WhatpromptedLopeztoembarkonhiscareerofinternationalmadnessandprosecuteitwiththerageofademonisnotentirelyclear。AvisionofhimselfastheNapoleonofsouthernSouthAmerica，whomightcauseBrazil，Argentina，andUruguaytocringebeforehisfootstool，whilehedisposedatwilloftheirterritoryandfortunes，doubtlessstirredhisimagination。So，too，thethoughtofhiscountry，wedgedinbetweentwohugeneighborsandthreatenedwithsuffocationbetweentheiroverlappingfolds，maywellhavesuggestedthewisdomofconqueringoverlandahighwaytothesea。Atallevents，heassembledanarmyofupwardsofninetythousandmen，thegreatestmilitaryarraythatHispanicAmericahadeverseen。Thoughadmirablydrilledanddisciplined，theywerepoorlyarmed，mostlywithflintlockmuskets，andtheywerealsodeficientinartilleryexceptthatofantiquatedpattern。Withthismightyforceathisback，yetknowingthattheneighboringcountriescouldeventuallycallintothefieldarmiesmuchlargerinsizeequippedwithrepeatingriflesandsuppliedwithmodernartillery，the\"JupiterofParaguay\"neverthelessmadereadytolaunchhisthunderbolt。
TheprimaryobjectatwhichheaimedwasUruguay。InthislittlestatetheColorados，upheldopenlyorsecretlybyBrazilandArgentina，wereconductinga\"crusadeofliberty\"againsttheBlancogovernmentatMontevideo，whichwasfavoredbyParaguay。
NeitherofthetwogreatpowerswishedtoseeanallianceformedbetweenUruguayandParaguay，lestwhenunitedinthismannerthesmallernationsmightbecometoostrongtotoleratefurtherinterventionintheiraffairs。Forherpart，BrazilhadmotivesforresentmentarisingoutofboundarydisputeswithParaguayandUruguay，aswellasoutoftheinevitableinjurytoitsnationalsinflictedbythecommotionsinthelattercountry;whereasArgentinacherishedgrievancesagainstLopezfortheaudacitywithwhichhistroopsroamedthroughherprovincesandtheimpudencewithwhichhisvessels，plyingonthelowerParana，ignoredthecustomsregulations。ThusithappenedthatobscurecivildiscordsinonelittlerepublicexplodedintoaterrificinternationalstrugglewhichshookSouthAmericatoitsfoundations。
In1864，scorningtheartsofdiplomacywhichhedidnotapparentlyunderstand，LopezsentdownanorderforthetwobigstatestoleavethematterofUruguayanpoliticstohisimpartialadjustment。AtbothRiodeJaneiroandBuenosAiresaroaroflaughterwentupfromthepressatthisnotionofanobscurechieftainofabandofIndiansinthetropicalbackwoodsdaringtopoisetheequilibriumofmuchmorethanhalfacontinentonhisinsolenthand。Butthemerrimentsoonsubsided，asBraziliansandArgentinoscametorealizewhattheirperilmightbefromahugearmyofskilledandvaliantsoldiers，averitablehordeoffightingfanatics，drawnupinacompactlittleland，centrallylocatedandaffordinginotherrespectseverykindofstrategicadvantage。
WhenBrazilinvadedUruguayandrestoredtheColoradostopower，LopezdemandedpermissionfromArgentinatocrossitsfrontier，forthepurposeofassailinghisenemyfromanotherquarter。Whenthepermissionwasdenied，LopezdeclaredwaronArgentinaalso。
Itwasineveryrespectadaringstep，butLopezknewthatArgentinawasnotsowellpreparedashisownstateforawarofendurance。Uruguaythenenteredintoanalliancein1865withitstwobig\"protectors。\"Inaccordancewithitsterms，thealliesagreednottoconcludepeaceuntilLopezhadbeenoverthrown，heavyindemnitieshadbeenexactedofParaguay，itsfortificationsdemolished，itsarmydisbanded，andthecountryforcedtoacceptanyboundariesthatthevictorsmightseefittoimpose。
Intothedetailsofthecampaignsinthefrightfulconflictthatensueditisnotnecessarytoenter。Although，in1866，theallieshadassembledanarmyofsomefiftythousandmen，Lopezcontinuedtakingtheoffensiveuntil，asthenumberanddeterminationofhisadversariesincreased，hewascompelledtoretreatintohisowncountry。HereheandhisIndianlegionsleviedterrifictolluponthelivesoftheirenemieswhopressedonward，upordowntheriversandthroughtropicalswampsandforests。InchbyinchhecontestedtheirentryuponParaguayansoil。Whentheable—bodiedmengaveout，oldmen，boys，women，andgirlsfoughtonwithstubbornfury，anddiedbeforetheywouldsurrender。Thewoundedescapediftheycould，or，cursingtheircaptors，toreofftheirbandagesandbledtodeath。Diseasewroughtawfulhavocinallthearmiesengaged;yetthestrugglecontinueduntilfleshandbloodcouldendurenomore。Flyingbeforehispursuersintothewildsofthenorthandfranticallydraggingalongwithhimmassesoffugitivemen，women，andchildren，whomheremorselesslyshot，orstarvedtodeath，orlefttoperishofexhaustion，Lopezturnedfinallyatbay，and，onMarch1，1870，wasfelledbythelanceofacavalryman。Hehadsworntodieforhiscountryandhedid，thoughhiscountrymightperishwithhim。
NolandinmoderntimeshaseverreachedapointsonearannihilationasParaguay。Addedtotheutterruinofitsindustriesandthedevastationofitsfields，dwellings，andtowns，hundredsofthousandsofmen，women，andchildrenhadperished。Indeed，thehorrorsthathadbefallenitmightwellhaveledthealliestoaskthemselveswhetheritwasworthwhiletodestroyacountryinordertochangeitsrulers。FiveyearsbeforeLopezcameintopowerthepopulationofParaguayhadbeenreckonedatsomethingbetween800，000and1，400，000——sounreliablewerecensusreturnsinthosedays。In1878itwasestimatedatabout230，000，ofwhomwomenoverfifteenyearsofageoutnumberedthemennearlyfourtoone。Loosepolygamywastheinevitableconsequence，andwomenbecamethebreadwinners。
Eventodayinthiscountrytheexcessoffemalesovermalesisverygreat。Allinall，itisnotstrangethatParaguayshouldbecalledthe\"Niobeamongnations。\"
UnlikemanynationsofSpanishAmericainwhichamoreorlessanticlericalregimewasintheascendant，Ecuadorfellunderasortoftheocracy。Hereappearedoneofthestrangestcharactersinastoryalreadyfullofextraordinarypersonages——GabrielGarciaMoreno，whobecamePresidentofthatrepublicin1861。InsomerespectsthecounterpartofFranciaofParaguay，inothersbothamedievalmysticandanenlightenedrulerofmoderntype，hewasamanofremarkableintellect，constructiveability，earnestpatriotism，anddisinterestedzealfororderlinessandprogress。Onhispresidentialsashwereinscribedthewords：\"MyPowerintheConstitution\";butisrealpowerlayinhimselfandinthesystemwhichheimplanted。
