BIBLIOGRAPHICALNOTE
THEHISPANICNATIONSOFTHENEWWORLD
CHAPTERI。THEHERITAGEFROMSPAINANDPORTUGAL
AtthetimeoftheAmericanRevolutionmostoftheNewWorldstillbelongedtoSpainandPortugal，whosecaptainsandconquerorshadbeenthefirsttocometoitsshores。Spainhadthelion’sshare，butPortugalheldBrazil，initselfavastlandofunsuspectedresources。NoempiremankindhadeveryetknownrivaledinsizetheillimitabledomainsofSpainandPortugalintheNewWorld;andnonedisplayedsuchremarkablecontrastsinlandandpeople。Boundlessplainsandforests，swampsanddeserts，mightymountainchains，torrentialstreamsandmajesticrivers，markedthesurfaceofthecountry。ThisvastterritorystretchedfromthetemperateprairieswestoftheMississippidowntothesteaminglowlandsofCentralAmerica，thenupthroughtablelandsinthesoutherncontinenttohighplateaus，milesabovesealevel，wherethesunblazedandthecold，dryairwashardtobreathe，andthenhigherstilltotheloftypeaksoftheAndes，cladineternalsnoworpouringfireandsmokefromtheirsummitsintheclouds，andthencetothelowertemperatevalleys，grassypampas，andundulatinghillsofthefarsouth。
ScatteredoverthesevastcolonialdomainsintheWesternWorldweresomewherebetween12，000，000and19，000，000peoplesubjecttoSpain，andperhaps3，000，000，toPortugal;thegreatmajorityofthemwereIndiansandnegroes，thelatterpredominatinginthelandsborderingontheCaribbeanSeaandalongtheshoresofBrazil。Possiblyone—fourthoftheinhabitantscameofEuropeanstock，includingnotonlySpaniardsandtheirdescendantsbutalsothefolkwhospokeEnglishintheFloridasandFrenchinLouisiana。
DuringthecenturieswhichhadelapsedsincetheentryoftheSpaniardsandPortugueseintotheseregionsanextraordinaryfusionofraceshadtakenplace。White，red，andblackhadmingledtosuchanextentthatthebulkofthesettledpopulationbecamehalf—caste。Onlyinthemoretemperateregionsofthefarnorthandsouth，wheretheaborigineswerecomparativelyfeworhaddisappearedaltogether，didthewhitesremainraciallydistinct。SociallytheIndianandthenegrocountedforlittle。
Theyconstitutedthelaboringclassonwhomalltheburdensfellandforwhomadvantagesinthebodypoliticwerescant。LegallytheIndianunderSpanishrulestoodonafootingofequalitywithhiswhitefellows，andmanyagiftednativecametobereckonedaforceinthecommunity，thoughhissocialpositionremainedasubordinateone。MostofthenegroeswereslavesandweremorekindlytreatedbytheSpaniardsthanbythePortuguese。
Thoughdividedamongthemselves，theEuropeanswereeverywherepoliticallydominant。TheSpaniardwasalwaysanindividualist。
Besides，heoftenbroughtfromtheOldWorldpettyprovincialtraditionswhichwereintensifiedintheNew。Theinhabitantsoftowns，manyofwhichhadbeenfoundedquiteindependentlyofoneanother，knewlittleabouttheirremoteneighborsandoftenwerequitewillingtoconverttheirignoranceintoprejudice：Thedwellerintheuplandsandtheresidentonthecoastwerewonttovieweachotherwithdisfavor。Theonewasthoughtheavyandstupid，theotherfrivolousandlazy。NativeSpaniardsregardedtheCreoles，orAmericanborn，aspersonswhohaddegeneratedmoreorlessbytheircontactwiththeaboriginesandthewilderness。Fortheirpart，theCreoleslookedupontheSpaniardsasupstartsandintruders，whosesoleclaimtoconsiderationlayintheprivilegesdispensedthembythehomegovernment。Intestimonyofthisattitudetheycoinedfortheiroverseakindrednumerousnicknameswhichweremoreexpressivethancomplimentary。
WhiletheCreolesheldmostofthewealthandoftheloweroffices，theSpaniardsenjoyedtheperquisitesandemolumentsofthehigherposts。
Thoughobjectsofdisdaintoboththesemasters，theIndiansgenerallypreferredtheSpaniardtotheCreole。TheSpaniardrepresentedadistantauthorityinterestedinthewelfareofitshumblersubjectsandcamelessintoactualdailycontactwiththenatives。WhileitwouldhardlybecorrecttosaythattheSpaniardwasviewedasaprotectorandtheCreoleasanoppressor，yettheaboriginesunconsciouslymadesomesuchhazydistinctionifindeedtheydidnotviewallEuropeanswithsuspicionanddislike。InBraziltherelationofclasseswasmuchthesame，exceptthatherethenativeelementwasmuchlessconspicuousasasocialfactor。
ThesedistinctionswereallthemoreaccentuatedbytheabsencebothofotherEuropeanpeoplesandofadefinitemiddleclassofanyrace。EverywhereintheareastenantedoriginallybySpaniardsandPortuguesetheEuropeanofalienstockwasunwelcome，eventhoughheobtainedagrudgingpermissionfromthehomegovernmentstoremainacolonist。InBrazil，owingtotheclosecommercialconnectionsbetweenGreatBritainandPortugal，foreignerswerenotsorigidlyexcludedasinSpanishAmerica。
TheSpaniardwasunwillingthatlandssorichinnaturaltreasuresshouldbethrownopentoexploitationbyothers，evenifthenewcomerprofessedtheCatholicfaith。Thehereticwasdeniedadmissionasamatterofcourse。Hadtheforeignerbeenallowedtoenter，theriskofsuchexploitationdoubtlesswouldhavebeenincreased，butamiddleclassmighthavearisentoweldthethediscordantfactionsintoasocietywhichhadcommondesiresandaspirations。Withthedevelopmentofcommerceandindustry，withthegrowthofactivitieswhichbringmenintotouchwitheachotherineverydayaffairs，somethinglikeasolidarityofsentimentmighthavebeenawakened。Initsabsencetheonlybondamongthedominantwhiteswastheirsenseofsuperioritytothecoloredmassesbeneaththem。
ManuallaborandtradehadneverattractedtheSpaniardsandthePortuguese。Thearmy，thechurch，andthelawwerethethreecallingsthatofferedthegreatestopportunityfordistinction。
Agriculture，grazing，andminingtheydidnotdisdain，providedthatsuperintendenceandnotactualworkwasthemainrequisite。
TheeconomicorganizationwhichtheSpaniardsandPortugueseestablishedinAmericawasnaturallyamoreorlessfaithfulreproductionofthattowhichtheyhadbeenaccustomedathome。
Agricultureandgrazingbecamethechiefoccupations。DomesticanimalsandmanykindsofplantsbroughtfromEuropethrovewonderfullyintheirnewhome。Hugeestatesweretherule;smallfarms，theexception。Ontheranchesandplantationsvastdrovesofcattle，sheep，andhorseswereraised，aswellasimmensecrops。Mining，oncesomuchinvogue，hadbecomeanoccupationofsecondaryimportance。
