftheintuitionandrepresentationoftheabsolutespiritastheideal。

§457。

Thesignificanceoftheidealisthesubstantialityastheidenticalandconcreteessenceofnatureandofthespirit，aconcreteessencewhichiscalledGod。Theproofthatthissignificanceistheabsolutetruthisthemediationbywhichnatureissuspendedintothespirit，andthespiritsuspendsitssubjectivitythroughitsactivityintotheabsolutespirit，therebyplacingitselfasitsfinalgroundinsuchawaythatthismediationisinitselfjustasmuchthesuspensionofthemediation，oftheantithesis（§72，74，105，andsoon），andknowsitselfastheabsolutefirstprinciple。

§458。

Asthisconsciousnessoftheabsolutelyfirsttakesshape，itsimmediacyproducesthefactoroffinitudeinart，andisalsothedeterminateshapeofGodforitselfatfirstastheabstractofanimmediateexistence，ofanelementaryorconcretenaturalbeing，oroftheopposite，purethought。

§459。

Thetruth，however，ofthatimmediateshapeanditsshapelessnegativity，ofthehereandnowandofthebeyond，istheconcreteshapebornfromthespirit。Inthisidealthenaturalimmediacyappearsonlyasthesignofthought，liberatedfromitscontingencyandtransfiguredthroughthoughttoexpresstheidea，sothattheshapeshowsitanditalone：—theshapeofbeauty。

§460。

Insofarasbeautyingeneralisthepenetrationoftheintuitionoroftheimagebythought，andexemplarythought，itissomethingformal，andthecontentofthought，aswellasthematerialwhichitusesforitsimagination，caninthefirstplacebeofthemostvarioustypes。

§461。

Insofar，however，astheformhasitstruecontent，thatpenetrationitselfthespiritualsubstanceinitsabsolutesignificance（§457），itis，however，forthesakeoftheimmediacyinwhichthisknowledgeisintuitionorimagisticrepresentation，theshape，toacertainextentfinite，asbeingisimmediateandtherebyexternalmaterial，thecontentispartlythereforeonlyaparticularspiritofthepeople。

§462。

Thatthisexistenceisaproductofthesubject，whichgraspstheideaandbringsittoexternalpresentation，isnotbecauseofitsfinitude;forthesubjectisonlypurelyformalactivity，andtheworkofartisonlythenanexpressionofGodwhenthereisnosignofsubjectiveparticularityinit，andtheindwellingspiritofthepeopleisconceivedandbornintotheworldunmixedandunspottedbyitscontingency。—Themediation，whichhasgonethroughthepainandtheactivityofasubjectandhastakenshape，isimmediatelysuspended。Theworkpresentsthesubstanceofthesubject，andthelabourpainsarepreciselythisabsolutemanifestationandnegativityofthesubjectiveparticularity。

§463。

Insofar，however，astheimageoftheGodisathandasimmediate，thustherelationoftheothers，drivenbytheirself—subsistingessencesintheactofworshipthroughdevotionandtheactofloweringinthoughts，relinquishestheirownsubjectivity，symbolicallysacrificestheirparticularreality，andbecomesconsciousintheenthusiasmandintheenjoymentoftheiridentitywiththesubstance。Thustherelationlosesitsexternalshapeand，tothesameextent，transfersitssubjectivity，whichisinwardinsubstanceonlyasgeneralknowledge，intoexistence。

§464。

Inworldhistory，however，theabsolutespiritsuspendsthefinitudeofitsknowingrealityandthelimitedexistenceofitsideainandforitselfintogenerality，aswellastheformoftheintuition，oftheimmediateknowledgeandexistence，intoself—mediatingknowledgeandanexistencewhichisitselfknowledge，andpassesintorevelation。

（b）RevealedReligion§465。

Absolutespiritatthislevelofthesuspendedimmediacyofitsshape，anditsknowledgeaswellatthelevelofreflection，is，ontheonehand，thegeneralspiritofnatureandofthespiritsubsistinginandforitself;butontheotherhand，itexistsfortherepresentation。liesubjectivityofknowledge，becauseitisreflection，lendsindependencetothemomentsofitslife，whosetotalityitessentiallyis，makingthempresuppositionsofeachother，andphenomenawhichsucceedeachother;itmakesacomplexofeventsaccordingtofinitereflectivecategories。

§466。

Inthisseparationthereflectionseparatestheformfromthecontent，andintheformthedifferentmomentsoftheconceptareseparatedintoparticularspheresorelements，ineachofwhichtheabsolutecontentmanifestsitself。

§467。

（1）Inthemomentofgenerality，thesphereofpurethoughtortheabstractelementoftheessence，itisthereforetheabsolutespiritwhichisinthefirstplacethepresupposedprinciple，andasasubstantialpowerinthereflectivedeterminationofcausalityiscreatorofheavenandearth。Butinthiseternalspherethespiritonlygeneratesitselfasitsson，whosegenerationorpositingisequally，however，suspendedandtheeternalbeingoftheconcept;justasitsdeterminationtobedifferentfromthegeneralessenceeternallysuspendsitselfand，throughthismediationoftheself—suspendingmediation，thefirstsubstanceisonlyconcreteindividuality—isthespirit。