GarciaMorenohadavariedcareer。Hehadbeenastudentofchemistryandothernaturalsciences。HehadspenthisyouthinexileinEurope，wherehepreparedhimselfforhissubsequentcareerasajournalistandauniversityprofessor。Throughitallhehadbeenanactiveparticipantinpublicaffairs。Grimofcountenance，austereinbearing，violentoftemper，relentlessinseverity，hewasadevotedbelieverintheRomanCatholicfaithandinthisChurchasthesoleeffectivebasisuponwhichastatecouldbefoundedorsocialandpoliticalregenerationcouldbeassured。Inordertorendereffectivehisconceptofwhatanationoughttobe，GarciaMorenointroducedandupheldinallrigidityanadministrationthelikeofwhichhadbeenknownhardlyanywheresincetheMiddleAges。HerecalledtheJesuits，establishedschoolsofthe\"BrothersoftheChristianDoctrine，\"
andmadeeducationamatterwhollyunderecclesiasticalcontrol。
Heforbadehereticalworship，calledthecountrythe\"RepublicoftheSacredHeart，\"andenteredintoaconcordatwiththePopeunderwhichtheChurchinEcuadorbecamemoresubjecttothewillofthesupremepontiffthanwesternEuropehadbeeninthedaysofInnocentIII。
LiberalsinandoutsideofEcuadortriedfeeblytoshakeoffthismasterfultheocracy，forthefriendshipwhichGarciaMorenodisplayedtowardthediplomaticrepresentativesoftheCatholicpowersofEurope，notablythoseofSpainandFrance，excitedtheneighboringrepublics。Colombia，indeed，sentanarmytoliberatethe\"brotherdemocratsofEcuadorfromtheruleofProfessorGarciaMoreno，\"butthemassofthepeoplestoodloyallybytheirPresident。Forthisastoundingobediencetoanadministrationapparentlysounrelatedtomodernideas，theecclesiasticaldominationwasnotsolelyorevenchieflyresponsible。InmorewaysthanoneGarciaMoreno，theprofessorPresident，wasastatesmanofvisionanddeed。Heputdownbrigandageandlawlessness;reformedthefinances;erectedhospitals;promotededucation;andencouragedthestudyofnaturalscience。Evenhissalaryhegaveovertopublicimprovements。HissuccessorsinthepresidentialofficefounditimpossibletogovernthecountrywithoutGarciaMoreno。Electedforathirdtermtocarryonhiscuriouspolicyofconservatismandreactionblendedwithmodernadvancement，hefellbythehandofanassassinin1875。ButthesystemwhichhehaddonesomuchtoestablishinEcuadorsurvivedhimformanyyears。
AlthoughBrazildidnotescapetheevilsofinsurrectionwhichretardedthegrowthofnearlyallofitsneighbors，noneofitsnumerouscommotionsshookthestabilityofthenationtoaperilousdegree。By1850alldangerofrevolutionhadvanished。
ThecountrybegantoenteruponacareerofpeaceandprogressunderaregimewhichcombinedbroadlythefederalorganizationoftheUnitedStateswiththeformofaconstitutionalmonarchy。
BrazilenjoyedoneofthefewenlighteneddespotismsinSouthAmerica。Adoptingattheoutsettheparliamentarysystem，theEmperorPedroIIchosehisministersfromamongtheliberalsorconservatives，asonepartyortheothermightpossessamajorityinthelowerhouseoftheCongress。Thoughthelegislativepowerofthenationwasenjoyedalmostentirelybytheplantersandtheirassociateswhoformedthedominantsocialclass，individuallibertywasfullyguaranteed，andevenfreedomofconscienceandofthepresswasallowed。Negroslavery，thoughtolerated，wasnotexpresslyrecognized。
Thankstothepoliticaldiscretionandunusualpersonalqualitiesof\"DomPedro，\"hispopularitybecamemoreandmoremarkedastheyearswenton。Apatronofscienceandliterature，ascholarratherthanaruler，aplacidandsomewhateccentricphilosopher，carelessofthetrappingsofstate，hedevotedhimselfwithoutstinttothepublicwelfare。Shrewdlydiviningthatthemonarchicalsystemmightnotsurvivemuchlonger，hekepthisrealmpacifiedbyapolicyofconciliation。PedroIIevenwentsofarastocallhimselfthebestrepublicanintheEmpire。Hemighthavesaid，withjusticeperhaps，thathewasthebestrepublicaninthewholeofHispanicAmerica。Whathereallyaccomplishedwasthesuccessfulexerciseofapaternalautocracyofkindnessandliberalityoverhissubjects。
IfmoreorlesspermanentdictatorsandoccasionalliberatorsweretheorderofthedayinmostoftheSpanishAmericanrepublics，intermittentdictatorsandliberatorsdashedacrossthestageinMexicofrom1829wellbeyondthemiddleofthecentury。Theothercountriescouldshownumerousinstancesinwhichtheoccupantofthechiefmagistracyheldofficetothecloseofhisconstitutionalterm;butMexicocouldnotshowasingleone！WhatMexicofurnished，instead，wasakaleidoscopicspectacleofsuccessivepresidentsordictators，anunstablearrayofself—styled\"generals\"withoutapresidentialsuccession。Therewerenofewerthanfiftysuchtransientrulersinthirty—twoyears，withanywherefromonetosixayear，witheventhesameincumbenttwiceinoneyear，or，inthecaseoftherepetitiousSantaAnna，ninetimesintwentyyears——inspiteofthefactthattheconstitutionaltermofofficewasfouryears。
ThiswasarecordthatmadethemostturbulentSouthAmericanstatesseem，bycomparison，landsofmethodicalregularityinthechoiceoftheirnationalexecutive。Andasifthisinstabilityinthechiefmagistracywerenotenough，theformofgovernmentinMexicoshiftedviolentlyfromfederaltocentralized，andbackagaintofederal。MadstrugglesragedbetweenpartisanchieftainsandtheirbandsofEscocesesandYorkinos，cryingoutuponthe\"President\"inpowerbecauseofhisundueinfluenceuponthechoiceofasuccessor，backingtheirrespectivecandidatesiftheylost，andwaitingforachancetooustthemiftheywon。
ThistumultuousepochhadscarcelybegunwhenSpainin1829madeafinalattempttorecoverherlostdominioninMexico。Localquarrelswerestraightwaydroppedfortwomonthsuntiltheinvadershadsurrendered。Thereuponthegreatlandholders，whodislikedtheprevailingYorkinoregimeforitsdemocraticpoliciesandforfavoringtheabolitionofslavery，ralliedtotheaidofa\"general\"whoissuedamanifestodemandinganobservanceoftheconstitutionandthelaws！AfterSantaAnna，whowasplayingtheroleofaMexicanWarwick，haddisposedofthisaspirant，heswitchedblithelyovertotheEscoceses，reducedthefederalsystemalmosttoanullity，andin1836
marchedawaytoconquertherevoltingTexans。But，instead，theyconqueredhimandgainedtheirindependence，sothathisrewardwasexile。
NowtheEscoceseswerefreetopromulgateanewconstitution，toabolishthefederalarrangementaltogether，andtoreplaceitbyastronglycentralizedgovernmentunderwhichtheindividualStatesbecamemereadministrativedistricts。Hardlyhadthisradicalchangebeeneffectedwhenin1838warbrokeoutwithFranceonaccountoftheinjurieswhichitsnationals，amongwhomwerecertainpastrycooks，hadsufferedduringtheinterminablecommotions。Mexicowasforcedtopayaheavyindemnity;andSantaAnna，whohadreturnedtofighttheinvader，wasunfortunateenoughtolosealeginthestruggle。Thisphysicaldeprivation，however，didnotinterferewiththatdoughtyhero’szestfortiltingwithotherunquietspiritswhoyearnedtoassurenationalregenerationbycontinuingtoelevateanddepose\"presidents。\"
AnotherswingofthepoliticalpendulumhadrestoredthefederalsystemwhenagaineverythingwasoverturnedbythedisastrouswarwiththeUnitedStates。OncemoreSantaAnnareturned，thistime，however，tojoustinvainwiththe\"Yankeedespoilers\"whoweredestinedtodismemberMexicoandtoannextwo—thirdsofitsterritory。AgainSantaAnnawasbanished——todreamofamorefavorableopportunitywhenhemightbecomethesaviorofacountrywhichhadfallenintobankruptcyandimpotence。
Hisopportunitycamein1853，whenconservativesandclericalsindulgedthefatuoushopethathewouldbothsustaintheirprivilegesandliftMexicooutofitssoredistress。Eithertheirmemorieswereshortorelsedistancehadcastahaloabouthisfigure。Atallevents，hereturnedfromexileandassumed，fortheninthandlasttime，apresidencywhichheintendedtobesomethingmorethanameredictatorship。ScorningtheformalityofaCongress，hehadhimselfentitled\"MostSereneHighness，\"asindicativeofhisambitiontobecomeamonarchinnameaswellasinfact。
Royalorimperialdesignshadlongsincebroughtonemilitaryupstarttogrief。TheywerenowtocutSantaAnna’sresidenceinMexicosimilarlyshort。Eruptionsofdiscontentbrokeoutalloverthecountry。Unabletomakethemsubside，SantaAnnafellbackuponanexpedientwhichrecallspracticeselsewhereinSpanishAmerica。Heopenedregistriesinwhichallcitizensmightrecord\"freely\"theirapprovalordisapprovalofhiscontinuanceinpower。Thoughheobtainedthehugemajorityofaffirmativevotestobeexpectedinsuchcases，hefoundthatthesepen—and—inksignatureswerenomoreserviceablethanhissoldiers。Accordinglythedictatorofmanyaday，fallenfromhisformerestateofhighness，decidedtoabandonhisserenityalso，andin1854fledthecountry——foritsgoodandhisown。
CHAPTERVI。PERILFROMABROAD
ApartfromthespoliationofMexicobytheUnitedStates，theindependenceoftheHispanicnationshadnotbeenmenacedformorethanthirtyyears。Nowcomesaperiodinwhichtheplightoftheirbignorthernneighbor，rentintwainbycivilwarandpowerlesstoenforcethespiritoftheMonroeDoctrine，causedtwoofthecountriestobecomesubjectawhiletoEuropeancontrol。OneofthesewastheDominicanRepublic。
In1844theSpanish—speakingpopulationoftheeasternpartoftheislandofSantoDomingo，writhingunderthedespoticyokeofHaiti，hadseizedafavorableoccasiontoregaintheirfreedom。
Butthemagicword\"independence\"couldnotgivestabilitytothenewstateanymorethanithaddoneinthecaseofitswesternfoes。TheHaitianshadlapsedlongsinceintoaconditionresemblingthatoftheirAfricanforefathers。TheyreveledinthebarbaritiesofVoodoo，asortofsnakeworship，andtheygroveledbefore\"presidents\"and\"emperors\"whoroseandfellonthetideofdecayingcivilization。TheDominicansunhappilywerenotmuchmoreprogressive。Revolutionsalternatedwithinvasionsandcounterinvasionsandeffectuallypreventedenduringprogress。
OnseveraloccasionstheDominicanshadsoughtreannexationtoSpainorhadcravedtheprotectionofFranceasadefenseagainstcontinualmenacefromtheirnegroenemiesandasarelieffromdomesticturmoil。ButeverymoveinthisdirectionfailedbecauseofanaturalreluctanceonthepartofSpainandFrance，whichwasheightenedbyarefusaloftheUnitedStatestopermitwhatitregardedasaviolationoftheMonroeDoctrine。In1861，however，theoutbreakofcivilwarintheUnitedStatesappearedtopresentafavorableopportunitytoobtainprotectionfromabroad。IftheDominicanRepubliccouldnotremainindependentanyway，reunionwiththeoldmothercountryseemedaltogetherpreferabletoreconquestbyHaiti。ThePresident，therefore，enteredintonegotiationswiththeSpanishGovernorandCaptainGeneralofCuba，andthenissuedaproclamationsignedbyhimselfandfourofhisministersannouncingthatbythe\"freeandspontaneouswill\"ofitscitizens，whohadconferreduponhimthepowertodoso，thenationrecognizedQueenIsabellaIIasitslawfulsovereign！PracticallynoprotestwasmadebytheDominicansagainstthislossoftheirindependence。
DifficultieswhichshouldhavebeenforeseenbySpainwerequicktorevealthemselves。ItfelltotheexPresident，nowacolonialgovernorandcaptaingeneral，toappointahostofofficialsand，notunnaturally，henamedhisownhenchmen。Bysodoinghenotonlyarousedtheanimosityofthedisappointedbutstimlatedthatoftheotherwisedisaffectedaswell，untilboththeaggrievedfactionsbegantoplotrebellion。Spain，too，sentoveracrowdofofficialswhocouldnotadjustthemselvestolocalconditions。
ThefailureofthemothercountrytoallowtheDominicansrepresentationintheSpanishCortesanditsreadinesstolevytaxesstirredupresentmentthatsoonendedinrevolution。Unabletocheckthisnewtrouble，andawedbythethreateningattitudeoftheUnitedStates，Spaindecidedtowithdrawin1865。TheDominicansthuswereleftwiththeirindependenceandachance——whichtheypromptlyseized——torenewtheircommotions。Soseriousdidthesedisturbancesbecomethatin1869thePresidentofthereconstitutedrepublicsoughtannexationtotheUnitedStatesbutwithoutsuccess。Americanefforts，ontheotherhand，wereequallyfutiletorestorepeaceandorderinthetroubledcountryuntilmanyyearslater。
TheinterventionofSpaininSantoDomingoanditssubsequentwithdrawalcouldnotfailtohavedisastrousconsequencesinitscolonyofCuba，the\"PearloftheAntilles\"asitwasproudlycalled。Hereabundantcropsofsugarandtobaccohadbroughtwealthandluxury，butnotmanyimmigrantsbecauseofthehavocmadebyepidemicsofyellowfever。Nearlyathirdoftheinsularpopulationwasstillcomposedofnegroslaves，whocouldhardlyrelishthethoughtthat，whilethemothercountryhadtoleratedthesuppressionofthehatefulinstitutioninSantoDomingo，shestillmaintaineditinCuba。Abureaucracy，also，pronetocorruptionowingtothetemptationsoflooseaccountingatthecustomhouse，governedinroutinary，ifnotinarbitrary，fashion。UnderthesecircumstancesdislikeforthesuspiciousandrepressiveadministrationofSpaingrewapace，andsecretsocietiesrenewedtheiragitationforitsoverthrow。ThesymptomsofunrestwereaggravatedbytheforcedretirementofSpainfromSantoDomingo。IftheDominicanshadsucceededsowell，itoughtnottobedifficultforaprolongedrebelliontowearSpainoutandcompelittoabandonCubaalso。AtthiscriticalmomentnewswasbroughtofaSpanishrevolutionacrosstheseas。
JustastheplightofSpainin1808，andagainin1820，hadaffordedafavorableopportunityforitscoloniesonthecontinentsofAmericatowintheirindependence，sonowin1868