Ontheirestatestheplanter，theranchman，andthemineownerlivedlikefeudaloverlords，waiteduponbyIndianandnegropeasantswhoalsotilledthefields，tendedthedroves，anddugtheearthforpreciousmetalsandstones。Originallythenativeshadbeenforcedtoworkunderconditionsapproximatingactualservitude，butgraduallytheharsherfeaturesofthissystemhadgivenwaytoamodeofservicecloselyresemblingpeonage。Paidapitifullysmallwage，providedwithahutofreedsorsundriedmudandatinypatchofsoilonwhichtogrowafewhillsofthecornandbeansthatwerehisusualnourishment，theordinaryIndianorhalf—castelaborerwasscarcelymorethanabeastofburden，acreatureinwhomcivicvirtuesofahighorderwerenotlikelytodevelop。Ifhebetookhimselftothetownhispossibleusefulnesslessenedinproportionashefellintodrunkenordissolutehabits，orlapsedintoastateoflazyandvacuousdreaminess，enlivenedonlybychatterortherollingofacigarette。Ontheotherhand，whenemployedinacapacitywherenativetalentmightbetested，heoftenrevealedapowerofactionwhich，ifproperlyguided，couldbeturnedtoexcellentaccount。Asacowboy，forexample，hebecameacapitalhorseman，brave，alert，skillful，anddaring。
CommercewithPortugalandSpainwaslongconfinedtoyearlyfairsandoccasionaltradingfleetsthatpliedbetweenfixedpoints。Butwhenliberaldecreesthrewopennumerousportsinthemothercountriestotrafficandtheseveralcoloniesweregivenalsotheprivilegeofexchangingtheirproductsamongthemselves，thevolumeofexportsandimportsincreasedandgaveanimpetustoactivitywhichbroughtanotablereleasefromthetorporandvegetationcharacterizingearlierdays。Yet，evenso，communicationwasdifficultandirregular。Byseathedistancesweregreatandthevesselsslow。Overlandthenaturalobstaclestotransportationweresonumerousandthemethodsofconveyancesocumbersomeandexpensivethatthepeopleofoneprovincewerepracticallystrangerstotheirneighbors。
MattersofthemindandofthesoulwereundertheguardianshipoftheChurch。Morethanmerelyaspiritualmentor，itcontrollededucationanddeterminedinlargemeasurethecourseofintellectuallife。Possessedofvastwealthinlandsandrevenues，itsmonasteriesandpriories，itshospitalsandasylums，itsresidencesofecclesiastics，werethefinestbuildingsineverycommunity，adornedwiththemasterpiecesofsculptorsandpainters。Avillagemightboastofonlyafewsqualidhuts，yetthereinthe\"plaza，\"orcentralsquare，loomedupamassivelyimposingedificeofworship，itstowerspointingheavenward，thesignandsymboloftriumphantpower。
TheChurch，infact，wasthegreatestcivilizingagencythatSpainandPortugalhadattheirdisposal。Itinculcatedareverenceforthemonarchandhisministersandfosteredadeep—rootedsentimentofconservatismwhichmadedisloyaltyandinnovationalmostsacrilegious。IntheSpanishcoloniesinparticulartheChurchnotonlyprotectedthenativesagainsttherapacityofmanyawhitemasterbuttaughtthemtherudimentsoftheChristianfaith，aswellasusefulartsandtrades。Inremoteplaces，secludedsofaraspossiblefromcontactwithEuropeans，missionarypioneersgatheredtogethergroupsofneophyteswhomtheyrendereddocileandindustrious，itistrue，butwhomtheyoftendeprivedofinitiativeandselfrelianceandkeptilliterateandsuperstitious。
Educationwasreservedcommonlyformembersoftherulingclass。
Asimpartedintheuniversitiesandschools，itsavoredstronglyofmedievalism。Thoughsomeattentionwasdevotedtothenaturalsciences，experimentalmethodswerenotencouragedandfoundnoplaceinlecturesandtextbooks。Books，periodicals，andotherpublicationscameunderecclesiasticalinspection，andavigilantcensorshipdeterminedwhatwasfitforthepublictoread。
Supremeoverallthecolonialdomainswasthegovernmentoftheirmajesties，themonarchsofSpainandPortugal。AministryandacouncilmanagedtheaffairsoftheinhabitantsofAmericaandguardedtheirdestiniesinaccordancewiththetheoriesofenlighteneddespotismthenprevailinginEurope。TheSpanishdominionsweredividedintoviceroyaltiesandsubdividedintocaptainciesgeneral，presidencies，andintendancies。Associatedwiththehighofficialswhoruledthemwereaudiencias，orboards，whichwereatoncejudicialandadministrative。Belowtheseindividualsandbodieswereahostoflesserfunctionarieswho，liketheirsuperiors，heldtheirpostsbyappointment。InBrazilthegovernorgeneralborethetitleofviceroyandcarriedontheadministrationassistedbyprovincialcaptains，supremecourts，andlocalofficers。
Thiscontrolwasbynomeanssoautocraticasitmightseem。
Portugalhadtoomanyinterestselsewhere，andwastoofeeblebesides，tokeeptightreinoveraterritorysovastandapopulationsomuchinclinedastheBraziliantoformitselfintoprovincialunits，jealousofthecentralauthority。Spain，onitspart，hadalwayspractisedthegoodoldRomanruleof\"divideandgovern。\"Itspolicywastoholdthebalanceamongofficials，civilandecclesiastical，andinhabitants，whiteandcolored。ItknewhowstronglyindividualistictheSpaniardwasandrealizedthefullforceoftheadage，\"Iobey，butIdonotfulfill！\"
LegislaturesandotheragenciesofgovernmentdirectlyrepresentativeofthepeopledidnotexistinSpanishorPortugueseAmerica。TheSpanishcabildo，ortowncouncil，however，affordedanopportunityfortheexpressionofthepopularwillandoftenprovedintractable。Itsmembershipwasappointive，elective，hereditary，andevenpurchasable，buttheformdidnotaffectthesubstance。TheSpanishAmericanshadaninstinctforpolitics。\"Hereallmengovern，\"declaredoneoftheviceroys;\"thepeoplehavemorepartinpoliticaldiscussionsthaninanyotherprovincesintheworld;acouncilofwarsitsineveryhouse。\"
CHAPTERII。\"OUROLDKINGORNONE\"
ThemovementwhichledeventuallytotheemancipationofthecoloniesdifferedfromthelocaluprisingswhichoccurredinvariouspartsofSouthAmericaduringtheeighteenthcentury。
Eitherthearbitraryconductofindividualgovernorsorexcessivetaxationhadcausedtheearlierrevolts。Tothefinalrevolutionforeignnationsandforeignideasgavethenecessaryimpulse。A
fewmembersoftheintellectualclasshadreadinsecretthewritingsofFrenchandEnglishphilosophers。OthershadtraveledabroadandcamehometowhispertotheircountrymenwhattheyhadseenandheardinlandsmoreprogressivethanSpainandPortugal。
Thecommercialrelations，bothlicitandillicit，whichGreatBritainhadmaintainedwithseveralofthecolonieshadservedtodiffuseamongthemsomenotionsofwhatwentoninthebusyworldoutside。
Bygainingitsindependence，theUnitedStateshadsetapracticalexampleofwhatmightbedoneelsewhereinAmerica。