§468。

（2）Inthemomentofparticularity，however，asjudgment，inwhichindividualityingeneralisincludedorbecomesitselfagaininthemomentofreflection，itisthisconcreteeternalessencewhichispresupposed。Itsmovementistheactualcreationordisintegrationoftheeternalmomentofmediation，oftheonlyson，whoisdividedintotheindependentantithesis。Ontheonehand，namely，areheavenandearth，elementalandconcretenature，andontheotherhand，standinginrelationtosuchnature，thespirit，whichthereforeisfinite。Thatspirit，astheextremeofself—subsistingnegativity，completesitsindependenceuntilitbecomeswickedness，becomesdirectlyanextremethroughitsrelationtoanopposingnatureandthroughitsownnaturalnessthuspositsit。

§469。

（3）Inthemomentofindividualityassuch，namely，ofsubjectivityandoftheconceptitselfinwhichtheantithesisofgeneralandparticularhassunktoitsidenticalground，theplaceofpresupposition（a）istakenbythegeneralsubstance，asactualisedoutofitsabstractionintoanindividualself—consciousness。Thisindividualisalsoassuchidenticalwiththeessence，andtherebyevilinandforitselfissuspended。Further，thisimmediateconcretenessexpiresintheabsolutepainofnegativity，inwhichit，asconcreteness，isidenticalwithitselfandthus，asabsolutereturnfromthatnegativityandasgeneralunityofthegeneralandindividualessentialityforitselfhasrealiseditsbeingastheideaofthespirit，eternal，butlivingandreal。

§470。

（b）Thistotality，sinceitexistsinthesphereofreflection，istheself—subsistingtotalityorpresupposition，andinoppositiontothistotalitystandsthedivisionandfiniteimmediacyofindividualsubjectivity。Forthissubjectivitytheinitialpresuppositionanditsmovementareatfirstanotherandanobjectofcontemplation;theintuitionofitsself—subsistingtruth，throughwhichthisfinitesubject，onaccountofitsimmediatenature，atfirstdeterminesitselfasnullityandevil。Itis，therefore，accordingtotheexampleofitstruth，themovementtorelinquishitsimmediatenaturaldeterminacyanditsownwill，andtounifyitselfwiththatexampleinthepainofnegativity，ingeneralabstraction。Inthiswaythesubjectrecognisesitselfasidenticalwiththeessence，which（c）throughthismediationbringsaboutitsowndwellinginself—consciousness，andisthereal，generalspirit。

§471。

Therevelationoftheabsolute，whoselifeispresentedinacycleofconcreteshapesofrepresentation，followsfromitsseparationintoindependentpartswithatemporalandexternalsequence，andinthislastresultitgathersitselfasthetrueandtherealinthegeneral，simple，andeternalspirit。Inthisformoftruth，truthistheobjectofphilosophy。

（c）Philosophy§472。

Philosophyistheunityofartandreligion，asthesimpleintuitionandsubstantialproductionofartareelevatedtoself—consciousthoughtthroughtheseparationintopartsandthemediationofreligion。Inthiselementtheself—consciousideapurifiesitselfjustasmuchfromitsfirstimmediacyasfromtheappearanceoftheevent，fromthecontingency，theexternality，andthesequentialnaturewhichitscontenthasinreligion。Thisknowledgeisthustheconceptofartandreligioninwhichthediverseelementsofthecontentarerecognisedasnecessary，andthisnecessityandimmediacyarerecognisedasfree。

§473。

Thisrecognitionofthenecessityinthecontentoftheabsoluterepresentation，aswellasofthenecessityofbothforms，ontheonehand，immediateintuitionanditspoetry，andontheotherhand，thepresupposedrepresentation，theobjectiveandexternalrevelation，andthesubjectiveretreatandinneridentificationoffaithwithrepresentation。Thisrecognitionofthecontentandtheformandtheliberationoftheseformscompletesitselfwhenphilosophyintheendgraspsitsownconcept，thatis，looksbackonitsknowledge。

§474。

Thisconceptofphilosophyistheself—thinkingidea，truthawareofitself（§183），orlogicwiththesignificancethatitisgeneralitypreservedinconcretecontent。Inthiswaysciencereturnstoitsbeginning，withlogicastheresult。Thepresuppositionofitsconcept，ortheimmediacyofitsbeginningandtheaspectofitsappearanceatthatmoment，aresuspended。

§475。

Thisinitialappearanceisformedbythesyllogism，whichhaslogicbasicallyasitsstartingpoint，withnatureforthemiddletermandislinkedultimatelytospirit。

Logicbecomesnature，andnaturebecomesspirit。Nature，whichstandsbetweenthespiritanditsessence，dividesitselfthoughnottotheextremesoffiniteabstraction。Forthesyllogismisintheideaandnatureisessentiallydeterminedasatransitionpointandnegativemoment。Butthemediationoftheconcepthastheexternalformoftransition，andsciencetakestheformofbeing。

§476。

Inthesecondsyllogismthisappearanceissuspended，forthespiritisthemediatingfactor。Thisisasyllogismwhichisalreadythestandpointofthespirititselfpresupposesnatureandjoinsitwithlogic。Itisthesyllogismofreflectionontheidea;scienceappearsassubjectivecognition。

§477。

Theseappearancesaresuspendedintheideaofphilosophy，whichhasself—knowingreason，theabsolutelygeneral，foritsmiddletermamiddlewhichdividesitselfintospiritandnature，withtheformerasitspresupposition，andthelatterasitsgeneralextreme。Thusimmediatenatureisonlyapositedentity，asspiritisinitselfnotapresupposition，butrathertotalityreturningintoitself。Inthiswaythemiddleterm，theself—knowingconcept，hasasitsrealityprimarilyconceptualmomentsandexistsinitsdeterminacyasgeneralknowledge，persistingimmediatelybyitself。