thetidingsthatQueenIsabellahadbeendethronedbyaliberaluprisingarousedtheCubanstoactionundertheirdevotedleader，CarlosManueldeCespedes。Theinsurrectionhadnotgainedmuchheadway，however，whentheprovisionalgovernmentofthemothercountryinstructedanewGovernorandCaptainGeneral——whosename，Dulce（Sweet），hadanauspicioussound——toopennegotiationswiththeinsurgentsandtoholdoutthehopeofreforms。Buttheroyalists，nowasformerly，wouldlistentonocompromise。Organizingthemselvesintobodiesofvolunteers，theydroveDulceout。HewassucceededbyoneCaballerodeRodas（KnightofRhodes）wholiveduptohisnamebytryingtorideroughshodovertherebelliousCubans。ThusbegantheTenYears’
War——awarofskirmishesandbriefencounters，rarelyinvolvingadecisiveaction，whichdrenchedthesoilofCubawithbloodandlaidwasteitsfieldsinafuryofdestruction。
AmongtheradicalsandliberalswhotriedtoretainafleetingcontroloverMexicoafterthefinaldepartureofSantaAnnawasthefirstgenuinestatesmanithadeverknowninitshistoryasarepublic——BenitoPabloJuarez，anIndian。AttwelveyearsofagehecouldnotreadorwriteorevenspeakSpanish。Hisemployer，however，notedhisintelligenceandhadhimeducated。Becomingalawyer，Juarezenteredthepoliticalarenaandrosetoprominencebydintofnaturaltalentforleadership，anindomitableperseverance，andasturdypatriotism。Aradicalbyconviction，hefeltthatthesalvationofMexicocouldneverbeattaineduntilclericalismandmilitarismhadbeenbanishedfromitssoilforever。
UnderhisinfluenceaprovisionalgovernmenthadalreadybegunapolicyoflesseningtheprivilegesoftheChurch，whentheconservativeelements，withacrythatreligionwasbeingattacked，roseupinarmsagain。Thismovementrepressed，aCongressproceededin1857toissuealiberalconstitutionwhichwasdestinedtolastforsixtyyears。Itestablishedthefederalsysteminadefinitefashion，abolishedspecialprivileges，bothecclesiasticalandmilitary，andorganizedthecountryonsoundbasesworthyofamodernnation。Mexicoseemedabouttoenteruponarationaldevelopment。ButthenewlyelectedPresident，yieldingtotheimportunitiesoftheclergy，abolishedtheconstitution，dissolvedthelegislature，andsetupadictatorship，inspiteoftheenergeticprotestsofJuarez，whohadbeenchosenChiefJusticeoftheSupremeCourt，andwho，inaccordancewiththetermsofthetemporarilydiscardedinstrument，wasauthorizedtoassumethepresidencyshouldthatofficefallvacant。Theruleoftheusurperwasshort—lived，however。Variousimprovised\"generals\"ofconservativestripeputthemselvesattheheadofamovementto\"savecountry，religion，andtherightsofthearmy，\"drovethewould—bedictatorout，andrestoredtheoldregime。
JuareznowproclaimedhimselfactingPresident，ashewaslegallyentitledtodo，andsetuphisgovernmentatVeraCruzwhileone\"provisionalpresident\"followedanother。ThroughoutthistryingtimeJuarezdefendedhispositionvigorouslyandrejectedeveryofferofcompromise。In1859hepromulgatedhisfamousReformLawswhichnationalizedecclesiasticalproperty，secularizedcemeteries，suppressedreligiouscommunities，grantedfreedomofworship，andmademarriageacivilcontract。ForMexico，however，asforotherSpanishAmericancountries，measuresofthesortwerefartoomuchinadvanceoftheirtimetoinsureareadyacceptance。AlthoughJuarezobtainedagreatmoralvictorywhenhisgovernmentwasrecognizedbytheUnitedStates，hehadtostruggletwoyearsmorebeforehecouldgainpossessionofthecapital。Triumphantin1861，hecarriedhisanticlericalprogramtothepointofactuallyexpellingthePapalNuncioandotherecclesiasticswhorefusedtoobeyhisdecrees。Bysodoingheleveledthewayfortheclericals，conservatives，andthemilitariststoinviteforeigninterventiononbehalfoftheirdesperatecause。But，eveniftheyhadnotbeenguiltyofbehaviorsounpatriotic，theangerofthePopeoverthetreatmentofhisChurch，thewrathofSpainovertheconductofJuarez，whohadexpelledtheSpanishministerforsidingwiththeecclesiastics，thedesireofGreatBritaintocollectdebtsduetohersubjects，andabovealltheimperialisticambitionsofNapoleonIII，whodreamtofconvertingtheintellectualinfluenceofFranceinHispanicAmericaintoapoliticalascendancy，wouldprobablyhaveledtoEuropeanoccupationinanyevent，solongatleastastheUnitedStateswasslitasunderandincapableofaction。
Someyearsbefore，theMexicanGovernmentundertheclericalandmilitaristregimehadmadeacontractwithaSwissbankerwhoforapaymentof$500，000hadreceivedbondsworthmorethanfifteentimesthevalueoftheloan。When，therefore，theMexicanCongressundertooktodeferpaymentsonaforeigndebtthatincludedtheproceedsofthisoutrageouscontract，theGovernmentsofFrance，GreatBritain，andSpaindecidedtointervene。AccordingtotheiragreementthethreepowersweresimplytoholdtheseaportsofMexicoandcollectthecustomsdutiesuntiltheirpecuniarydemandshadbeensatisfied。
Learning，however，thatNapoleonIIIhadulteriordesigns，GreatBritainandSpainwithdrewtheirforcesandlefthimtoproceedwithhisschemeofconquest。AftercapturingPueblainMay，1863，aFrencharmynumberingsomethirtythousandmenenteredthecapitalandinstalledanassemblageofnotablesbelongingtotheclericalandconservativegroups。Thisbodythereuponproclaimedtheestablishmentofaconstitutionalmonarchyunderanemperor。
ThetitlewastobeofferedtoMaximilian，ArchdukeofAustria。
Incaseheshouldnotaccept，thematterwastobereferredtothe\"benevolenceofhismajesty，theEmperoroftheFrench，\"whomightthenselectsomeotherCatholicprince。
Onhisarrival，ayearlater，theamiableandwell—meaningMaximiliansoondiscoveredthat，insteadofbeingan\"Emperor，\"
hewasactuallylittlemorethanaprecariouschiefofafactionsustainedbythebayonetsofaforeignarmy。InthenorthernpartofMexico，Juarez，PorfirioDiaz，——latertobecomethemostrenownedofpresidentialautocrats，——andotherpatriotleaders，thoughhuntedfromplacetoplace，heldfirmlytotheirresolvenevertobowtotheyokeofthepretender。NorcouldMaximilianbesureoftheloyaltyofevenhissupposedadherents。LittlebylittletheunpleasantconvictionintrudeditselfuponhimthathemusteitherabdicateorcrushallresistanceinthehopethateventuallytimeandgoodwillmightwinovertheMexicans。Butdowhattheywould，hisforeignlegionscouldnotcatchthewaryandstubbornJuarezandhisguerrillalieutenants，whopersistentlyworedowntheforcesoftheirenemies。Thenthefinancialsituationbecamegrave。StillmoremenacingwastheattitudeoftheUnitedStatesnowthatitscivilwarwasatanend。OnMay31，1866，MaximilianreceivedwordthatNapoleonIIIhaddecidedtowithdrawtheFrenchtroops。Hethendeterminedtoabdicate，buthewasrestrainedbytheunhappyEmpressCarlotta，whohastenedtoEuropetopleadhiscausewithNapoleon。Meantime，astheFrenchtroopswerewithdrawn，Juarezoccupiedtheterritory。