TranslatedintoFrench，theDeclarationofIndependencewasreadandcommenteduponbyenthusiastswhodreamedofthepossibilityofapplyingitsprinciplesintheirownlands。MorepowerfulstillweretheideasliberatedbytheFrenchRevolutionandNapoleon。Borneacrosstheocean，thedoctrinesof\"Liberty，Fraternity，Equality\"stirredtheardent—mindedtothoughtsofaction，thoughtheSpanishandPortugueseAmericanswhoschemedandplottedwerethemeresthandful。Theseedtheyplantedwasslowtogerminateamongpeopleswhohadbeentaughttoregardthingsforeignasoutlandishandheretical。Manyyearsthereforeelapsedbeforetheideasofthefewbecametheconvictionsofthemasses，fortheconservatismandloyaltyofthecommonpeoplewereunbelieveablysteadfast。
NotSpanishandPortugueseAmerica，butSantoDomingo，anislandwhichhadbeenunderFrenchrulesince1795andwhichwastenantedchieflybyignorantandbrutalizednegroslaves，wasthesceneofthefirsteffectualassertionofindependenceinthelandsoriginallycolonizedbySpain。Risinginrevoltagainsttheirmasters，thenegroeshadwoncompletecontrolundertheirremarkablecommander，ToussaintL’Ouverture，whenNapoleonBonaparte，thenFirstConsul，decidedtorestoretheoldregime。
Butthehugeexpeditionwhichwassenttoreducetheislandendedinabsolutefailure。Afteraruthlessracialwarfare，characterizedbyferocityonbothsides，theFrenchretired。In1804thenegroleadersproclaimedtheindependenceoftheislandasthe\"RepublicofHaiti，\"underaPresidentwho，appreciativeoftheexamplejustsetbyNapoleon，informedhisfollowersthathetoohadassumedtheaugusttitleof\"Emperor\"！HisimmediatesuccessorinAfricanroyaltywasthenotoriousHenriChristophe，whogatheredabouthimanobilitygarishincolorandtaste——
includingtheirsablelordships，the\"DukeofMarmalade\"andthe\"CountofLemonade\";andwhobuiltthepalaceof\"SansSouci\"andthecountryseatsof\"Queen’sDelight\"and\"King’sBeautifulView，\"aboutwhichclustertalesofbarbaricpleasurethatrivalthegrimlegendsclingingtotheparapetsandenshroudingthedungeonsofhismountainfortressof\"LaFerriere。\"Noneoftheseblackormulattopotentates，however，couldexpelFrenchauthorityfromtheeasternpartofSantoDomingo。Thattaskwastakeninhandbytheinhabitantsthemselves，andin1809theysucceededinrestoringthecontrolofSpain。MeanwhileeventswhichhadbeenoccurringinSouthAmericapreparedthewayforthemovementthatwasultimatelytobanishtheflagsofbothSpainandPortugalfromthecontinentsoftheNewWorld。AstheonecountryhadfallenmoreorlesstindertheinfluenceofFrance，sotheotherhadbecomepracticallydependentuponGreatBritain。InterestedintheexpansionofitscommerceandviewingtheoutlyingpossessionsofpeopleswhosubmittedtoFrenchguidanceaslegitimateobjectsforseizure，GreatBritainin1797
wrestedTrinidadfromthefeeblegripofSpainandthusacquiredastrategicpositionverynearSouthAmericaitself。Haiti，Trinidad，andJamaica，infact，allbecameCentersofrevolutionaryagitationandhavensofrefugefor。SpanishAmericanradicalsinthetroublousyearstofollow。
ForemostamongtheearlyconspiratorswastheVenezuelan，FranciscodeMiranda，knowntohisfellowAmericansofSpanishstockasthe\"Precursor。\"Napoleononceremarkedofhim：\"HeisaDonQuixote，withthisdifference——heisnotcrazy……Themanhassacredfireinhissoul。\"AnofficerinthearmiesofSpainandofrevolutionaryFranceandlateraresidentofLondon，Mirandadevotedthirtyyearsofhisadventurouslifetothecauseofindependenceforhiscountrymen。WithofficialsoftheBritishGovernmenthelaboredlongandzealously，elicitingfromthemvaguepromisesofarmedsupportandsomefinancialaid。ItwasinLondon，also，thatheorganizedagroupofsympathizersintothesecretsocietycalledthe\"GrandLodgeofAmerica。\"Withit，orwithitsbranchesinFranceandSpain，manyoftheleadersofthesubsequentrevolutioncametobeidentified。
In1806，availinghimselfofthenegligenceoftheUnitedStatesandhavingtheconnivanceoftheBritishauthoritiesinTrinidad，MirandaheadedtwoexpeditionstothecoastofVenezuela。Hehadhopedthathisappearancewouldbethesignalforageneraluprising;instead，hewastreatedwithindifference。HiscountrymenseemedtoregardhimasatoolofGreatBritain，andnoonefeltdisposedtoaccepttheblessingsoflibertyunderthatguise。Humiliated，butnotdespairing，MirandareturnedtoLondontoawaitahappierday。
TwoBritishexpeditionswhichattemptedtoconquertheregionabouttheRiodelaPlatain1806and1807werealsofrustratedbythissamestubbornloyalty。WhentheSpanishviceroyfled，theinhabitantsthemselvesralliedtothedefenseofthecountryanddroveouttheinvaders。ThereuponthepeopleofBuenosAires，assembledincabildoabierto，ortownmeeting，deposedtheviceroyandchosetheirvictoriousleaderinhissteaduntilasuccessorcouldberegularlyappointed。
Then，in1808，felltheblowwhichwastoshatterthebondsunitingSpaintoitscontinentaldominionsinAmerica。ThediscordandcorruptionwhichprevailedinthatunfortunatecountryaffordedNapoleonanopportunitytooustitsfeeblekingandhisincompetentson，Ferdinand，andtoplaceJosephBonaparteonthethrone。ButthemasterofEuropeunderestimatedthefightingabilityofSpaniards。Insteadofhumblycomplyingwithhismandate，theyroseinarmsagainsttheusurperandcreatedacentraljunta，orrevolutionarycommittee，togoverninthenameofFerdinandVII，astheirrightfulruler。
ThenewsofthisFrenchaggressionarousedinthecoloniesaspiritofresistanceasvehementasthatinthemothercountry。
BothSpaniardsandCreolesrepudiatedthe\"intruderking。\"
Believing，asdidtheircomradesoversea，thatFerdinandwasahelplessvictiminthehandsofNapoleon，theyrecognizedtherevolutionarygovernmentandsentgreatsumsofmoneytoSpaintoaidinthestruggleagainsttheFrench。EnvoysfromJosephBonaparteseekinganacknowledgmentofhisrulewereangrilyrejectedandwereforcedtoleave。
Thesituationonbothsidesoftheoceanwasnowanextraordinaryone。JustasthejuntainSpainhadnolegalrighttogovern，sotheofficialsinthecolonies，holdingtheirpostsbyappointmentfromadeposedking，hadnolegalauthority，andthepeoplewouldnotallowthemtoacceptnewcommissionsfromausurper。TheChurch，too，detestingNapoleonastheheirofarevolutionthathadunderminedtheCatholicfaithandregardinghimasagodlessdespotwhohadmadethePopeacaptive，refusedtorecognizetheFrenchpretender。UntilFerdinandVIIcouldberestoredtohisthrone，therefore，thecolonistshadtochoosewhethertheywouldcarryontheadministrationundertheguidanceoftheself—constitutedauthoritiesinSpain，orshouldthemselvescreatesimilarorganizationsineachofthecoloniestotakechargeofaffairs。Theformercoursewasfavoredbytheofficialelementanditssupportersamongtheconservativeclasses，thelatterbytheliberals，whofeltthattheyhadasmuchrightasthepeopleofthemothercountrytochoosetheformofgovernmentbestsuitedtotheirinterests。
Eachpartyviewedtheotherwithdistrust。Oppositiontothemoredemocraticprocedure，itwasfelt，couldmeannothinglessthansecretsubmissiontothepretensionsofJosephBonaparte;whereastheestablishmentinAmericaofanyorganizationslikethoseinSpainsurelyindicatedaspiritofdisloyaltytowardFerdinandVIIhimself。Undercircumstanceslikethese，whenthejuntaanditssuccessor，thecouncilofregency，refusedtomakesubstantialconcessionstothecolonies，bothpartieswereinevitablydriftingtowardindependence。InthephraseofManuelBelgrano，oneofthegreatleadersintheviceroyaltyofLaPlata，\"ouroldKingornone\"becamethewatchwordthatgraduallyshapedthethoughtsofSpanishAmericans。
When，therefore，in1810，thenewscamethattheFrencharmyhadoverrunSpain，democraticideassolongcherishedinsecretandpropagatedsoindustriouslybyMirandaandhisfollowersatlastfoundexpressioninaseriesofuprisingsinthefourviceroyaltiesofLaPlata，Peru，NewGranada，andNewSpain。Butineachoftheseviceroyaltiestherevolutionranadifferentcourse。Sometimesitwasthecapitalcitythatledoff;sometimesaprovincialtown;sometimesagroupofindividualsinthecountrydistricts。Amongtheactualparticipantsinthevariousmovementsverylittleharmonywastobefound。Hereaparticularleaderclaimedobedience;thereaboardofself—chosenmagistratesheldsway;elsewhereatownorprovincerefusedtoacknowledgethecentralauthority。Toaddtothesecomplications，in1812，arevolutionaryCortes，orlegislativebody，assembledatCadiz，adoptedforSpainanditsdominionsaconstitutionprovidingfordirectrepresentationofthecoloniesinoverseaadministration。SincearrangementsofthissortcontentedmanyoftheSpanishAmericanswhohadprotestedagainstexistingabuses，theywerequiteunwillingtopresstheirgrievancesfurther。
Givenalltheseevidencesofdivisioninactivityandcounsel，onedoesnotfinditdifficulttoforeseetheoutcome。
OnMay25，1810，popularagitationatBuenosAiresforcedtheSpanishviceroyofLaPlatatoresign。ThecentralauthoritywasthereuponvestedinanelectedjuntathatwastogoverninthenameofFerdinandVII。Oppositionbrokeoutimmediately。Thenorthernandeasternpartsoftheviceroyaltyshowedthemselvesquiteunwillingtoobeytheseupstarts。Meantime，urgedonbyradicalswhorevivedtheJacobindoctrinesofrevolutionaryFrance，thejuntastrovetosuppressinrigorousfashionanysymptomsofdisaffection;butitcoulddonothingtostemthetideofseparationintherestoftheviceroyalty——inCharcas（Bolivia），Paraguay，andtheBandaOriental，orEastBank，oftheUruguay。
AtBuenosAiresacutedifferenceofopinion——abouttheextenttowhichthemovementshouldbecarriedandaboutthepermanentformofgovernmenttobeadoptedaswellasthemethodofestablishingit——producedaseriesofpoliticalcommotionslittleshortofanarchy。Triumviratesfollowedthejuntaintopower;supremedirectorsalternatedwithtriumvirates;andconstituentasmbliescameandwent。Underoneauthorityoranotherthenameoftheviceroyaltywaschangedto\"UnitedProvincesofLaPlataRiver\";
aseal，aflag，andacoatofarmswerechosen;andnumerousfeaturesoftheSpanishregimewereabolished，includingtitlesofnobility，theInquisition，theslavetrade，andrestrictionsonthepress。Butsochaoticweretheconditionswithinandsodisastrousthecampaignswithout，thateventuallycommissionersweresenttoEurope，bearinginstructionstoseekakingforthedistractedcountry。
WhenCharcasfellunderthecontroloftheviceroyofPeru，Paraguaysetuparegimeforitself。AtAsuncion，thecapital，arevolutionaryoutbreakin1811replacedtheSpanishintendantbyatriumvirate，ofwhichthemostprominentmemberwasDr。JoseGasparRodriguezdeFrancia。Alawyerbyprofession，familiarwiththehistoryofRome，anadmirerofFranceandNapoleon，amisanthropeandarecluse，possessingablindfaithinhimselfandactuatedbyasenseofimplacablehatredforallwhomightventuretothwarthiswill，thisextraordinarypersonagespeedilymadehimselfmasterofthecountry。ApopulationcomposedchieflyofIndians，docileintemperamentandsubmissiveformanyyearstothepaternalruleofJesuitmissionaries，couldnotfailtobecomepliantinstrumentsinhishands。Athisdirection，therefore，ParaguaydeclareditselfindependentofbothSpainandLaPlata。Thisdone，anobedientCongresselectedFranciaconsuloftherepublicandlaterinvestedhimwiththetitleofdictator。IntheBandaOrientaltwodistinctmovementsappeared。
Montevideo，thecapital，longacenterofroyalistsympathiesandforsomeyearshostiletotherevolutionarygovernmentinBuenosAires，wasreunitedwithLaPlatain1814。ElsewherethepeopleoftheprovincefollowedthefortunesofJoseGervasioArtigas，anableandvaliantcavalryofficer，whoroamedthroughitatwill，biddingdefiancetoanyauthoritynothisown。MostoftheformerviceroyaltyofLaPlatahadthus，toallintentsandpurposes，thrownofftheyokeofSpain。
Chilewastheonlyotherprovincethatforawhilegavepromiseofsimilaraction。Hereagainitwasthecapitalcitythattookthelead。OnreceiptofthenewsoftheoccurrencesatBuenosAiresinMay，1810，thepeopleofSantiagoforcedthecaptaingeneraltoresignand，onthe18thofSeptember，replacedhimbyajuntaoftheirownchoosing。Butneitherthisbody，noritssuccessors，noreventheCongressthatassembledthefollowingyear，couldestablishapermanentandeffectivegovernment。
NowhereinSpanishAmerica，perhaps，didthelowerclassescountforsolittle，andtheupperclassforsomuch，asinChile。
Thoughthegreatlandholdersweredisposedtofavorareasonableamountoflocalautonomyforthecountry，theyrefusedtoheedthedemandsoftheradicalsforcompleteindependenceandtheestablishwentofarepublic。Accordingly，inproportionastheiropponentsresortedtomeasuresofcompulsion，thegentrygraduallywithdrewtheirsupportandofferedlittleresistancewhentroopsdispatchedbytheviceroyofPerurestoredtheSpanishregimein1814。TheirreconcilableamongthepatriotsfledovertheAndestothewesternpartofLaPlata，wheretheyfoundhospitablerefuge。