Feeblythe\"Emperor\"strovetoenlistthefavorofhisadversariesbyanumberofliberaldecrees;buttheirsoleresultwashisabandonmentbymanyalukewarmconservative。InexorablythepatriotarmiesclosedaroundhimuntilinMay，1867，hewascapturedatQueretaro，wherehehadsoughtrefuge。Deniedtheprivilegeofleavingthecountryonapromisenevertoreturn，heaskedEscobedo，hiscaptor，totreathimasaprisonerofwar。
\"That’smybusiness，\"wasthegrimreply。OnthepretextthatMaximilianhadrefusedtorecognizethecompetenceofthemilitarycourtchosentotryhim，Juarezgavetheordertoshoothim。Onthe19thofJunetheAustrianarchdukepaidforafleetingglorywithhislife。ThusfailedthesecondattemptaterectinganempireinMexico。Forthirty—fouryearsdiplomaticrelationsbetweenthatcountryandAustria—Hungaryweresevered。
Theclericalmilitarycombinationhadbeenoverthrown，andtheMexicanpeoplehadrearmedtheirindependence。AsJuarezdeclared：\"Peacemeansrespectfortherightsofothers。\"
EvenifforeigndreamsofempireinMexicohadvanishedsoabruptly，itcouldhardlybeexpectedthatalandtornformanyyearsbyconvulsionscouldbecomesuddenlytranquil。WithDiazandotheraspirantstopresidentialpower，orwithchieftainswhoaimedatsettinguplittlerepublicsoftheirownintheseveralstates，Juarezhadtocontendforsometimebeforehecouldestablishafairamountoforder。Underhissuccessor，whoalsowasacivilian，aneraofeffectivereformbegan。In1873
amendmentstotheconstitutiondeclaredChurchandStateabsolutelyseparateandprovidedfortheabolitionofpeonage——aprovisionwhichwasmorehonoredin，thebreachthanintheobservance。
CHAPTERVII。GREATERSTATESANDLESSER
Duringthehalfcenturythathadelapsedsince1826，thenationsofHispanicAmericahadpassedthroughdarkages。Theirevolutionhadalwaysbeenaccompaniedbygrowingpainsandhadattimesbeenarrestedaltogetherorundulyhastenedbyharshinjectionsofradicalism。Itwasnotanorderlydevelopmentthroughgradualmodificationsinthesocialandeconomicstructure，butratherafitfulprogressnowassistedandnowretardedbythearbitrarydeedsofmenofaction，goodandbad，whohadseizedpower。
Dictators，however，steadilydecreasedinnumberandgaveplaceoftentopresidentialautocratswhowerecontinuedinofficebyconstantreelectionandwhowereimbuedwithmodernideas。In1876theseHispanicnationsstoodonthethresholdofanewera。
Someweredestinedtoadvancerapidlybeyondit;others，tomoveslowlyonward;andafewtomakelittleornoprogress。
Themostremarkablefeatureinthenewerawastheriseoffourstates——Mexico，Brazil，Argentina，andChile——toapositionofeminenceamongtheirfellows。Extentofterritory，developmentofnaturalresources，thecharacteroftheinhabitantsandtheincreaseoftheirnumbers，andtheamountofpopularintelligenceandprosperity，allcontributedtothisend。Eachofthefournationsbelongedtoafairlywell—definedhistoricalandgeographicalgroupinsouthernNorthAmerica，andineasternandwesternSouthAmerica，respectively。InthefirstgroupwereMexico，therepublicsofCentralAmerica，andtheislandcountriesoftheCaribbean;inthesecond，Brazil，Argentina，Uruguay，andParaguay;andinthethird，Chile，Peru，andBolivia。InafourthgroupwereEcuador，Colombia，andVenezuela。
WhenthePresidentofMexicoproceeded，in1876，toviolatetheconstitutionbysecuringhisreelection，thepeoplewerepreparedbytheirearlierexperiencesandbytheruleofJuareztodefendtheirconstitutionalrights。AwidespreadrebellionheadedbyDiazbrokeout。Intheso—called\"PlanofTuxtepec\"therevolutionistsdeclaredthemselvesinfavoroftheprincipleofabsolutelynoreelection。MeantimetheChiefJusticeoftheSupremeCourthandeddownadecisionthattheactionoftheCongressinsustainingthePresidentwasillegal，sinceinrealitynoelectionshadbeenheldbecauseoftheabstentionofvotersandtheseizureofthepollsbyrevolutionistsorgovernmentforces。\"Abovetheconstitution，nothing;abovetheconstitution，noone，\"hedeclared。Butasthisassumptionofapowerofjudgmentonmattersofpurelypoliticalconcernwasequallyaviolationoftheconstitutionandconcealed，besides，anattempttomaketheChiefJusticePresident，Diazandhisfollowersdrovebothofthepretendersout。Thenin1876hemanagedtobringabouthisownelectioninstead。
PorfirioDiazwasasoldierwhohadseenactiveserviceinnearlyeveryimportantcampaignsincethewarwiththeUnitedStates。
Oftenhimselfinrevoltagainstpresidents，legalandillegal，Diazwasvastlymorethananordinarypartisanchieftain。
Schooledbyalongexperience，hehadcometoappreciatethefactthatwhatMexicorequiredforitsnationaldevelopmentwasfreedomfrominternaldisordersandafairchanceforrecuperation。Justice，order，andprosperity，hefelt，couldbeassuredonlybyimposinguponthecountrytheheavyweightofanironhand。ForeigncapitalmustbeinvestedinMexicoandthenprotected;immigrationmustbeencouraged，andothermaterial，moral，andintellectualaidofallsortsmustbedrawnfromabroadfortheupbuildingofthenation。
ToeffectsuchatransformationinalandsotormentedandimpoverishedasMexico——acountrywhich，withinthespanoffifty—fiveyearshadlivedundertwo\"emperors，\"andsomethirty—sixpresidents，nine\"provisionalpresidents，\"tendictators，twelve\"regents，\"andfive\"supremecouncilors\"——requiredindeedamasterfulintelligenceandamasterfulauthority。PorfirioDiazpossessedandexercisedboth。
Hewas，infact，justthemanforthetimes。Anableadministrator，sternandseverebutjust，ratherreservedinmannerandguardedinutterance，shrewdintheselectionofassociates，andsingularlysuccessfulinhisdealingswithforeigners，heenteredupona\"presidentialreign\"ofthirty—fiveyearsbrokenbybutoneintermissionoffour——whichbroughtMexicooutuponthehighwaytonewnationallife。
UnderthestableandefficientrulershipofDiaz，\"plans，\"
\"pronunciamentos，\"\"revolutions，\"andsimilardevicesofprofessionaltroublemakers，hadshortshrift。Wheneveranuprisingstarted，itwaspromptlyquelled，eitherbyawell—disciplinedarmyorbytherurales，amountedpolicemadeuptosomeextentofformerbanditstowhomthePresidentgavethechoiceofpoliceserviceorofsharppunishmentfortheircrimes。
Order，infact，wasnotalwaysmaintained，norwasjusticealwaysmetedout，byrecoursetojudgesandcourts。Instead，anovelkindoflynchlawwasinvoked。Thenameitborewastheleyfuga，or\"flightlaw，\"inaccordancewithwhichmalefactorsorpoliticalsuspectstakenbygovernmentagentsfromonelocalitytoanother，ontheexcuseofsecuringreadierjustice，weregivenbytheircaptorsapretendedchancetoescapeandwerethenshotwhiletheyran！TheonlydifferencebetweenthismethodandothersofthesortemployedbySpanishAmericanautocratstoenforceobediencelayinitspurpose。OfDiazonemightsaywhatBaconsaidofKingHenryVII：\"Hedrewbloodasphysiciansdo，tosaveliferatherthantospillit。\"Ifneedbe，hereandthere，disorderandrevoltwerestampedoutbyterrorism;buttheMexicanpeopledidnotyieldtoauthorityfromterrorbutratherfromathoroughloyaltytothenewregime。