ButofalltheSpanishdominionsinSouthAmericanonewitnessedsodesperateastruggleforemancipationastheviceroyaltyofNewGranada。Learningofthecatastrophethathadbefallenthemothercountry，theleadingcitizensofCaracas，actinginconjunctionwiththecabildo，deposedthecaptaingeneralonApril19，1810，andcreatedajuntainhisstead。Theexamplewasquicklyfollowedbymostofthesmallerdivisionsoftheprovince。ThenwhenMirandareturnedfromEnglandtoheadtherevolutionarymovement，aCongress，onJuly5，1811，declaredVenezuelaindependentofSpain。Carriedaway，also，bytheenthusiasmofthemoment，andforgetfuloftheutterunpreparednessofthecountry，theCongresspromulgatedafederalconstitutionmodeledonthatoftheUnitedStates，whichsetforthalltheapproveddoctrinesoftherightsofman。
NeitherMirandanorhisyouthfulcoadjutor，SimonBolivar，soontobecomefamousintheannalsofSpanishAmericanhistory，approvedofthisplungeintodemocracy。Ardentastheirpatriotismwas，theyknewthatthecountryneededcentralizedcontrolandnotexperimentsinconfederationortheoreticalliberty。Theyspeedilyfoundout，also，thattheycouldnotcountonthesupportofthepeopleatlarge。Then，almostasifNatureherselfdisapprovedofthewholeproceeding，afrightfulearthquakeinthefollowingyearshookmanyaVenezuelantownintoruins。Everywheretheroyaliststookheart。DissensionsbrokeoutbetweenMirandaandhissubordinates。Betrayedintothehandsofhisenemies，theoldwarriorhimselfwassentawaytodieinaSpanishdungeon。Andsothe\"earthquake\"republiccollapsed。
ButtherigorousmeasuresadoptedbytheroyaliststosustaintheirtriumphenabledBolivartorenewthestrugglein1813。Heentereduponacampaignwhichwassignalizedbyactsofbarbarityonbothsides。Hisdeclarationof\"wartothedeath\"wasansweredinkind。Wholesaleslaughterofprisoners，indiscriminatepillage，andwantondestructionofpropertyspreadterroranddesolationthroughoutthecountry。Acclaimed\"LiberatorofVenezuela\"andmadedictatorbythepeopleofCaracas，Bolivarstroveinvaintoovercomethehalf—savagellaneros，orcowboysoftheplains，whodespisedtheinnovatingaristocratsofthecapital。Thoughhewonafewvictories，hedidnotmakethecauseofindependencepopular，and，realizinghisfailure，heretiredintoNewGranada。
Inthisregionanastoundingseriesofrevolutionsandcounter—revolutionshadtakenplace。Unmindfulofpleasforcooperation，theCreoleleadersintownanddistrict，from1810
onward，seizedcontrolofaffairsinafashionthatbetokenedaspeedydisintegrationofthecountry。ThoughtheviceroywasdeposedandageneralCongresswassummonedtomeetatthecapital，Bogota，effortsatcentralizationencounteredoppositionineveryquarter。Onlytheroyalistsmanagedtopreserveasemblanceofunity。Separaterepublicssprangintobeingandin1813declaredtheirindependenceofSpain。Presidentsandcongresseswerepittedagainstoneanother。Townsfoughtamongthemselves。Evenparishesdemandedlocalautonomy。ForawhiletheservicesofBolivarwereinvokedtoforcerebelliousareasintoobediencetotheprincipleofconfederation，butwithscantresult。Unabletoagreewithhisfellowofficersanddisplayingtraitsofmoralweaknesswhichatthistimeasonpreviousoccasionsshowedthathehadnotyetrisentoafullsenseofresponsibility，theLiberatorrenouncedthetaskandfledtoJamaica。
ThescenenowshiftsnorthwardtotheviceroyaltyofNewSpain。
Unlikethestrugglesalreadydescribed，theuprisingsthatbeganin1810incentralMexicoweresubstantiallyrevoltsofIndiansandhalf—castesagainstwhitedomination。Onthe16thofSeptember，acrowdofnativesroseundertheleadershipofMiguelHidalgo，aparishpriestofthevillageofDolores。Bearingontheirbannerstheslogan，\"LongliveFerdinandVIIanddownwithbadgovernment，\"theundisciplinedcrowd，soontonumbertensofthousands，arousedsuchterrorbytheirbehaviorthatthewhiteswerecompelledtouniteinself—defense。ItmatterednotwhetherHidalgohopedtoestablisharepublicorsimplytosecureforhisfollowersrelieffromoppression：ineithercasethewhitescouldexpectonlyIndiandomination。Beforethetrainedforcesofthewhitesahordeofnatives，soignorantofmodernwarfarethatsomeofthemtriedtostopcannonballsbyclappingtheirstrawhatsoverthemouthsoftheguns，couldnotstandtheirground。
Hidalgowascapturedandshot，buthewassucceededbyJoseMariaMorelos，alsoapriest。RevivingtheoldAztecnameforcentralMexico，hesummoneda\"CongressofAnahuac，\"whichin1813
assertedthatdependenceonthethroneofSpainwas\"foreverbrokenanddissolved。\"AblerandmorehumanethanHidalgo，hesetuparevolutionarygovernmentthattheauthoritiesofMexicofailedforawhiletosuppress。
In1814，therefore，Spainstillheldthebulkofitsdominions。
Trinidad，tobesure，hadbeenlosttoGreatBritain，andbothLouisianaandWestFloridatotheUnitedStates。Royalistcontrol，furthermore，hadceasedinpartsoftheviceroyaltiesofLaPlataandNewGranada。ToregainTrinidadandLouisianawashopeless：butawisepolicyconciliationoranoverwhemingdisplayofarmedforcemightyetrestoreSpanishrulewhereithadbeenmerelysuspended。
VerydifferentwasthecourseofeventsinBrazil。Strangelyenough，thefirstimpulsetowardindependencewasgivenbythePortugueseroyalfamily。TerrifiedbytheprospectiveinvasionofthecountrybyaFrencharmy，latein1807thePrinceRegent，theroyalfamily，andahostofPortuguesenoblesandcommonerstookpassageonBritishvesselsandsailedtoRiodeJaneiro。Brazilthereuponbecametheseatofroyalgovernmentandimmediatelyassumedanimportancewhichitcouldneverhaveattainedasameredependency。ActingundertheadviceoftheBritishminister，thePrinceRegentthrewopentheportsofthecolonytotheshipsofallnationsfriendlytoPortugal，gavehissanctiontoavarietyofreformsbeneficialtocommerceandindustry，andevenpermittedaprintingpresstobesetup，thoughonlyforofficialpurposes。FromallthesebenevolentactivitiesBrazilderivedgreatadvantages。Ontheotherhand，thePrinceRegent’saversiontopopulareducationoranythingthatmightsavorofdemocracyandthegreedofhisfollowersforplaceanddistinctionalienatedhiscolonialsubjects。TheycouldnotfailtocontrastautocracyinBrazilwiththeliberalideasthathadmadeheadwayelsewhereinSpanishAmerica。AsaconsequenceaspiritofunrestarosewhichbodedillforthemaintenanceofPortugueserule。
CHAPTERIII\"INDEPNDENCEORDEATH\"
TherestorationofFerdinandVIItohisthronein1814encouragedtheliberalsofSpain，nolessthantheloyalistsofSpanishAmerica，tohopethatthe\"oldKing\"wouldnowgrantanewdispensation。Freedomofcommerceandafairmeasureofpopularrepresentationingovernment，itwasbelieved，wouldcompensateboththemothercountryforthesufferingwhichithadundergoneduringthePeninsularWarandthecoloniesforthetrialstowhichloyaltyhadbeensubjected。ButFerdinandVIIwasatypicalBourbon。Nothinglessthananabsolutereestablishmentoftheearlierregimewouldsatisfyhim。OnbothsidesoftheAtlantic，therefore，theliberalswereforcedintooppositiontothecrown，althoughtheyweresofarapartthattheycouldnotcooperatewitheachother。IndependencewastobethefortuneoftheSpanishAmericans，andacontinuanceofdespotism，forawhile，thelotoftheSpaniards。
AstheregionoftheviceroyaltyofLaPlatahadbeenthefirsttocastofftheauthorityofthehomegovernment，soitwasthefirsttocompleteitsseparationfromSpain。Despitethefactthatdisorderwasrampanteverywhereandthatmostofthelocaldistrictscouldnotorwouldnotsenddeputies，acongressthatassembledatTucumanvotedonJuly9，1816，todeclarethe\"UnitedProvincesinSouthAmerica\"independent。Comprehensivethoughtheexpressionwas，itappliedonlytothecentralpartoftheformerviceroyalty，andeventhereitwaslittlemorethananaspiration。MistrustoftheauthoritiesatBuenosAires，insistenceuponprovincialautonomy，failuretoagreeuponaparticularkindofrepublicangovernment，andalingeringinclinationtomonarchymadeprogresstowardnationalunityimpossible。In1819，tobesure，aconstitutionwasadopted，providingforacentralizedgovernment，butinthecountryatlargeitencounteredtoomuchresistancefromthosewhofavoredafederalgovernmenttobecomeeffective。
IntheBandaOriental，overmostofwhichArtigasandhishorsemenheldsway，chaoticconditionsinvitedaggressionfromthedirectionofBrazil。ThisEastBankoftheUruguayhadlongbeendisputedterritorybetweenSpainandPortugal;andnowitsdefiniteacquisitionbythelatterseemedaneasyundertaking。
Instead，however，thetaskturnedouttobeatrulyformidableone。Montevideo，feeblydefendedbytheforcesoftheGovernmentatBuenosAires，sooncapitulated，butfouryearselapsedbeforetherestofthecountrycouldbesubdued。ArtigasfledtoParaguay，wherehefellintotheclutchesofFrancia，nevertoescape。In1821theBandaOrientalwasannexedtoBrazilastheCisplatineProvince。
OverParaguaythatgrimandsomberpotentate，knownas\"TheSupremeOne\"——ElSupremo——presidedwithironhand。In1817
FranciasetupadespotismuniqueintheannalsofSouthAmerica。
Fearfullestcontactwiththeouterworldmightweakenhistenaciousgripuponhissubjects，whomheterrorizedintoobedience，hebarredapproachtothecountryandsufferednoonetoleaveit。Heorganizedanddrilledanarmyobedienttohiswill……Whenhewentforthbyday，attendedbyanescortofcavalry，thedoorsandwindowsofhouseshadtobekeptclosedandnoonewasallowedonthestreets。Nighthespenttillalatehourinreadingandstudy，changinghisbedroomfrequentlytoavoidassassination。Religiousfunctionsthatmightdisturbthepublicpeaceheforbade。CompellingthebishopofAsunciontoresignonaccountofseniledebility，Franciahimselfassumedtheepiscopaloffice。Evenintermarriageamongtheoldcolonialfamiliesheprohibited，soastoreducealltoacommonsociallevel。Heattainedhisobject。Paraguaybecameaquietstate，whatevermightbesaidofitsneighbors！
ElsewhereinsouthernSpanishAmericaabrilliantfeatofarmsbroughttotheforeitsmostdistinguishedsoldier。ThiswasJosedeSanMartinofLaPlata。LikeMiranda，hehadbeenanofficerintheSpanisharmyandhadreturnedtohisnativelandanardentapostleofindependence。Quicktorealizethefactthat，solongasChileremainedunderroyalistcontrol，thepossibilityofanattackfromthatquarterwasaconstantmenacetothesafetyofthenewlyconstitutedrepublic，heconceivedtheboldplanoforganizingnearthewesternfrontieranarmy——composedpartlyofChileanrefugeesandpartlyofhisowncountrymen——withwhichheproposedtocrosstheAndesandmeettheenemyonhisownground。
AmongthesefugitiveswastheableandvaliantBernardoO’Higgins，sonofanIrishofficerwhohadbeenviceroyofPeru。
CooperatingwithO’Higgins，SanMartinfixedhisheadquartersatMendozaandbegantogatherandtrainthefourthousandmenwhomhejudgedneedfulfortheenterprise。
ByJanuary，1817，the\"ArmyoftheAndes\"wasready。Tocrossthemountainsmeanttotransportmen，horses，artillery，andstorestoanaltitudeofthirteenthousandfeet，wheretheUspallataPassaffordedanoutlettoChileansoil。ThispasswasnearlyamilehigherthantheGreatSt。BernardintheAlps，thecrossingofwhichgaveNapoleonBonapartesuchrenown。Onthe12thofFebruarythehostsofSanMartinhurledthemselvesupontheroyalistsentrenchedontheslopesofChacabucoandroutedthemutterly。ThebattleproveddecisivenotofthefortunesofChilealonebutofthoseofallSpanishSouthAmerica。AsaviceroyofPerulaterconfessed，\"itmarkedthemomentwhenthecauseofSpainintheIndiesbegantorecede。\"
NamedsupremedirectorbythepeopleofSantiago，O’Higginsfoughtvigorouslythoughineffectuallytodriveouttheroyalistswho，reinforcedfromPeru，heldtheregionsouthofthecapital。
Thathefaileddidnotdeterhimfromhavingavotetakenundermilitaryauspices，onthestrengthofwhich，onFebruary12，1818，hedeclaredChileanindependentnation，thedateoftheproclamationbeingchangedtothe1stofJanuary，soastomaketheinaugurationoftheneweracoincidentwiththeentryofthenewyear。SanMartin，meanwhile，hadbeencollectingreinforcementswithwhichtostrikethefinalblow。Onthe5thofApril，theBattleofMaipogavehimthevictoryhedesired。
Exceptforafewisolatedpointstothesouthward，thepowerofSpainhadfallen。
UntilthefallofNapoleonin1815ithadbeenthenativeloyalistswhohadsupportedthecauseofthemothercountryintheSpanishdominions。Henceforth，freefromthemenaceoftheEuropeandictator，SpaincouldlooktoheraffairsinAmerica，andduringthenextthreeyearsdispatchedtwenty—fivethousandmentobringtheeoloniestoobedience。ThesesoldiersbegantheirtaskinthenorthernpartofSouthAmerica，andtheretheyendedit——infailure。Tothisfailurethedefectionofnativeroyalistscontributed，fortheywerealienatednotsomuchbythepresenceoftheSpanishtroopsasbytheoftenmercilessseveritythatmarkedtheirconduct。Theatrocitiesmayhavebeenprovokedbythebehavioroftheiropponents;but，bethisasitmay，thepatriotsgainedrecruitsaftereachvictory。