AmongthenumerousmeasuresofmaterialimprovementwhichDiazundertookduringhisfirstterm，theconstructionofrailwayswasthemostimportant。Thesizeofthecountry，itswantofnavigablerivers，anditsrelativelysmallandwidelyscatteredpopulation，madeimperativetheestablishmentofthesemeansofcommunication。DespitethemisgivingsofmanyintelligentMexicansthatthepresenceofforeigncapitalwouldimpairlocalindependenceinsomeway，DiazlaidthefoundationsoffuturenationalprosperitybygrantingconcessionstotheMexicanCentralandNationalMexicancompanies，whichsoonbeganconstruction。Underhissuccessoranationalbankwascreated;
andwhenDiazwasagainelectedhereadjustedtheexistingforeigndebtandboldlycontractednewdebtsabroad。
Atthecloseofhisfirstterm，in1880，asurplusinthetreasurywasnotsogreatanoveltyasthecircumstancealtogetheruniqueinthepoliticalannalsofMexico—thatDiazturnedoverthepresidencyinpeacefulfashiontohisproperlyelectedsuccessor！Hedidsoreluctantly，tobesure，buthecouldnotaffordjustyettoignorehisownavowedprinciple，whichhadbeenmadeapartoftheconstitutionshortlyafterhisaccession。Althoughtheconfidencehereposedinthatsuccessorwasnotentirelyjustified，theimmensepersonalpopularityofDiazsavedtheprestigeofthenewchiefmagistrate。UnderhisadministrationtheconstitutionwasamendedinsuchawayastodeprivetheChiefJusticeoftheprivilegeofreplacingthePresidentincaseofavacancy，thuseliminatingthatofficialfrompolitics。Afterhisresumptionofoffice，Diazhadthefundamentallawmodifiedanew，soastopermitthereelectionofaPresidentforonetermonly！Forthischange，inconsistentthoughitmayseem，Diazwasnotaloneresponsible。Circumstanceshadchanged，andtheconstitutionhadtochangewiththem。
Hadthe\"UnitedProvincesofCentralAmerica，\"astheycameforthfromundertheruleofSpain，seenfittoabstainfromfollowingintheunsteadyfootstepsofMexicouptothetimeoftheaccessionofDiaztopower，hadtheydonenothingmorethandeveloptheirnaturalwealthandutilizetheiradmirablegeographicalsituation，theymighthavebecomeprosperousandkepttheircorporatename。Asitwas，theirhistoryforupwardsoffortyyearshadlittletorecordotherthanamomentarycohesionandasubsequentlapseintofivequarrelsomelittlerepublics——the\"BalkanStates\"ofAmerica。AmongthemCostaRicahadsufferedleastfromarbitrarymanagementorinternalcommotionandshowedthegreatestsignsofadvancement。
InGuatemala，however，therehadarisenanotherDiaz，thoughamanquiteinferiorinmanyrespectstohisnortherncounterpart。
WhenJustoRufinoBarriosbecamePresidentofthatrepublicin1873hewasbelievedtohaveconservativeleanings。Erelong，however，heastoundedhiscompatriotsbyshowingthemthathewasathoroughgoingradicalwithmethodsofactiontocorrespondtohisconvictions。NotonlydidhekeeptheJesuitsoutofthecountrybutheabolishedmonasticordersaltogetherandconvertedtheirbuildingstopublicuse。Hemademarriageacivilcontractandhesecularizedtheburyinggrounds。Educationheencouragedbyengagingtheservicesofforeigninstructors，andhebroughtaboutabetterobservanceofthelawbythepromulgationofnewcodes。Healsointroducedrailwaysandtelegraphlines。Sincethemanufactureofanilinedyesabroadhaddiminishedthedemandforcochineal，Barriosdecidedtoreplacethisexportbycultivatingcoffee。Tothisend，hedistributedseedsamongtheplantersandfurnishedfinancialaidbesides，withapromisetoinspectthefieldsindueseasonandseewhathadbeenaccomplished。Findingthatinmanycasestheseedshadbeenthrownawayandthemoneywastedindrinkandgambling，heorderedtheguiltyplanterstobegivenfiftylashes，withtheassurancethatonasecondoffensehewouldshootthemonsight。CoffeeplantinginGuatemalawaspursuedthereafterwithmuchalacrity！
PostsinthegovernmentserviceBarriosdistributedquiteimpartiallyamongConservativesandDemocrats，deservingorotherwise，forhehadthembothwellundercontrol。Athisbehestapermanentconstitutionwaspromulgatedin1880。Whileheaffectedtodislikecontinualreelection，hesawtoitneverthelessthathehimselfshouldbethesolecandidatewhowaslikelytowin。
BarriosdoubtlesscouldhaveremainedPresidentofGuatemalaforthetermofhisnaturallifeifhehadnotraiseduptheghostoffederation。AlltherepublicsofCentralAmericaacceptedhisinvitationin1876tosenddelegatestohiscapitaltodiscusstheproject。ButnothingwasaccomplishedbecauseBarriosandthePresidentofSalvadorweresoonatloggerheads。Nineyearslater，feelinghimselfstronger，Barriosagainproposedfederation。ButtheotherrepublicshadbythistimelearnedtoomuchofthemethodsoftheautocratofGuatemala，evenwhiletheyadmiredhisprogressivepolicy，torelishthethoughtofafederationdominatedbyGuatemalaanditsmasterfulPresident。Thoughhe\"persuaded\"Hondurastoaccepttheplan，thethreeotherrepublicspreferredtouniteinself—defense，andintheensuingstrugglethequixoticBarrioswaskilled。Afewyearslatertheprojectwasrevivedandtheconstitutionofa\"RepublicofCentralAmerica\"wasagreedupon，whenwarbetweenGuatemalaandSalvadoragainfrustrateditsexecution。
InBraziltwogreatmovementswerebythistimeunderway：thetotalabolitionofslaveryandtheestablishmentofarepublic。
Despitethetenaciousoppositionofmanyoftheplanters，fromabouttheyear1883themovementforemancipationmadegreatheadway。Therewasagrowingdeterminationonthepartofthemajorityoftheinhabitantstoremovetheblotthatmadethecountryanobjectofreproachamongthecivilizedstatesoftheworld。Provincesandtowns，oneafteranother，freedtheslaveswithintheirborders。TheimperialGovernment，onitspart，hastenedtheprocessbyliberatingitsownslavesandbyimposinguponthosestillinbondagetaxeshigherthantheirmarketvalue;