ASpanisharmyofmorethantenthousand，underthecommandofPabloMorillo，arrivedinVenezuelainApril，1815。Hefoundtheprovincerelativelytranquilandevendisposedtowelcomethefullrestorationofroyalgovernment。Leavingagarrisonsufficientforthepurposeofmilitaryoccupation，MorillosailedforCartagena，thekeytoNewGranada。Besiegedbylandandsea，theinhabitantsofthetownmaintainedforupwardsofthreemonthsaresistancewhich，initsheroism，privation，andsacrifice，recalledthememorabledefenseofSaragossainthemothercountryagainsttheFrenchsevenyearsbefore。WithCartagenataken，regularsandloyalistsunitedtostampouttherebellionelsewhere。AtBogoth，inparticular，thenewSpanishviceroyinstalledbyMorillowagedasavagewaronallsuspectedofaidingthepatriotcause。Hedidnotspareevenwomen，andoneofhisvictimswasayoungheroine，PolicarpaSalavarrietabyname。Thoughforherexecutionthreethousandsoldiersweredetailed，thegirlwasunterrifiedbyherdoomandwasearnestlybeseechingtheloyalistsamongthemtoturntheirarmsagainsttheenemiesoftheircountrywhenavolleystretchedherlifelessontheground。
MeanwhileBolivarhadbeenfittingout，inHaitiandintheDutchislandofCuracao，anexpeditiontotakeupanewtheworkoffreeingVenezuela。HardlyhadtheLiberatorlandedinMay，1816，whendissensionswithhisfellowofficersfrustratedanyprospectofsuccess。IndeedtheyobligedhimtoseekrefugeoncemoreinHaiti。Eventually，however，mostofthepatriotleadersbecameconvincedthat，iftheyweretoentertainahopeofsuccess，theymustentrusttheirfortunestoBolivarassupremecommander。
Theirchancesofsuccesswereincreasedfurthermorebythesupportofthellaneroswhohadbeenwonovertothecauseofindependence。Undertheirredoubtablechieftain，JoseAntonioPaez，thesefierceandruthlesshorsemenperformedmanyafeatofvalorinthecampaignswhichfollowed。
OnceagainonVenezuelansoil，Bolivardeterminedtotransferhisoperationstotheeasternpartofthecountry，whichseemedtoofferbetterstrategicadvantagesthantheregionaboutCaracas。
Butevenherethejealousyofhisofficers，theinsubordinationofthefreelances，thestubbornresistanceoftheloyalists——
upheldbythewealthyandconservativeclassesandtheablegeneralshipofMorillo，whohadreturnedfromNewGranada——madethesituationoftheLiberatorallthrough1817and1818
extremelyprecarious。Happilyforhisfadingfortunes，hishandswerestrengthenedfromabroad。TheUnitedStateshadrecognizedthebelligerencyofseveraloftherevolutionarygovernmentsinSouthAmericaandhadsentdiplomaticagentstothem。GreatBritainhadblockedeveryattemptofFerdinandVIItoobtainhelpfromtheHolyAllianceinreconqueringhisdominions。AndFerdinandhadcontributedtohisownundoingbyfailingtoheedtheurgentrequestsofMorilloforreinforcementstofillhisdwindlingranks。MoredecisivestillweretheservicesofsomefivethousandBritish，Irish，French，andGermanvolunteers，whowereoftenthemainstayofBolivarandhislieutenantsduringthelaterphasesofthestruggle，bothinVenezuelaandelsewhere。
ForsometimetheLiberatorhadbeenevolvingaplanofattackupontheroyalistsinNewGranada，similartotheoffensivecampaignwhichSanMartinhadconductedinChile。Morethanthat，hehadconceivedtheidea，onceindependencehadbeenattained，ofunitingthewesternpartoftheviceroyaltywithVenezuelaintoasinglerepublic。ThelatterplanhelaiddownbeforeaCongresswhichassembledatAngosturainFebruary，1819，andwhichpromptlychosehimPresidentoftherepublicandvestedhimwiththepowersofdictator。InJune，attheheadof2100men，hestartedonhisperilousjourneyovertheAndes。
UpthroughthepassesandacrossbleakplateausthelittlearmystruggledtillitreachedthebanksoftherivuletofBoyaca，intheveryheartofNewGranada。Here，onthe7thofAugust，BolivarinflictedontheroyalistforcesatremendousdefeatthatgavethedeathblowtothedominationofSpaininnorthernSouthAmerica。OnhistriumphalreturntoAngostura，theCongresssignalizedthevictorybydeclaringthewholeoftheviceroyaltyanindependentstateunderthenameofthe\"RepublicofColombia\"
andchosetheLiberatorasitsprovisionalPresident。Twoyearslater，afundamentallawithadadoptedwasratifiedwithcertainchangesbyanotherCongressassembledatRosariodeCucuta，andBolivarwasmadepermanentPresident。
SouthwardofColombialaytheviceroyaltyofPeru，theoldest，richest，andmostconservativeofthelargerSpanishdominionsonthecontinent。Intact，exceptforthelossofChile，ithadfoundterritorialcompensationbystretchingitspowerovertheprovincesofQuitoandCharcas，theonewrenchedofffromtheformerNewGranada，theothertornawayfromwhathadbeenLaPlata。Predominantlyroyalistinsentiment，itwaslikeahugewedgethrustinbetweenthetwoindependentareas。Bythuscuttingoffthepatriotsofthenorthfromtheircomradesinthesouth，itthreatenedbothwithdestructionoftheirliberty。
Againfortuneintervenedfromabroad，thistimedirectlyfromSpainitself。FerdinandVII，whohadgatheredanarmyoftwentythousandmenatCadiz，wasreadytodeliveracrushingblowatthecolonieswheninJanuary，1890，amutinyamongthetroopsandrevolutionthroughoutthecountryentirelyfrustratedtheplan。
ButalthoughthatreactionarymonarchwascompelledtoaccepttheConstitutionof1819，theSpanishliberalswereunwillingtoconcedetotheirfellowsinAmericaanythingmoresubstantialthanrepresentationintheCortes。Independencetheywouldnottolerate。Ontheotherhand，theexampleofthemothercountryinarmsagainstitsKinginthenameoflibertycouldnotfailtogivehearttothecauseofliberationintheprovincesoverseaandtohastenitsachievement。
ThefirstimportanteffortstoprofitbythissituationweremadebythepatriotsinChile。BothSanMartinandO’HigginshadperceivedthattheonlyeffectivewaytoeliminatethePeruvianwedgewastogaincontrolofitsapproachesbysea。TheChileanshadalreadywonsomesuccessinthisdirectionwhenthefieryandimperiousScotchsailor，ThomasCochrane，EarlofDundonald，appearedonthesceneandofferedtoorganizeanavy。Atlengthasquadronwasputunderhiscommand。WithupwardsoffourthousandtroopsinchargeofSanMartintheexpeditionsetsailforPerulateinAugust，1820。
WhileCochranebusiedhimselfindestroyingtheSpanishblockade，hiscomradeinarmsmarcheduptotheverygatesofLima，thecapital，andeverywherearousedenthusiasmforemancipation。Whennegotiations，whichhadbeenbegunbytheviceroyandcontinuedbyaspecialcommissionerfromSpain，failedtoswervethepatriotleaderfromhisdemandforarecognitionofindependence，theroyalistsdecidedtoevacuatethetownandtowithdrawintothemountainousregionoftheinterior。SanMartin，thereupon，enteredthecapitalattheheadofhisarmyofliberationandsummonedtheinhabitantstoatownmeetingatwhichtheymightdetermineforthemselveswhatactionshouldbetaken。Theresultwaseasilyforeseen。OnJuly28，1821，Peruwasdeclaredindependent，andafewdayslaterSanMartinwasinvestedwithsupremecommandunderthetitleof\"Protector。\"
ButthetriumphofthenewProtectordidnotlastlong。Forsomereasonhefailedtounderstandthatthewithdrawaloftheroyalistsfromtheneighborhoodofthecoastwasmerelyastrategicretreatthatmadetheoccupationofthecapitalamoreorlessemptyperformance。Thisblunderandavarietyofothermishapsproveddestinedtoblighthismilitarycareer。
Unfortunateinthechoiceofhissubordinatesandunabletoretaintheirconfidence;accusedofirresolutionandevenofcowardice;abandonedbyCochrane，whosailedofftoChileandleftthearmystranded;incapableofrestraininghissoldiersfromindulgenceinthepleasuresofLima;nowsevere，nowlaxinanadministrationthatalienatedthesympathiesoftheinfluentialclass，SanMartinwasindeedanunhappyfigure。ItsoonbecameclearthathemustabandonallhopeofeverconqueringthecitadelofSpanishpowerinSouthAmericaunlesshecouldprevailuponBolivartohelphim。
Ajunctionoftheforcesofthetwogreatleaderswasperfectlyfeasible，afterthelastimportantfootholdoftheSpaniardsonthecoastofVenezuelahadbeenbrokenbytheBattleofCarabobo，onJuly24，1821。Whethersuchaunionwouldbemade，however，dependedupontwothings：theultimatedispositionoftheprovinceofQuito，lyingbetweenColombiaandPeru，andtheattitudewhichBolivarandSanMartinthemselvesshouldassumetowardeachother。ArevolutionofthepreviousyearattheseaporttownofGuayaquilinthatprovincehadinstalledanindependentgovernmentwhichbesoughttheLiberatortosustainitsexistence。PrompttoavailhimselfofsoauspiciousanopportunityofunitingthisformerdivisionoftheviceroyaltyofNewGranadatohisrepublicofColombia，BolivarappointedAntonioJosedeSucre，hisablestlieutenantandprobablythemostefficientofallSpanishAmericansoldiersofthetime，toassumechargeofthecampaign。OnhisarrivalatGuayaquil，thisofficerfoundtheinhabitantsatoddsamongthemselves。Some，hearkeningtothepleasofanagentofSanMartin，favoredunionwithPeru;others，yieldingtotheargumentsofarepresentativeofBolivar，urgedannexationtoColombia;stillothersregardedabsoluteindependenceasmostdesirable。UnderthesecircumstancesSucreforawhilemadelittleheadwayagainsttheroyalistsconcentratedinthemountainouspartsofthecountrydespitethepartialsupporthereceivedfromtroopswhichweresentbythesoutherncommander。Atlength，onMay24，1822，scalingtheflanksofthevolcanoofPichincha，nearthecapitaltownofQuitoitself，hedeliveredtheblowforfreedom。HereBolivar，whohadfoughthiswayoverlandamidtremendousdifficulties，joinedhimandstartedforGuayaquil，whereheandSanMartinweretoholdtheirmemorableinterview。
NocharactersinSpanishAmericanhistoryhavecalledforthsomuchcontroversyabouttheirrespectivemeritsanddemeritsasthesetwoheroesofindependence——BolivarandSanMartin。Evennowitseemsquiteimpossibletoobtainfromtheadmirersofeitheranopinionthatdoesfulljusticetoboth;andforeignerswhoventuretopassjudgmentarealmostcertaintoprovokecriticismfromonesetofpartisansortheother。BothBolivarandSanMartinweresonsofcountrygentlemen，aristocraticbylineageanddevotedtothecauseofindependence。Bolivarwasalert，dauntless，brilliant，impetuous，vehementlypatriotic，andyetoftencapricious，domineering，vain，ostentatious，anddisdainfulofmoralconsiderations——amasterfulman，fertileinintellect，fluentinspeechandwithpen，aninspiringleaderandoneborntocommandinstateandarmy。Quiteasearnest，equallycourageous，andupholdinginprivatelifeahigherstandardofmorals，SanMartinwasrelativelycalm，cautious，almosttaciturninmanner，andslowerinthoughtandaction。Hewasprimarilyasoldier，fittedtoorganizeandconductexpeditions，ratherthan，amanendowedwiththatsupremeconfidenceinhimselfwhichbringsenthusiasm，affection，andloyaltyinitstrain。
WhenSanMartinarrivedatGuayaquil，lateinJuly，1822，hishopeofannexingtheprovinceofQuitotoPeruwasrudelyshatteredbythenewsthatBolivarhadalreadydeclareditapartofColombia。Thoughitwasoutwardlycordialandeveneffusive，themeetingofthetwomenheldoutnoprospectofaccord。Inaninterchangeofviewswhichlastedbutafewhours，mutualsuspicion，jealousy，andresentmentpreventedtheirreachinganeffectiveunderstanding。TheProtector，itwouldseem，thoughttheLiberatoractuatedbyaboundlessambitionthatwouldnotendureresistance。BolivarfanciedSanMartinacraftyschemerplottingforhisownadvancement。Theyfailedtoagreeonthethreefundamentalpointsessentialtotheirfurthercooperation。
BolivardeclinedtogiveuptheprovinceofQuito。HerefusedalsotosendanarmyintoPeruunlesshecouldcommanditinperson，andthenhedeclinedtoundertaketheexpeditiononthegroundthatasPresidentofColombiaheoughtnottoleavetheterritoryoftherepublic。Diviningthispretext，SanMartinofferedtoserveunderhisorders——afeintthatBolivarparriedbyprotestingthathewouldnothearofanysuchself—denialonthepartofabrotherofficer。
Aboveall，thetwomendifferedaboutthepoliticalformtobeadoptedforthenewindependentstates。Bothofthemrealizedthatanythinglikegenuinedemocracieswasquiteimpossibleofattainmentformanyyearstocome，andthatstrongadministrationswouldbeneedfultotidetheSpanishAmericansoverfromthepoliticalinexperienceofcolonialdaysandthedisordersofrevolutiontointelligentself—government，whichcouldcomeonlyafterapracticalacquaintancewithpublicconcernsonalargescale。SanMartinbelievedthatalimitedmonarchywasthebestformofgovernmentunderthecircumstances。
Bolivarheldfasttotheideaofacentralizedorunitaryrepublic，inwhichactualpowershouldbeexercisedbyalifepresidentandanhereditarysenateuntilthepeople，representedinalowerhouse，shouldhavegainedasufficientamountofpoliticalexperience。
WhenSanMartinreturnedtoLimahefoundaffairsinaworsestatethanever。Thetyrannicalconductoftheofficerhehadleftinchargehadprovokedanuprisingthatmadehispositioninsupportable。Consciousthathismissionhadcometoanendandcertainthat，unlesshegaveway，acollisionwithBolivarwasinevitable，SanMartinresolvedtosacrificehimselflestharmbefallthecommoncauseinwhichbothhaddonesuchyeomanservice。Accordinglyheresignedhispowerintothehandsofaconstituentcongressandleftthecountry。ButwhenhefoundthatnohappierfortuneawaitedhiminChileandinhisownnativeland，SanMartindecidedtoabandonSpanishAmericaforeverandgointoselfimposedexile。Brokeninhealthandspirit，hetookuphisresidenceinFrance，arecipientofbountyfromaSpaniardwhohadoncebeenhiscomradeinarms。