itfixedapriceforotherslaves;itdecreedthattheolderslavesshouldbesetfree;anditincreasedthefundsalreadyappropriatedtocompensateownersofslaveswhoshouldbeemancipated。In1887thenumberofslaveshadfallentoabout720，000，worthlegallyabout$650each。Ayearlatercamethefinalblow，whenthePrincessRegentassentedtoameasurewhichabolishedslaveryoutrightandrepealedallformeractsrelatingtoslavery。Soradicalaproceedingwroughthavocinthecoffee—growingsouthernprovincesinparticular，fromwhichthenegroesnowfreedmigratedbytensofthousandstothenorthernprovinces。Theirplaces，however，weretakenbyItaliansandotherEuropeanswhocametoworktheplantationsonacooperativebasis。Allthroughtheeighties，infact，immigrantsfromItalypouredintothetemperateregionsofsouthernBrazil，tothenumberofnearlytwohundredthousand，supplementingthemanythousandsofGermanswhohadsettled，chieflyintheprovinceofRioGrandedoSul，thirtyyearsbefore。
Apartfromtheindustrialproblemthuscreatedbytheabolitionofslavery，thereseemedtobenoseriouspoliticaloreconomicquestionsbeforethecountry。Eversince1881，whenalawprovidingfordirectelectionswaspassed，theLiberalshadbeeninfullcontrol。TheoldDomPedro，whohadendearedhimselftohispeople，wasasmuchlikedandrespectedasever。Butashehadgrownfeebleandalmostblind，theheiresstothethrone，whohadmarkedabsolutistandclericaltendencies，wasdisposedtotakeadvantageofhisinfirmities。
Formanyyears，ontheotherhand，doctrinesopposedtotheprincipleofmonarchyhadbeenspreadinzealousfashionbymembersofthemilitaryclass，notableamongwhomwasDeodorodaFonseca。Andnowsomeoftheplanterslongedtowreakvengeanceonarulerwhohaddaredtothwarttheirwillbyemancipatingtheslaves。Besidesthispersistentdiscontent，radicalrepublicannewspaperscontinuallystirredupfreshagitation。WhateverthepersonalservicerenderedbytheEmperortothewelfareofthecountry，tothemherepresentedapoliticalsystemwhichdeprivedtheprovincesofmuchoftheirlocalautonomyandtheBrazilianpeopleatlargeofself—government。
Butthechiefreasonforthemomentouschangewhichwasabouttotakeplacewasthefactthattheconstitutionalmonarchyhadreallycompleteditsworkasatransitionalgovernment。UnderthatregimeBrazilhadreachedaconditionofstabilityandhadattainedalevelofprogresswhichmightwellenableittogovernitself。DuringallthistimetheinfluenceoftheSpanishAmericannationshadbeengrowingapace。Eveniftheyhadfallenintomanyapoliticalcalamity，theywerenevertheless\"republics，\"andtotheSouthAmericanthiswordhadamagicsound。Aboveall，therewasthepotentsuggestionofthesuccessoftheUnitedStatesofNorthAmerica，whoseextensionofitsfederalsystemoveravastterritorysuggestedwhatBrazilwithitsprovincesmightaccomplishinthesoutherncontinent。HencethevastmajorityofintelligentBraziliansfeltthattheyhadbecomeself—reliantenoughtoestablisharepublicwithoutfearoflapsingintotheunfortunateexperiencesoftheotherHispaniccountries。
In1889，whenprovisionwasmadeforaspeedyabdicationoftheEmperorinfavorofhisdaughter，therepublicannewspapersdeclaredthataschemewasbeingconcoctedtoexilethechiefmilitaryagitatorsandtointerferewithanyeffortonthepartofthearmytopreventtheaccessionofthenewruler。Thereupon，onthe15thofNovember，theradicalsatRiodeJaneiro，aidedbythegarrison，brokeoutinopenrevolt。Proclaimingtheestablishmentofafederalrepublicunderthenameofthe\"UnitedStatesofBrazil，\"theydeposedtheimperialministry，setupaprovisionalgovernmentwithDeodorodaFonsecaatitshead，arrangedfortheelectionofaconstitutionalconvention，andbadeDomPedroandhisfamilyleavethecountrywithintwenty—fourhours。
Onthe17thofNovember，beforedaybreak，thesummonswasobeyed。
NotasoulappearedtobidtheoldEmperorfarewellasheandhisfamilyboardedthesteamerthatwastobearthemtoexileinEurope。Thoughseeminglyanactofheartlessnessandingratitude，theprecautionwasawiseoneinthatitaverted，possibleconflictandbloodshed。Forthesecondtimeinitshistory，afundamentalchangehadbeenwroughtinthepoliticalsystemofthenationwithoutaresorttowar！TheUnitedStatesofBrazilaccordinglytookitsplacepeacefullyamongitsfellowrepublicsoftheNewWorld。
MeanwhileArgentina，thegreatneighborofBraziltothesouthwest，hadbeengainingterritoryandnewresources。Sincethedefiniteadoptionofafederalconstitutionin1853，thisstatehadattainedtoaconsiderabledegreeofnationalconsciousnessundertheleadershipofablepresidentssuchasBartolomeMitre，thesoldierandhistorian，andDomingoFaustinoSarmiento，thepublicistandpromoterofpopulareducation。Oneevidenceofthisnewnationalismwasawidespreadbeliefinthenecessityofterritorialexpansion。KnowingthatChileentertaineddesignsuponPatagonia，theArgentineGovernmentforestalledanyactionbyconductingawarofpracticalexterminationagainsttheIndiantribesofthatregionandbyaddingittothenationaldomain。Theso—called\"conquestofthedesert\"inthefarsouthofthecontinentopenedtocivilizationavasthabitableareaofuntoldeconomicpossibilities。
Intheelectoralcampaignof1880thepresidentialcandidateswereJulioArgentinoRocaandtheGovernoroftheprovinceofBuenosAires。Theformer，anableofficerskilledinbotharmsandpolitics，hadonhissidetheadvantageofareputationwoninthestrugglewiththePatagonianIndians，theapprovalofthenationalGovernment，andthesupportofmostoftheprovinces。
Feelingcertainofdefeatatthepolls，thepartisansofthelattercandidateresortedtothetimewornexpedientofarevolt。
Thoughtheuprisinglastedbuttwentydays，thediplomaticcorpsatthecapitalproffereditsmediationbetweenthecontestants，inordertoavoidanyfurtherbloodshed。TheresultwasthatthefractiousGovernorwithdrewhiscandidacyandaradicalchangewaseffectedintherelationsofBuenosAires，cityandprovince，tothecountryatlarge。Thecity，togetherwithitsenvirons，wasconvertedintoafederaldistrictandbecamesolelyanddistinctivelythenationalcapital。Itspublicbuildings，railways，andtelegraphservice，aswellastheprovincialdebt，weretakenoverbythegeneralGovernment。TheseatofprovincialauthoritywastransferredtothevillageofEnsenada，whichthereuponwasrechristenedLaPlata。
AveritabletideofwealthandgeneralprosperitywasnowrollingoverArgentina。By1885itspopulationhadrisentoupwardsof3，000，000。Immigrationincreasedtoapointfarbeyondthewildestexpectations。In1889aloneabout300，000newcomersarrivedandlenttheiraidinthepromotionofindustryandcommerce。Fieldshithertouncultivatedorgivenovertograzingnowborevastcropsofwheat，maize，linseed，andsugar。Largequantitiesofcapital，chieflyfromGreatBritain，alsopouredintothecountry。Asaresult，thepriceoflandrosehigh，andfeverishspeculationbecametheorderoftheday。Banksandotherinstitutionsofcreditweresetup，colonizingschemesweredevised，andrailwayswerelaidout。Tomeetthedemandsofalltheseenterprises，theGovernmentborrowedimmensesumsfromforeigncapitalistsandissuedvastquantitiesofpapermoney，withlittleregardforitsultimateredemption。Argentinaspenthugesumsinprodigalfashiononallsortsofpublicimprovementsinanefforttoattractstillmorecapitalandimmigration，andthusentereduponadangerouseraofinflation。
OfthenearneighborsofArgentina，Uruguaycontinuedalongthetortuouspathofalternatedisturbanceandprogress，losingmanyofitsinhabitantstothegreaterstatesbeyond，wheretheysoughtrelativepeaceandsecurity;whileParaguay，ontheotherhand，enjoyedfreedomfromcivilstrife，thoughweigheddownwithawardebtanduntoldmillionsinindemnitiesexactedbyArgentinaandBrazil，whichitcouldneverhopetopay。Inconsequence，thisindebtednesswasausefulclubtobrandishoverpowerlessParaguaywheneverthatlittlecountrymightventuretoquestiontherightofeitherofitsbigneighborstobreakthepromisetheyhadmadeofkeepingitsterritoryintact。Argentina，however，consentedin1878torefercertainclaimstothedecisionofthePresidentoftheUnitedStates。WhenParaguaywonthearbitration，itshoweditsgratitudebynamingoneofitslocalitiesVillaHayes。Astimewenton，however，itspopulationincreasedandhidmanyofthescarsofwar。
OnthewesternsideofSouthAmericatherebrokeoutthestruggleknownasthe\"WarofthePacific\"betweenChile，ontheoneside，andPeruandBoliviaasalliesontheother。InPeruunstableandcorruptgovernmentshadcontractedforeignloansunderconditionsthatmadetheirrepaymentalmostimpossibleandhadspenttheproceedsinsorecklessandextravagantafashionastobringthecountrytothevergeofbankruptcy。Bolivia，similarlygoverned，wasstillthesceneoftheorgiesandcarnivalswhichhadforsometimecharacterizeditsunfortunatehistory。Oneofitsbuffoon\"presidents，\"moreover，hadenteredintoboundaryagreementswithbothChileandBrazil，underwhichthenationlostseveralimportantareasandsomeofitsterritoryonthePacific。TheboundariesofBolivia，indeed，wererunalmosteverywhereonpurelyarbitrarylinesdrawnwithscantregardforthephysicalfeaturesofthecountryandwithmanyafrontierquestionleftwhollyunsettled。ForsomeyearsChileancompaniesandspeculators，aidedbyforeigncapitalmainlyBritishinorigin，hadbeenworkingdepositsofnitrateofsodaintheprovinceofAntofagasta，or\"thedesertofAtacama，\"aregionalongthecoasttothenorthwardbelongingtoBolivia，andalsointheprovincesofTacna，Arica，andTarapaca，stillfarthertothenorthward，belongingtoPeru。Becauseboundarylineswerenotaltogetherclearandbecausethethreecountrieswerealleagertoexploitthesedeposits，controversiesoverthisdebatablegroundweresuretorise。Fortheprivilegeofdevelopingportionsofthisregion，individualsandcompanieshadobtainedconcessionsfromthevariousgovernmentsconcerned;elsewhere，industrialfreelancesdugawaywithoutreferencetosuchformalities。
ItisquitelikelythatChile，whosemottowas\"ByRightorbyMight，\"waspreparedtosustaintheclaimsofitscitizensbyeitheralternative。Atallevents，scentingaprospectiveconflict，Chilehaddevotedmuchattentiontothedevelopmentofitsnavalandmilitaryestablishment——astateofaffairswhichdidnotescapetheobservationofitssuspiciousneighbors。
ThepolicyofPeruwasdeterminedpartlybypersonalmotivesandpartlybyreasonsofstate。In1873thePresident，lackingsufficientfinancialandpoliticalsupporttokeephimselfinoffice，resolvedupontheriskyexpedientofarousingpopularpassionagainstChile，inthehopethathemighttherebyreplenishthenationaltreasury。AccordinglyheproceededtopickaquarrelbyorderingthedepositsinTarapacatobeexpropriatedwithscantrespectfortheconcessionsmadetotheChileanminers。Realizing，however，thepossibleconsequencesofsuchanaction，heenteredintoanalliancewithBolivia。ThiscountrythereuponproceededtolevyanincreaseddutyontheexportationofnitratesfromtheAtacamaregion。Chile，alreadyawareofthehostilecombinationwhichhadbeenformed，protestedsovigorouslythatayearlaterBoliviaagreedtowithdrawthenewregulationsandtosubmitthedisputetoarbitration。
Suchweretherelationsofthesethreestatesin1878，whenBolivia，takingadvantageofdifferencesofopinionbetweenChileandArgentinaregardingthePatagonianregion，reimposeditsexportduty，canceledtheChileanconcessions，andconfiscatedthenitratedeposits。ChilethendeclaredwarinFebruary，1879，andwithintwomonthsoccupiedtheentirecoastofBoliviauptothefrontiersofPeru。OnhispartthePresidentofBoliviawastoomuchengrossedinthefestivitiesconnectedwithamasqueradetobotheraboutnotifyingthepeoplethattheirlandhadbeeninvadeduntilseveraldaysaftertheeventhadoccurred！
MisfortunesfarworsethananythingwhichhadfallentothelotofitsallynowawaitedPeru，whichfirstattemptedanofficiousmediationandthendeclaredwaronthe4thofApril。SincePeruandBoliviatogetherhadapopulationdoublethatofChile，andsincePerupossessedamuchlargerarmyandnavythanChile，thealliescountedconfidentlyonvictory。ButPeru’sarmyofeightthousand——havingwithinfourhundredasmanyofficersasmen，directedbynofewerthantwenty—sixgenerals，andpresidedoverbyacivilgovernmentaltogetherinept——wasnomatchforanarmylessthanathirdofitssizetobesure，butwelldrilledandcommanded，andwithastable，progressive，andefficientgovernmentatitsback。ThePeruvianforces，lackinganysubstantialsupportfromBolivia，crumpledundertheterrificattacksoftheiradversaries。EffortsonthepartoftheUnitedStatestomediateinthestrugglewereblockedbythedoggedrefusalofChiletoabateitsdemandsforannexation。Earlyin1881itsarmyenteredLimaintriumph，andthewarwasover。
ForawhilethevictorstreatedthePeruviansandtheircapitalcityshamefully。TheChileansoldiersstrippedthenationallibraryofitscontents，toreupthelamp—postsinthestreets，carriedawaythebenchesintheparks，andevenshippedoffthelocalmenagerietoSantiago！WhattheydidnotremoveordestroywasdisposedofbytherabbleofLimaitself。ButintwoyearssoutterlychaoticdidtheconditionsinthehaplesscountrybecomethatChileatlengthhadtosetupagovernmentinordertoconcludeapeace。ItwasnotuntilOctober20，1883，thatthetreatywassignedatLimaandratifiedlateratAncon。PeruwasforcedtocedeTarapacaoutrightandtoagreethatTacnaandAricashouldbeheldbyChilefortenyears。Attheexpirationofthisperiodtheinhabitantsofthetwoprovincesweretobeallowedtochoosebyvotethecountrytowhichtheywouldprefertobelong，andthenationthatwontheelectionwastopaytheloser10，000，000pesos。InApril，1884，Bolivia，also，enteredintoanarrangementwithChile，accordingtowhichaportionofitsseacoastshouldbecededabsolutelyandtheremaindershouldbeoccupiedbyChileuntilamoredefiniteunderstandingonthemattercouldbereached。